Japan

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This article is about the country in East Asia. For other uses of the term, see Japan (disambiguation).
日本国
Nippon-koku / Nihon-koku
Japan
Flag of Japan Imperial Seal of Japan
Anthem: Kimi ga Yo (君が代)
Imperial Reign
Location of Japan
Capital
(and largest city) 		Tokyo1
35°41′N 139°46′E
Official languages Japanese
Government Constitutional monarchy
 -  Emperor HIM Emperor Akihito
 -  Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (LDP)
Formation
 -  National Foundation Day February 11, 660 BC3 
 -  Meiji Constitution November 29 1890 
 -  Current constitution May 3 1947 
 -  Treaty of
San Francisco
April 28 1952 
Area
 -  Total 377,873 km² (62nd)
Expression error: Unexpected div operator. sq mi 
 -  Water (%) 0.8
Population
 -  2007 estimate 127,433,494 (10th)
 -  2004 census 127,333,002 
GDP (PPP) 2006 estimate
 -  Total $4.220 trillion2 (3rd)
 -  Per capita $33,1002 (12th)
GDP (nominal) 2006 estimate
 -  Total $4.911 trillion2 (2nd)
 -  Per capita $38,341 (14th)
Currency Yen (International ¥, Japanese 円 En) (JPY)
Time zone JST (UTC+9)
Internet TLD .jp
Calling code [[+81]]
1 Yokohama is the largest incorporated city.
2 World Factbook; Japan—Economy. CIA (2006-12-19). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
3 According to legend, Japan was founded on this date by the Emperor Jimmu, first emperor of Japan; it is seen as largely symbolic.

Japan ▶ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon,? officially 日本国 Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku) is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of China, Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin," which is why Japan is sometimes identified as the "Land of the Rising Sun." Japan's capital and largest city is Tokyo.

Japan comprises over three thousand islands,[1] the largest of which are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for 97% of land area. Most of the islands are mountainous, many volcanic; for example, Japan’s highest peak, Mount Fuji, is a volcano. Japan has the world's tenth largest population, with about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.

Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the first century AD. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Thus, its culture today is a mixture of outside influences and internal developments. Since adopting its constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet.

A great power,[2], Japan is the world's second largest economy by nominal GDP after the United States of America. It is a member of the United Nations, G8, G4 and APEC, with the world's fifth largest defense budget. It is the world's fourth largest exporter and sixth largest importer.

History

The first signs of civilization on the Japanese archipelago appeared around 10,000 BC with a culture, characterized by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Decorated clay vessels from this period, often with plaited patterns, are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world.[3]

The Yayoi period, starting around the third century BC, introduced new practices, such as wet-rice farming, iron and bronze-making and a new style of pottery, brought by migrants from China or Korea. With the development of Yayoi culture, a predominantly agricultural society emerged in Japan.[4][5][6][7]

A middle Jōmon period vessel (3000 to 2000 BC).
The Great Buddha at Tōdai-ji, Nara, cast in 752.

The Japanese first appear in written history in China’s Book of Han. According to the Chinese Records of the Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the third century was called Yamataikoku.

Japan was first introduced to Buddhism from Korea, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism and Buddhist sculptures were primarily influenced by China.[8] Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and eventually gained growing acceptance since the Asuka period.[9]

The Nara period of the eighth century marked the first emergence of a strong central Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijō-kyō, or modern day Nara. In addition to the continuing adoption of Chinese administrative practices, the Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent written literature with the completion of the massive chronicles Kojiki (712) and Nihonshoki (720).[10]

In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Nagaokakyō for a brief ten-year period, before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern day Kyoto) in 794, where it remained for more than a millennium.[11] This marked the beginning of the Heian period, during which time a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of modern Japan's national anthem, Kimi ga Yo were written during this time.[12]

Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to rule as regents for the shoguns. Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, aided by a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze, or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo, who was soon himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336.[13] The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war erupted (the Ōnin War).[14]

During the sixteenth century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West.

Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following several defeats by Korean and Ming China forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[15]

One of Japan's Red seal ships (1634), which were used for trade throughout Asia.
Samurai of the Satsuma clan during the Boshin war, circa 1867.
The 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki.

After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo). The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures to control the daimyo, among them the sankin kōtai policy. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku, or literally "national studies," the study of Japan by the Japanese themselves.[16]

On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. The Boshin War of 1867–1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the Meiji Restoration established a government centered around the emperor. Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, a parliamentary system modeled after the British parliament was introduced, with Itō Hirobumi as the first Prime Minister in 1882. Meiji era reforms transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to increase access to natural resources. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Korea, Taiwan and the southern half of Sakhalin.[17]

The early twentieth century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931. As a result of international condemnation for this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, joining the Axis Powers in 1941.[18]

In 1937, Japan invaded other parts of China, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan.[19] On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. This act brought the United States into World War II. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, along with the Soviet Union joining the war against it, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on August 15 (V-J Day).[20] The war cost Japan millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, was convened by the Allies (on May 3, 1946) to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes such as the Nanking Massacre.[21]

In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. Official American occupation lasted until 1952[22] and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Under a subsequent program of aggressive industrial development aided by the US, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with an annual growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. Positive growth in the early twenty-first century has signaled a gradual recovery.[23]

Government and politics

The National Diet Building, in Nagatachō, Tokyo.

Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people.[24] The emperor effectively acts as the head of state on diplomatic occasions. Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan.

Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives, containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age,[25] with a secret ballot for all elective offices.[24] The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from opposition parties in 1993.[26] The largest opposition party is the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan.

The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government. The position is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet (the literal translation of his Japanese title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet") and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. Shinzo Abe currently serves as the Prime Minister of Japan.[27]

Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. However, since the late nineteenth century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably France and Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on the German model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.[28] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber-stamp approval of the Emperor. The current constitution requires that the Emperor promulgates legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose the passing of the legislation.[24] Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts.[29] The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes.[28]

Foreign relations and military

Shinzo Abe with US President George W. Bush
Sailors aboard the JMSDF training vessel JDS Kashima

Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the United States, with the US-Japan security alliance serving as the cornerstone of its foreign policy.[30] A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 18 years, most recently in 2005–2006. It is also one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.[31] As a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN Plus Three" and a participant in the East Asia Summit, Japan actively participates in international affairs. It is also the world's second-largest donor of official development assistance, donating 0.19% of its GNP in 2004.[32] Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces from Iraq.[33]

Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands and with China over the status of Okinotorishima.[34] Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program.

Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force as a means of settling international disputes, although the current government is seeking to amend the Constitution via a referendum.[35] Japan's military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and the deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.[33]

Administrative divisions

File:03-05-JPN192.jpg
Tokyo
Yokohama
Osaka

While there exist eight commonly defined regions of Japan, administratively Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. The former city of Tokyo is further divided into twenty-three special wards, each with the same powers as cities.

The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs.[36]

Japan has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy. Those in the list below of the ten most populous are all prefectural capitals and Government Ordinance Cities, except where indicated:

City Prefecture Population[37]
1 Tokyoa  Tokyo 8,535,792
2 Yokohama Kanagawa  3,602,758
3 Osaka Osaka 2,635,420
4 Nagoya Aichi 2,223,148
5 Sapporo Hokkaidō 1,888,953
6 Kobe Hyōgo 1,528,687
7 Kyoto Kyoto 1,472,511
8 Fukuoka Fukuoka 1,414,417
9 Kawasakib Kanagawa 1,342,262
10 Saitama Saitama 1,182,744

a 23 municipalities. Also capital of Japan.
b Government Ordinance City only.

Geography and climate

Japan from space, May 2003.
File:Mountfujijapan.jpg
Mount Fuji, the highest point in Japan, with sakura and the Shinkansen in the foreground.

Japan is a country of over three thousand islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago.

About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous,[38][39] and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use. This is due to the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Japan is the thirtieth most densely populated country in the world.[40]

Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century.[41] The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts.[42]

The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south.[43] Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:

  • Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
  • Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon.
  • Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
  • Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
  • Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
  • South-west Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.

The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.[43]

Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.[44]

Economy

The Tokyo headquarters of the Bank of Japan, the country's central bank.

Close government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan become the second largest economy in the world,[45] after the United States, at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP[45] and third after the United States and China in terms of purchasing power parity.[46]

Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation and telecommunications are all major industries. Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the largest and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles and processed foods. It is home to leading multinational corporations and commercial brands in technology and machinery.[47] Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy have included the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu and the guarantee of lifetime employment in big corporations.[48] Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.[49]

With a market capitalization of more than US$4 trillion, the Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest in the world.

Japan is home to the world's largest bank,[50] the Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group,[51] which has roughly US$1.7 trillion in assets;[50] the world's largest postal savings system; and the largest holder of personal savings, Japan Post, holding personal savings valued at around US$3.3 trillion. It is home to the world's second largest stock exchange, the Tokyo Stock Exchange, with a market capitalization of over US$4 trillion as of December 2006.[52] It is also home to some of the largest financial services companies, business groups and banks. For instance several large keiretsus (business groups) and multinational companies such as Sony, Sumitomo, Mitsubishi and Toyota own billion- and trillion-dollar operating banks, investment groups and/or financial services such as Sumitomo Bank, Fuji Bank, Mitsubishi Bank, Toyota Financial Services and Sony Financial Holdings.

From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s.[53] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the deceleration of the global economy.[47] However, the economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[54]

Because only about 15% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation,[55] a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area. However, Japan's small agricultural sector is also highly subsidized and protected. Japan must import about 50%[56] of its requirements of grain and fodder crops other than rice, and it relies on imports for most of its supply of meat. In fishing, Japan is ranked second in the world behind China in tonnage of fish caught. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch.[47] Japan relies on foreign countries for almost all oil and food.[57]

Transportation in Japan is highly developed. As of 2004, there are 1,177,278 km (731,683 miles) of paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km (14,653 miles) of railways.[47] Air transport is mostly operated by All Nippon Airways (ANA) and Japan Airlines (JAL). Railways are operated by Japan Railways among others. There are extensive international flights from many cities and countries to and from Japan.

Japan's main export partners are the United States 22.9%, China 13.4%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 7.3% and Hong Kong 6.1% (for 2005). Japan's main exports are transport equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[47] With very limited natural resources to sustain economic development, Japan depends on other nations for most of its raw materials; thus it imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are China 21%, U.S. 12.7%, Saudi Arabia 5.5%, UAE 4.9%, Australia 4.7%, South Korea 4.7% and Indonesia 4% (for 2005). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. Overall, Japan's largest trading partner is China.[58]

Science and technology

Japan is a leading nation in the fields of scientific research, technology, machinery and medical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.[59]

Some of Japan's more important technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, machinery, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.[60] It also produced QRIO, ASIMO and Aibo. Japan is also home to six of the world's fifteen largest automobile manufacturers and seven of the world's twenty largest semiconductor sales leaders.

Japan has significant plans in space exploration, including building a moonbase by 2030.[61] The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It also built the Japanese Experiment Module, which is slated to be launched and added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008.[62]

Demographics

A view of Shibuya crossing, an example of Tokyo's often crowded streets.
Shinto torii at Fushimi Inari-taisha, Kyoto.

Japan's population is estimated at around 127.4 million.[63] For the most part, Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with only small populations of foreign workers, Zainichi Koreans, Japanese Chinese, Japanese Brazilians and others. Japan also has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryūkyūans, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin.

Japan has one of the highest life expectancy rates in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.[64] However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the twentieth century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65.[65]

The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan. It is also noted that many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as adults.[66] Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050 and to 64 million by 2100.[65] Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[66] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[67] Immigration, however, is not popular.[68]

Around 84% of Japanese people profess to believe both Shinto (the indigenous religion of Japan) and Buddhism.[63] Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism from China have significantly influenced Japanese beliefs and mythology. Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority (0.7%) profess to Christianity.[63] In addition, since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged in Japan.

About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag The Ainu language is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaidō.[69] Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.[70]

Education and health

Primary, secondary schools and universities were introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[71] Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, about 75.9% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2005.[72] Japan's education is very competitive,[73] especially for entrance to institutions of higher education. According to The Times Higher Education Supplement, the two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[74]

In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance.[75] Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.[76]

Culture and recreation

File:Tsunami by hokusai 19th century.jpg
The Great Wave off Kanagawa (1832), an ukiyo-e from Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji by Hokusai.

Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jōmon culture to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, budō, architecture, gardens, swords) and cuisine. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan.[77] Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s.[78]

Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth.[79] Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called J-Pop.[80] Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural pursuits such as flower arranging or tea ceremony.[81]

The earliest works of Japanese literature include two history books the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki and the eighth century poetry book Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters.[82] In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[83] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book written by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo Period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.[83] The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ogai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Akutagawa Ryūnosuke, Tanizaki Junichirō, Kawabata Yasunari, Mishima Yukio and, more recently, Murakami Haruki. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors—Kawabata Yasunari (1968) and Oe Kenzaburo (1994).[83]

Sports

File:JapanSumoMatch.jpg
Sumo, a traditional Japanese sport.

Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport and is one of its most popular sport spectated within Japan.[84] Martial arts such as judo, karate and kendō are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system.[85]

The professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936.[86] Today baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro Suzuki, who, having won Japan's Most Valuable Player award in 1994, 1995 and 1996, now plays in North American major league baseball. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football (soccer) has also gained a wide following.[87] Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea.

Golf is popular in Japan,[88] as is auto racing, the Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing.[89]

See also

Template:Japan topics

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ Nihon Rettō. Daijirin / Yahoo Japan dictionary. Retrieved 2007-05-07.
  2. ↑ Haass, Richard (2007-04-20). Asia’s overlooked Great Power. Project Syndicate. Retrieved 2007-06-12.
  3. ↑ Pottery in Japan:
    • "The earliest known pottery comes from Japan and is dated to about 10,500 BC. China and Indo-China follow shortly afterwards." ((1995). "Past Worlds." The Times Atlas of Archeology. p. 100.)
    • "That end of the Ice Age was accompanied by the first of the two most decisive changes in Japanese history: the invention of pottery. In the usual experience of archaeologists, inventions flow from mainlands to islands and small peripheral societies aren't supposed to contribute revolutionary advances to the rest of the world. It therefore astonished archaeologists to discover that the world's oldest known pottery was made in Japan 12,700 years ago." Diamond, Jared (June 1998), "Japanese Roots," Discover 19 (6).
    • "Japan, however, was the seat of the earliest known development of ceramics." (Cavalli-Sforza. The History and Geography of Human Genes. p. 249. ISBN 0-691-08750-4.)
    • Alternatively, the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Timeline of Art History notes "Carbon-14 testing of the earliest known shards has yielded a production date of about 10,500 BC, but because this date falls outside the known chronology of pottery development elsewhere in the world, such an early date is not generally accepted.""Japan, 8000–2000 B.C.E." Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. Retrieved on 2007-03-26.
  4. ↑ The Yayoi period (c.250 B.C.E. – c.AD 250). Encyclopædia Britannica (2006). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  5. ↑ Diamond, Jared (June 1998). Japanese Roots. Discover Magazine Vol. 19 No. 6.
  6. ↑ Pottery. MSN Encarta. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  7. ↑ De Bary, William Theodore (2005). Sources of Japanese Tradition. Columbia University Press, 1304. ISBN 023112984X. Retrieved 2007-01-29. 
  8. ↑ (1993) in Delmer M. Brown (ed.): The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press, 140–149. 
  9. ↑ William Gerald Beasley (1999). The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. University of California Press, 42. ISBN 0520225600. Retrieved 2007-03-27. 
  10. ↑ Conrad Totman (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell, 64–79. 
  11. ↑ Conrad Totman (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell, 79–87. 
  12. ↑ Conrad Totman (2002). A History of Japan. Blackwell, 122–123. 
  13. ↑ George Sansom (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford, 42. 
  14. ↑ George Sansom (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford, 217. 
  15. ↑ Stephen Turnbull (2002). Samurai Invasion: Japan's Korean War. Cassel, 227. 
  16. ↑ Hooker, Richard (1999-07-14). Japan Glossary; Kokugaku. Washington State University. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  17. ↑ Jesse Arnold. Japan: The Making of a World Superpower (Imperial Japan). vt.edu/users/jearnol2. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  18. ↑ Kelley L. Ross. The Pearl Harbor Strike Force. friesian.com. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  19. ↑ Roland H. Worth, Jr. (1995). No Choice But War: the United States Embargo Against Japan and the Eruption of War in the Pacific. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-0141-9. 
  20. ↑ Japanese Instrument of Surrender. educationworld.net. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  21. ↑ The Nanking Atrocities: The Postwar Judgment. University of Missouri-Columbia. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  22. ↑ Joseph Coleman (2006-03-06). '52 coup plot bid to rearm Japan: CIA. The Japan Times. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  23. ↑ Japan scraps zero interest rates. BBC News Online (2006-07-14). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 The Constitution of Japan. House of Councillors of the National Diet of Japan (1946-11-03). Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  25. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ciagen
  26. ↑ A History of the Liberal Democratic Party. Liberal Democratic Party of Japan. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  27. ↑ Prime Minister of Japan and his Cabinet. Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Japanese Civil Code". Encyclopædia Britannica (2006). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  29. ↑ The Japanese Judicial System. Office of the Prime Minister of Japan. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  30. ↑ Michael Green. Japan Is Back: Why Tokyo's New Assertiveness Is Good for Washington. Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  31. ↑ UK backs Japan for UNSC bid. Cenral Chronicle. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  32. ↑ Noia 64 mimetypes pdf.pngPDF Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005-04-11). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Tokyo says it will bring troops home from Iraq. International Herald Tribune (2006-06-20). Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  34. ↑ Japan's Territorial Disputes. Indiana University. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  35. ↑ Japan approves constitution steps. BBC News. Retrieved 2007-05-15.
  36. ↑ Mabuchi, Masaru (May 2001). Municipal Amalgamation in Japan (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  37. ↑ Japan—City Population. citypopulation.de. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
  38. ↑ "Japan". Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia (2006). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  39. ↑ Japan Information—Page 1. WorldInfoZone.com. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  40. ↑ World Population Prospects. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  41. ↑ Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan. Oregon State University. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  42. ↑ Attractions: Hot Springs. JNTO. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Essential Info: Climate. JNTO. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  44. ↑ Flora and Fauna: Diversity and regional uniqueness. Embassy of Japan in the USA. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 World Economic Outlook Database; country comparisons. IMF (2006-09-01). Retrieved 2007-03-14.
  46. ↑ NationMaster; Economy Statistics. NationMaster. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 World Factbook; Japan—Economy. CIA (2006-12-19). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  48. ↑ Japan's Economy: Free at last. The Economist (2006-07-20). Retrieved 2007-03-29.
  49. ↑ Why Germany's economy will outshine Japan. MoneyWeek (2007-02-28). Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Noia 64 mimetypes pdf.pngPDF Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group, Inc. (2006-07-31). Retrieved on 2006-12-29.
  51. ↑ Japan Merger Creates World's Largest Bank Washington Post (2004-07-16). Retrieved on 2007-03-10.
  52. ↑ Market data. Tokyo Stock Exchange (2006-12-28). Retrieved on 2006-12-29.
  53. ↑ Japan: Patterns of Development. country-data.com (January 1994). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  54. ↑ Masake, Hisane. A farewell to zero. Asia Times Online (2006-03-02). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
  55. ↑ Kingshuk Roy. Noia 64 mimetypes pdf.pngPDF. College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University (2006). Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
  56. ↑ Japan: Country Information. Strategis. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  57. ↑ An Example of Maritime Operations. Japanese Ministry of Defense. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
  58. ↑ Blustein, Paul. "China Passes U.S. In Trade With Japan: 2004 Figures Show Asian Giant's Muscle". The Washington Post (2005-01-27). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
  59. ↑ McDonald, Joe. OECD: China to spend $136 billion on R&D. BusinessWeek (2006-12-04). Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
  60. ↑ The Boom in Robot Investment Continues—900,000 Industrial Robots by 2003. and United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Press release 2000-10-17. Retrieved on 2006-12-28.
  61. ↑ Japan Plans Moon Base by 2030. MoonDaily (2006-08-03). Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  62. ↑ Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Homepage. Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (2006-08-03). Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 World Factbook; Japan—People. CIA (2006-12-19). Retrieved 2007-01-05. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "ciapeople" defined multiple times with different content
  64. ↑ The World Factbook: Rank order—Life expectancy at birth. CIA (2006-12-19). Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Statistical Handbook of Japan: Chapter 2—Population. Japan Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Ogawa, Naohiro."Demographic Trends and Their Implications for Japan's Future" The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Transcript of speech delivered on (7 March, 1997). Retrieved on 14 May 2006.
  67. ↑ Hidenori Sakanaka (2005-10-05). Japan Immigration Policy Institute: Director's message. Japan Immigration Policy Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
  68. ↑ French, Howard."Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". "The New York Times" (2003-07-24). Retrieved on 2007-02-21.
  69. ↑ 15 families keep ancient language alive in Japan. UN. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  70. ↑ Lucien Ellington (2005-09-01). Japan Digest: Japanese Education. Indiana University. Retrieved 2006-04-27.
  71. ↑ Lucien Ellington (2003-12-01). Beyond the Rhetoric: Essential Questions About Japanese Education. Foreign Policy Research Institute. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  72. ↑ School Education (PDF). MEXT. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  73. ↑ Kate Rossmanith (2007-02-05). Rethinking Japanese education. The University of Sydney. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  74. ↑ The Times Higher Education Supplement World University Rankings (PDF). TSL Education Ltd. (2005-10-28). Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  75. ↑ Victor Rodwin. Health Care in Japan. New York University. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  76. ↑ Health Insurance: General Characteristics. National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  77. ↑ A History of Manga. NMP International. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  78. ↑ Leonard Herman, Jer Horwitz, Steve Kent, and Skyler Miller. The History of Video Games. Gamespot. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  79. ↑ Japanese Culture, The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, 1983 edition, © Columbia University Press ISBN 0-380-63396-5
  80. ↑ J-Pop History. The Observer. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  81. ↑ Kelly, Bill. (1998). "Japan's Empty Orchestras: Echoes of Japanese culture in the performance of karaoke," The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures, p. 76. Cambridge University Press.
  82. ↑ Asian Studies Conference, Japan (2000). Meiji Gakuin University. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 Windows on Asia—Literature : Antiquity to Middle Ages: Recent Past. Michigan State University, Office of International Studies and Programs. Retrieved 2006-12-28.
  84. ↑ Sumo: East and West. PBS. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
  85. ↑ Culture and Daily Life. Embassy of Japan in the UK. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
  86. ↑ Nagata, Yoichi and Holway, John B. (1995). "Japanese Baseball", in Pete Palmer: Total Baseball, fourth edition, New York: Viking Press, 547. 
  87. ↑ Soccer as a Popular Sport: Putting Down Roots in Japan (PDF). The Japan Forum. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  88. ↑ Fred Varcoe. Japanese Golf Gets Friendly. Metropolis. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
  89. ↑ Len Clarke. Japanese Omnibus: Sports. Metropolis. Retrieved 2007-04-01.

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Geographic locale
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Countries and territories of East Asia
Flag of People's Republic of China People's Republic of China Flag of Republic of China Republic of China (Taiwan)1
Flag of Japan Japan
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Sometimes included: Singapore · Vietnam · Russian Far East

1 Otherwise known as "Taiwan."
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Potential future members Flag of East Timor Timor-Leste Flag of Russia Russia


Group of Eight
Canada | France | Germany | Italy | Japan | Russia | United Kingdom | United States


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