Samuel, Books of

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The '''Books of Samuel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''Sefer Sh'muel'' ספר שמואל), are part of the [[Tanakh]] (part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Hebrew Bible]]) and also of the [[Old Testament]] (of [[Christianity]]). The work was originally written in Hebrew, and the ''Book(s) of Samuel'' originally formed a single text, as they are often considered today in Hebrew bibles.
 
  
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Together with what is now referred to as the ''[[Books of Kings|Book(s) of Kings]]'', the translators who created the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] divided the text into four books, which they named the ''Books of the Kingdoms''. In the [[Latin]] [[Vulgate]] version, these then became the ''Books of the Kings'', thus ''1 and 2 Samuel'' were referred to as ''1 and 2 Kings'', with ''[[1 Kings|3]] and [[2 Kings|4 Kings]]'' being what are called ''1 and 2 Kings'' by the [[King James Bible]] and its [[Modern English Bible translations|successors]].
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The '''Books of Samuel''' ([[Hebrew]]: ספר שמואל—''Sefer Sh'muel'') , are part of the [[Hebrew Bible]]), or [[Old Testament]]. They deal with beginnings of the Hebrew kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in the eleventh century, B.C.E.. The main characters in the story are [[Samuel]], [[Saul]], [[David]], and [[Yahweh|God]]. The plot traces Samuel's birth and ministry as Israel's last and greatest [[Book of Judges|judge]], the anointing and rise of Saul as Israel's first king, the rejection of Saul by God and Samuel, the rise of David, the struggle between Saul and David, the consolidation of David's kingdom after Saul's death, and various intrigues and rebellions within David's realm.
  
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The Books of Samuel originally formed a single text, which probably continued through the first chapters of the current [[Books of Kings]]. Due to limitations in the lengths of texts that could be contained in a single scroll, however, they had to be divided. The translators who created the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] version of the Bible divided the text of Samuel and Kings into four books, which they named the ''Books of the Kingdoms''. In the [[Latin]] [[Vulgate]] version, this was rendered as the ''Books of the Kings''. Thus, the books known today as ''1 and 2 Samuel'' were ''1 and 2 Kings'', while today's Books of Kings were called ''3 and 4 Kings.'' The modern English designations of Samuel and Kings began with the [[King James Bible]].
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While the traditional authorship of the Books of Samuel is ascribed primarily to Samuel himself modern scholarship generally believes that several later sources, some with contradictory views of events, were combined into the books as we have them today.
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[[File:David-goliath28.jpg|thumb|right|200px|David holds Goliath's head aloft.]]
 
== The contents of the books ==
 
== The contents of the books ==
 
The two books can be essentially broken down into five parts:
 
The two books can be essentially broken down into five parts:
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*The period of Yahweh's rejection of [[Eli (Biblical priest)|Eli]], [[Samuel (biblical figure)|Samuel's]] birth, and subsequent judgment (1 Samuel 1:1-7:17)
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*The period of Yahweh's rejection of [[Eli (Biblical priest)|Eli]], [[Samuel (biblical figure)|Samuel's]] birth, and his subsequent leadership of Israel (1 Samuel 1:1-7:17)
 
*Samuel's interaction with [[Saul]] and the early kingship of Saul (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35)
 
*Samuel's interaction with [[Saul]] and the early kingship of Saul (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35)
 
*Saul's later kingship and interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1-2 Samuel 1:27)
 
*Saul's later kingship and interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1-2 Samuel 1:27)
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*David's reign, the ly life, and the rebellions he suffers (2 Samuel 2:1-20:22)
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*David's reign, the civil war between Judah and Israel, the intrigues of David's family, and the rebellions against his kingship (2 Samuel 2:1-20:22)
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*An appendix of material concerning David in no particular order, and out of sequence with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 22:1-24:25)
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*An appendix of extra material concerning David inserted out of sequence with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 22:1-24:25)
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The story weaves the sagas of three separate leaders together, and there is evidence of several sources at work even in telling. For example, the story of Saul's emergence as king is told in three different versions. <ref>Biblical literalists insist that these three tales are merely three stages of Saul's anointing by Samuel, his recognition by the people, and his confirmation through military leadership.</ref> In addition to combining the stories of Samuel, Saul, and David, the sources display their own theological viewpoints, some strongly opposed to the institution of kingship, others favoring it as a divinely ordained office.
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The conclusion of the story begun in the Books of Samuel actually appears in 1 Kings 1-2, dealing with David's old age, the rebellion of [[Adonijah]], [[Solomon]]'s enthronement, and his enacting a final revenge against David's perceived enemies. The time period and general subject matter of the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in the [[Books of Chronicles]]. However this material is less detailed, and many of the stories embarrassing to David, such as the account of his affair with [[Bathsheba]], the civil war with Ish-bosheth, and the rebellion of Absalom, are omitted in that account.
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==Samuel's birth and ministry==
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*'''Story of [[Hannah]]''' (1 Samuel 1)—Hannah, the wife of Elkanah, is childless. She makes a pilgrimage to [[Shiloh]], where she vows that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to [[Yahweh]]. The priest of Shiloh, Eli, blesses her, and the child [[Samuel]] is soon born. In '''The Song of Hannah''' (1 Samuel 2:1-10), Hannah pronounces a poem concerning Yahweh's magnificence that has strong similarities to the later [[Magnificat]] of [[Mary]]. After weaning Samuel, Hannah brings him to Eli at Shiloh to be raised there, visiting only once a year.
  
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A conclusion of sorts appears at [[1 Kings]] 1-2, concerning [[Solomon]] enacting a final revenge on those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style. While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in [[Chronicles]], it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2-12:29) containing an account of the matter of [[Bathsheba]] is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20.
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*'''Eli and his sons''' (1 Samuel 2)—Eli's sons, Hophni and Phinehas, are also priests at [[Shiloh]], but they abuse their position for personal gain. A prophet tells Eli that because he has failed to prevent his sons from misusing their holy offices, [[Yahweh]] has revoked his promise of perpetual priesthood for his family. Eli's sons will die, both on the same day. God will raise up a new priest, "who will do according to what is in my heart and mind."
  
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;The period of Samuel's birth and judgement involves
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*'''The Call of Samuel''' (1 Samuel 3)—The boy Samuel hears God's voice in the night and confuses it for Eli's. The old priest teaches him how to respond to God's call and receive His message. The prophecy that Samuel makes, however, is a dire one: Eli's lineage will perish, for "The guilt of Eli's house will never be atoned for by sacrifice or offering." Samuel grows up and develops a powerful reputation "from Dan to Beersheba" because of the revelations given to him at Shiloh by [[Yahweh]].
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*'''Story of [[Eli (Biblical priest)|Eli]]''' (portions of 1 Samuel 1:1-4:22) - Eli's sons are the priests at [[Shiloh]], but they abuse their position. A ''man of God'' comes to Eli and tells him that owing to this behaviour, [[Yahweh]] has revoked his promise of perpetual priesthood for his family, and Eli's sons will die on the same day. Samuel confirms that there is no way for them to avoid the fate. His sons duly die on the same day during a battle, and the [[Ark of the Covenant|Holy Ark]] is captured by the Philistines. Upon hearing the latter, Eli drops dead from shock.
 
  
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*'''Story of [[Hannah (Bible)|Hannah]]''' (remainder of 1 Samuel 1:1-1:28) - Hannah is childless, but then makes a vow promising that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to Yahweh and be a [[Nazarite]]. Eli blesses her and a child is soon born. The child is identified as [[Samuel (Bible)|Samuel]], though many modern academics think this is a later edit to the story and it was originally the birth narrative of [[Saul]].
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*'''The Philistine captures the Ark''' (1 Samuel 4)—The Israelites attack the [[Philistines]] at Aphek but are defeated, losing 4,000 men. They decide to gain God's support by bringing the [[Ark of the Covenant]] from Shiloh. Nevertheless, when the Philistines attack the Israelite camp at [[Ebenezer]], they prevail and capture the Ark. During the battle, Hophni and Phinehas, attending the Ark, are slain. In Shiloh, Eli hears the news of the battle and falls over in his chair, breaking his neck and dying. His daughter-in-law, Phinehas' wife, goes into labor prematurely and dies after giving birth to a son named [[Ichabod]] ''(without glory)''.
  
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*'''[[Song of Hannah]]''' (1 Samuel 2:1-10) - Hannah pronounces a poem concerning Yahweh's magnificence that has strong similarities to the later [[Magnificat]]
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[[Image:Samuel-at-Mizpah.jpg|thumb|Samuel calls upon God at Mizpah.]]  
  
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*The '''[[Ark of the Covenant#Captured_by_the_Philistines|Philistine captivity of the Ark]]''' (1 Samuel 4:1-7:1) - The Philistines attack [[Ebenezer]] and capture the ark, taking it to their temple to [[Dagon]]. Eli's daughter-in law, Pinchas's wife, goes into labour. After hearing the Eli died, the agony of labour overwhelms her and she dies, yet gives birth to a child named [[Ichabod]] (''without glory''). The next morning, the Dagon statue is found prostrate before it, so they adjust it, but the morning after it is found broken into pieces. The town surrounding it falls victim to a plague, so the Philistines resign themselves to get rid of the ark, first sending it on to [[Gath (city)|Gath]], and then to [[Ekron]], both of which fall victim to the plague. On the advice of fortune tellers, the Philistines put the ark, and additional offerings, on a cow driven cart, and send it off, driverless, it getting to [[Beth Shemesh]]. The locals celebrate, and ask the people of [[Kiriath-Jearim]] to collect the ark, which they do, taking it to the house of [[Abinadab]].
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*'''The Ark among the Philistines''' (1 Samuel 5-6)—The Philistines take the Ark to Ashdod and place it in the temple of [[Dagon]]. The next morning, the statue of Dagon is found prostrate before it. The Philistines set it upright but it is found in pieces the next day. Ashdod falls victim to a plague. The ark is next sent [[Gath]], and then to [[Ekron]], both of which are similarly struck with a plague. On the advice of priests and diviners, the Philistines determine that the plague is no accident and decide to put the Ark on a cow-driven cart and send it off, driverless, toward Israelite territory. It arrives at [[Beth Shemesh]] and the locals celebrate. Yahweh, however, kills 70 of the town's residents for daring to look into the sacred vessel. The men of Beth Shemesh ask the people of [[Kiriath-Jearim]] to collect the ark, which they do, taking it to the house of [[Abinadab]], where it remains for 20 years.
  
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*'''The [[battle of Ebenezer]]''' (1 Samuel 7:3-14). The Philistines attack the Israelites who have gathered at Mizpah. Samuel appeals to Yahweh, and so the Philistines are decisively beaten. Samuel sets up a stone at Ebenezer in memory. The Israelites then attack Ekron and Gath, freeing the people, and make peace with the Amorites.
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*'''The battle of Ebenezer''' (1 Samuel 7)—Samuel calls the Israelites to repentance and intercedes for the nation at Mizpah. The Philistines attack, but Samuel appeals to Yahweh, and so the Philistines are decisively beaten. Samuel sets up a stone pillar at Ebenezer in memory. The Israelites then recapture the towns and villages between the Philistine strongholds of Ekron and Gath. Thus freed from concerns to the west, the Israelites are also able to make peace with the [[Amorite]]s to the east.
  
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;The period of Saul's life before he meets David involves:
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==The rise of Saul==
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*'''The [[Saul's appointment|appointment of Saul]]''' (1 Samuel 8:1-11:15) - In Samuel's old age, he appoints his sons as Judges, but they don't follow his example, so the people clamour for a king. God begrudgingly accedes and Samuel gives the people a list of regulations about the king. Meanwhile, Saul, who is handsome, is searching for the donkeys of his family and when his search takes him to [[Zuph]], he seeks out the wise man who lives there, on the advice of his servant and some girls. Samuel comes toward Saul as he enters the town, and realises that Saul is the man that Yahweh has chosen to be king, so he is hospitable to him. The next day, Samuel anoints him, and gives three prophecies of events on Saul's journey home. The third prophecy, that Samuel will meet a band of prophets preceded by musical instruments, comes true, leading to the proverb ''Is Saul also among the Prophets?'' (cf. 1 Samuel 10:12). After calling the people together at Mizpah, Samuel whittles them down by lot to Saul, and announces that he is king. Saul tries to hide but is much taller than everyone else. Some people criticise the decision.
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[[Image:Samuel-Blesses-Saul.jpg|thumb|Samuel blesses Saul at the high place near Zuph.]]
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*'''The appointment of Saul''' (1 Samuel 8-10)—In [[Samuel]]'s old age, he appoints his sons, Joel and Abijah, as judges at [[Beersheba]]. Much like Eli's sons, however, but they don't follow their father's example. The people clamor for a king. God begrudgingly accedes to their wish and commands Samuel to comply. Meanwhile, the Benjaminie [[Saul]] is searching for his father's [[donkey]]s. When he reaches Zuph, he seeks out the local "seer," who turns out to be Samuel. The two eat a sacrificial meal together at the [[high place]]. Samuel realizes that Saul is the man that [[Yahweh]] has chosen to be king, and the next day, anoints him. On the way home, Saul meets a band of ecstatic [[prophet]]s descending from the high place at Gibeah. Infected by their music and dancing, "the Spirit of God came upon him in power." This leads to the slogan: ''Is Saul also among the Prophets?''<ref>However, 1 Samuel 10:12 provides an alternative explanation for the apparently well known saying about Saul being among the prophets. In this version, Saul seeks David's life, but is overcome by the spirit of prophecy and lies naked in ecstasy before David's protector, Samuel, instead.</ref>
  
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*'''The story of [[Nahash]]''' (1 Samuel 11:1-11) - Nahash, an [[Ammonite]], lays siege to [[Jabesh-gilead]], so its people request a treaty, but Nahash is harsh and requires that each person must have their right eye gouged out. The people consequently stall for time, while sending messengers out to get help. After hearing of this, Saul orders the people of Israel to join him in an attack on Nahash, and threatens them with violence if they do not. Saul consequently gathers an army and attacks that of Nahash, obliterating it. The people take this as evidence of Saul's ability to lead, and so consequently they are told by Samuel to appoint him king, which they do.
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*'''Saul becomes king''' (1 Samuel 10)—In what may be a second version of the story of Saul's identification as king, the Israelites gather at Mizpah, where Samuel delivers a sermon preparing the people for the kingship. He is clearly unhappy about the situation, and sees their demand for a king as a rejection of God's leadership.<ref>Coincidentally, Samuel himself will no longer by Israel's primary human leader, nor will his sons succeed him in the office of judge.</ref> In this story, Saul is not identified by Samuel, but is chosen by lot. Saul, hiding himself in the baggage, seems an unlikely choice except for his height. The people duly shout "Long live the king!" but there is also evidence of division as some in the congregation doubt Saul's abilities. After the ceremonies, nothing much seems to have changed; and everyone, including Saul, simply returns home and lives as before.
  
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*'''[[Saul's rejection]]''' (1 Samuel 12:1-13:15, and 15:1-35) - Samuel gives a speech reminding the Israelites not to fall into heathenism like their previous generations have done. The Hebrews/Jonathan (depending on the text - [[Masoretic text|Masoretic]] has ''Jonathan'', [[Septuagint]] has ''Hebrews'') overcome the Philistines in Gibeah. Saul sounds the trumpet to tell all Israel that he (Saul) has overcome the Philistines there. The Philistines assemble for battle, frightening the Israelites, but, in accordance with Samuel's instructions, Saul waits seven days for Samuel to arrive, before giving up his wait and making a sacrifice. Samuel turns up and castigates Saul for not waiting, telling him that as a result his kingdom will not last. Saul, successful and brave, defeats Amalek. Samuel orders Saul to exterminate [[Amalek]], but although Saul subsequently slaughters the Amalekites, he doesn't slaughter the animals, and captures the king, [[Agag]], alive. Saul also erects a ''trophy'' at Carmel in his own honour. Samuel berates him for not carrying out the mass extermination completely, so Saul repents and begs Samuel to go with him. Samuel refuses, and leaves, but Saul grabs at him, tearing part of Samuel's mantle, for which Samuel says that part of Saul's kingdom will be torn off and given to another. Samuel kills Agag himself, by hacking him into pieces (''wa-yeshassef'').
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*'''Saul rescues Jabesh-gilead''' (1 Samuel 11)—The third story of Saul's rise to kingship follows the typical pattern of the [[Book of Judges]], in which a tribal hero emerges through military victory. Saul is home plowing his fields when the [[Ammonite]] king, Nahash, lays siege to [[Jabesh-gilead]]. Hearing of their plight, Saul slaughters his [[ox]]en and sends the pieces to each of the Israelite tribes, calling on them to join him in an attack on Nahash.<ref>The episode is reminiscent of Judges 19, where an unnamed [[Levite]] summons the Israelites to war by cutting the [[murder]]ed body of his own [[concubine]] into 12 pieces and sending one to each of the tribes. In that case, however, the other Israelites make war against the tribe of Benjamin. Here, the situation is reversed, as the Benjaminite Saul unites the Israelites in war against the Ammonites.</ref> Saul consequently gathers an army and attacks the Ammonites and Nahash, obliterating his army. The people take this as evidence of Saul's ability to lead, and so consequently they are told by Samuel to confirm him as king at the sacred [[high place]] of [[Gilgal]], which they do.
  
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*'''The [[Battle of Michmash]]''' (1 Samuel 13:16-14:46) - While Saul and his son occupy Geba, the philistines raid the nearby land. Previously, the Philistines had ensured that there were no smiths in the land, causing the people of Israel to be devoid of weaponry, excepting Saul and Jonathan. Jonathan secretly heads to the Philistine outpost at [[Michmash]] with his armour bearer, first crossing a ravine, and manage between them to slaughter large numbers of Philistines who panic and scatter. Saul notices and eventually sends his army to help. The Hebrews were previously on the Philistine side (some translations add the words ''some of'', making this refer only to a sub group of Hebrews), but decide to join the forces of Israel. In a moment of foolishness, Saul curses anyone that eats anything before the evening, but Jonathan doesn't notice and consumes some honey he finds. This rapidly leads to others following suit, and ignoring Saul's curse. Saul builds an altar, insisting that it be used to sacrifice before the food is eaten, and condemns the whomever Yahweh decides is at fault, for violating his curse, to death. Saul uses [[Urim]] and [[Thummim]] to find out that Yahweh has pointed the finger at Jonathan, so reluctantly condemns him, but the army say they will revolt if Saul kills him, so he doesn't.
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===Saul's fall from grace===
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;The period of Saul's interaction with David involves:
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[[Image:Saul-Map.JPG|thumb|200px|Map of Israel and Judah, with Mizpah, Gilgal, Gath, and Carmel highlighted. Click to enlarge.]]
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*'''[[David's rise from obscurity]]''' (1 Samuel 16:1-17:58) - Samuel is told to go to [[Bethlehem]] by Yahweh, to find a replacement for Saul. Each of the sons of [[Jesse]] are rejected in turn, except [[David]], the youngest, whom Samuel is told to anoint. A demon is sent by Yahweh to torment Saul, so Saul's servants try to find a [[harpist]] to sooth his temper. David is known for his skill in the art and so is brought to court. The Philistines rally against Israel, and the, imposing, [[Goliath]] of [[Gath (city)|Gath]] steps out and suggests that rather than fight a battle, the Israelites should just send a champion to fight him. David, who is bringing provisions to his brothers in Israel's army, speaks against Goliath to his brothers, and Saul overhears him. David persuades a reluctant Saul to let him challenge Goliath. David kills Goliath with a single stone from a [[sling (weapon)|sling]], and so the Philistines flee.
 
  
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*'''Details of [[David in Saul's court]]''' (1 Samuel 18:1-20:42) - [[Jonathan]] takes a shine to David, and since David succeeds in everything Saul tasks him with, women praise David as greater than Saul. To get rid of this perceived threat, Saul promises David the hand of his daughter, [[Merob]], in marriage if he becomes Saul's champion, but Merob is married off to someone else before David accepts. Saul notices that [[Michal]], his other daughter, is in love with David, so, in order to send him on to his death, offers her to him in exchange for 200 foreskins of the Philistines, but David successfully kills 200 Philistines, so weds Michal. Saul talks to Jonathan about his plans to kill David, but owing to [[David and Jonathan|Jonathan's relationship with David]], Jonathan dissuades Saul and informs David. While David is in Saul's court, Saul throws a spear at David, but misses. Saul then sends guards to David's house, but Michal makes David escape, and places a statue in the bed and pretends to the guards that it is him. On discovering David's location, Saul sends out successive guards, but they all meet a group of prophets and join them instead, as does Saul when he eventually decides to go himself, hence the phrase ''Is Saul also among the prophets?'' (c.f. 1 Samuel 19:24). David then meets Jonathan and asks him to secretly find out Saul's intentions, but Saul tells Jonathan that he knows that Jonathan is David's ''companion'', and that he intends to kill David. Jonathan is so hurt that he stops eating, and then later goes off to tell David.
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*'''Saul's rejection at Gilgal''' (1 Samuel 12-14)—Samuel gives his "farewell speech." The Philistines assemble for a major battle, and Saul waits at Gilgal in accordance with Samuel's instructions, for seven days. After Samuel fails to arrive at the appointed time, Saul's troops begin to desert, so Saul offers a sacrifice. Samuel turns up and castigates Saul for not waiting, telling him that as a result of Saul's sin, his kingdom will not will last.<ref>The cause for God's rejection of Saul here is apparently his usurpation of the priestly office, although Israelite kings offered sacrifices without priestly aid in other contexts.</ref>Jonathan emerges as a successful battle leader with strong popular support among the troops. God has not abandoned Saul altogether, as he and Jonathan put the Philistines to flight.
  
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*'''The story of [[Ahimelech]]''' (1 Samuel 21:2-9, and 22:6-23) David flees to Ahimelech, priest of Nob, who only has holy bread. As David abstains from the company of women on such journeys, Ahimelech allows David to take the bread, and Goliath's sword which Ahimelech had been keeping. David then flees. Saul's chief henchman, Doeg, witnessed Ahimelech assisting David, so Saul has Doeg kill him, and all the people in Nob, though Ahimelech's son, Abiathar, escapes to tell David.  
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*'''Saul and the Amalekites.''' (1 Samuel 15)—Samuel apparently changes his mind about Saul and conveys a message from God commanding Saul to exterminate the [[Amalekites]]. Saul devastates them, killing all the Amalekite men, women and children, but does not slaughter the choicest animals, and captures the king, [[Agag]], alive. Saul also erects a victory monument at [[Mount Carmel]], but Samuel berates him for not carrying out the mass extermination of the Amalekites and their cattle completely. Saul repents, pleading that it was merely his intention to offer the animals as a sacrifice to Yahweh, and begs Samuel to stay with him. Samuel refuses and leaves, but Saul grabs at him, tearing part of Samuel's mantel. Samuel declares that Saul's kingdom will likewise be torn from him and given to another. However, Samuel agrees to accompany Saul back to Gilgal, where Samuel kills Agag himself, by hacking him into pieces. Samuel and Saul then part company permanently.
  
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*'''[[Saul's pursuit of David]]''' (1 Samuel 22:1-5, and 23:1-28) David has fled to the cave of [[Adullam]], where he amasses a band of outlaws. David decides to leave his parents in the care of the king of Moab, where the prophet, Gad, tells him to flee, so David moves to the forest of Hereth. The people of [[Keilah]] are attacked by the Philistines so David rescues them, but Saul hears of it and sets out against him, so David flees. Jonathan briefly visits David at Horesh, and returns home. The people of Ziph tell Saul where David is, so Saul chases David into a gorge, but is forced to break off pursuit when the Philistines invade elsewhere and he must fight them. The gorge becomes known as [[Sela-hammahlekoth]] (''gorge of divisions'')
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==The emergence of David==
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*'''David's rise from obscurity''' (1 Samuel 16-17)—Samuel is told by [[God]] to go to [[Bethlehem]], to find a replacement for [[Saul]]. There he anoints [[David]], a shepherd and youngest son of Jesse. [[Yahweh]] sends an evil spirit to torment Saul, so Saul's servants try to find a [[harpist]] to sooth his temper. David, who is skilled with the harp, is thus brought to court and becomes Saul's armor-bearer. The [[Philistines]] rally against Israel, putting forth the giant [[Goliath]] of Gath as their champion. David, who is bringing provisions to his brothers in Israel's army, speaks against Goliath to his brothers, and Saul overhears him.<ref>In this version of the story, clearly from a different source, Saul has not previously met David.</ref> David persuades the reluctant Saul to let him challenge Goliath. David kills the giant with a single stone from his sling and cuts of his head with the Goliath's own sword. The fleeing Philistines are slaughtered by the [[Israelites]] all the way back to Gath.
  
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*'''[[David's reconciliation with Saul]]''' (1 Samuel 24:1-25:1a, and 26:1-27). David hides in the caves near Engedi, and Saul hears of this and pursues him. Saul enters the cave where David hides, and David sneaks up on him and cuts off the end of his mantle (coincidentally, Saul has also done this to Samuel, above). As Saul has been anointed, David regrets this, and forbids his men from harming Saul, and then steps out of the cave to show himself. David convinces Saul that he isn't a threat, and the two reconcile. The two depart from one another, and Samuel dies. Men from Ziph tell Saul that David is hiding at Hachilah, so goes to search for him. David, and Abishai, sneak into Saul's camp and steal Saul's spear. They then go a long way away and shout back what they have just done, and persuade Saul that David isn't a threat, the two consequently being reconciled.
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*'''David in Saul's court''' (1 Samuel 18-20)—[[Jonathan]], Saul's son, befriends David, who becomes known as a promising military commander. Women sing David's praises: "Saul has killed his thousands, and David his tens of thousands." Saul grows jealous of David. Seeking to send the young upstart to his death, Saul offers his daughter Michal to him in exchange for 100 foreskins of the Philistines. David, with the aid of his fighting men, returns with double this number, and so weds Michal. Saul, however, now overtly seeks David's life. Both Michal and Jonathan refuse to cooperate with their father's plans, and thus David is spared through their help.
  
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*'''The story of [[Abigail]]''' (1 Samuel 25:1b-43) - David tries to get hospitality from a man at [[Maon]], named [[Nabal]], who owns property in [[Carmel]], but Nabal is miserly and refuses. Angered, David prepares to attack Nabal and kill those surrounding him. Nabal's clever and pretty wife, Abigail, sends David provisions, causing David to relent. She tells Nabal, once he has sobered up, and Nabal is soon after struck dead by Yahweh. David thus proposes marriage to Abigail, who accepts. David also marries Ahinoam of Jezreel, though meanwhile Michal, his original wife, is transferred by Saul to another man, [[Palti]].
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*'''The priests of Nob''' (1 Samuel 21-22)—David flees to Ahimelech, priest of Nob, who aids him by giving him sanctified bread as well as the sword of Goliath. Saul's henchman, Doeg the [[Edom]]ite, however, witnesses this and informs Saul. Saul confronts Ahimilech and insanely orders Doeg to slay him together with 85 priests. Only Ahimelech's son, Abiathar, escapes to tell David.  
  
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*'''The story of [[Achish]]''' (1 Samuel 21:10-16, 27:1-28:2, and 29:1-11) - David decides that it is better to be on the safe side, and so chooses to reside amongst the Philistines, staying with the king of Gath, Achish. Previously David had briefly fled to Achish having left Ahimelech, where he feigned insanity to avoid attracting attention, but this time he lets Achish realise that he is an enemy of Saul. However, David continues to make raids against the surrounding population, slaughtering everyone he meets so that none will tell Achish what he has done. When he brings back spoils, he tells the king of Gath that he has raided against some foreign group or the Israelites or Judah. Achish trusts him implicitly, and so requests that David join him in an attack on Jezreel. The Philistines encamp against the Israelites, but are curious why the Hebrews (some translations have "some of the Hebrews") are amongst the Philistines. Uneasy about David's presence they tell Achish to send him away, and so Achish reluctantly does so.
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*'''Saul's pursuit of David''' (1 Samuel 22-23)—David has fled to the cave of Adullam, where he amasses a band of outlaws like himself. He leaves his parents in the care of the king of [[Moab]]. The [[prophet]] Gad tells him to flee, so David moves to the forest of Hereth. David rescues the people of [[Keilah]] from the Philistines, but Saul hears of it and sets out against him. Saul chases David into a gorge, but is forced to break off pursuit when the Philistines invade elsewhere and he must fight them.
  
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*'''The [[Witch of Endor]]''' (1 Samuel 28:3-25) - Samuel dies (c.f. 1 Samuel 25), and Saul sees the Philistines encamping at Shunem, and is disheartened. Saul tries to consult God for advice but receives no reply, and as he has banned necromancy and prophecy, in accordance with the [[mitzvah]], he is forced to disguise himself and go to the Witch of Endor. He asks her to bring up Samuel from the dead, which she does, and Samuel admonishes Saul for acting this way, and tells him that owing to Saul's past failure to commit complete genocide regarding Amalek, Saul is already condemned. Saul becomes deeply shaken, and refuses to eat, but is eventually persuaded.
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*'''David's reconciliation with Saul''' (1 Samuel 24-25, 26). David hides in the caves near Engedi, and Saul pursues him. Saul enters the cave where David hides, and David sneaks up on him and cuts off the end of his mantle while the king is "relieving himself." David shows himself and convinces Saul that he is not a threat. [[Samuel]] meanwhile, dies and is buried, mourned by "all Israel." A second version of the above story is also given, in which David is hiding at Hachilah. Saul searches for him, but David sneaks into camp at night and steals his spear. David leaves the camp and calls out to Saul, once again seeming to convince the king that he is no threat.
  
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*'''The story of [[Ziklag]]''' (1 Samuel 30:1-31) - Ziklag is burnt to the ground by the Amalekites, though they take the people, including David's wives, captive. David and his men therefore set off in pursuit, though some give up on the way. The men meet a slave of the Amalekites who has escaped and who leads them to the Amalekite raiders. David slaughters all but 400 of the raiders, and recovers his property and wives, as well as extra spoil which he divides amongst his followers, except those that gave up, and sends a portion of the spoil to Judah, city by city.
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*'''Abigail''' (1 Samuel 25)—David's men seek hospitality from [[Nabal]], who owns property in [[Carmel]], but Nabal is miserly and refuses. Angered, David prepares to slaughter Nabal and his clan. However, Nabal's clever and pretty wife, [[Abigail]], brings David provisions, urging him not to take vengeance, prophesying great things for him, and convincing him to relent. Nabal is soon struck dead by [[Yahweh]] and Abigail becomes David's wife. David also marries Ahinoam of Jezreel. Meanwhile, Michal, his original wife, is transferred by Saul to another man.
  
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*'''The [[death of Saul and Jonathan]]''' (1 Samuel 31:1-2 Samuel 1:27) - the Philistines attack the Israelites at Gilboa, and kill Jonathan and inflict a mortal wound on Saul. Saul asks his armour bearer to finish him off. His armour bearer refuses so Saul falls on his own sword. The armour bearer then kills himself. The Philistines cut the bodies into pieces, displaying them on the wall of [[Bethshan]], though the inhabitants of [[Jabesh-gilead]] later rescue the bodies, cremating them and burying the bones under a tamarisk tree. An Amalekite comes to David and tells him that Saul and Jonathan are dead, and that Saul was mortally wounded and asked him to finish him, so he did so. David is incensed and orders the Amalekite to be killed, delivering a eulogy about Jonathan and Saul, which is recorded in the [[Book of Jasher]].
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*'''A vassal of [[Achish]]''' (27-29)—David offers his services as a mercenary to the Philistine king of Gath, Achish. David is careful not to attack Israelite settlements, but convinces Achish otherwise. Achish trusts him implicitly, and so requests that David join him in a major attack on Jezreel, against the army of Saul. The Philistines encamp against the Israelites, but some of Achish's captains are uneasy about David's presence. Achish reluctantly agrees to bar David from the fight.<ref>Some scholars suggest that the biblical narrative goes far out of its way to make David's alliance with the Philistines palatable. The Philistines, after all, were the Israelites' mortal enemy, whom David had earlier slaughtered by the hundreds with no compunction. Likewise, David's refraining from killing Saul on two occasions and his public mourning of Saul's death leaves some readers incredulous.</ref>
  
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;The period of David's reign involves:
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==The end of Saul==
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*'''The story of [[Ishbaal]]''' (2 Samuel 2:1-3:1, 3:6-4:3, and 4:5-5:5) David is anointed king in Hebron, but only over Judah. Saul's son, Ishbaal, is taken by Abner to [[Mahanaim]] and appointed king of Israel. The two sides meet at Gibeon and stage some form of activity between 12 men on each side, thrusting swords into their opponents, hence the place became known as [[Helkath-hazzurim]] (''field of sides''). After a fierce battle, David's side wins. Asahel, brother of Joab, David's commander, sets out after Abner, but Abner twice tells him to stop, but since he doesn't listen, Abner thrusts his javelin into Asahel, who dies. Joab continues the chase as far as Ammah, where Abner warns him to stop to avoid more bad blood, so Joab stops the pursuit. However, there was a war between the two groups that lasted for ages with David's side gradually winning. Abner is intimate with Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, angering Ishbaal. Abner decides to change sides, and brings Michal back to David, sending Paltiel, her other husband, back home weeping. Abner persuades the elders of Israel to change to David's side as well. When Abner arrives in David's court, Joab secretly follows him, and stabs him in revenge for killing his brother. David however curses Joab for this, and sings a eulogy to Abner. Ishbaal is killed in his sleep by his own leaders, the sons of Rimmon, who cut off his head and take it to David, but David has them killed for killing a king. David is anointed King of Israel in Hebron.
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[[Image:Saul-Witch.jpg|thumb|200px|The medium of Endor contacts the spirit of Samuel, who predicts Saul's doom.]]
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*'''The Medium of Endor''' (1 Samuel 28)—[[Saul]] sees the [[Philistines]] massing against him and is disheartened. He tries to consult [[Yahweh|God]] for advice but receives no reply. Although he banned necromancy, Saul disguises himself and goes to a medium at Endor. He asks her to bring up the spirit of [[Samuel]] from the dead, which she does. The ghost of Samuel admonishes Saul for disturbing him and tells him again that because of Saul's failure to destroy all of the Amalekites and their cattle, God will by no means support him. Saul is deeply shaken.
  
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*'''A list of the [[sons of David]]''' (2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:13-16) - During Ishbaal's rebellion, David has some children. Later, David takes more concubines and has further children.
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*'''David avenges Ziklag''' (1 Samuel 30)—Ziklag, the town given to [[David]] by the Philistine king, is burnt to the ground by the [[Amalekites]]. They, however, do not massacre the women and children of the settlement, taking them captive instead, including David's wives. David and his men set off in pursuit, finally slaughtering all but 400 of the raiders and recovering David's property and wives. David also gains substantial additional spoil, which he shares with his followers, sending a portion to the elders of each of [[tribe of Judah|Judah]]'s cities.<ref>This would stand him in good stead with the Judahite leaders, who later nominated him king at Hebron.</ref>
  
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*'''The [[conquest of Jerusalem]]''' (2 Samuel 5:6-12, and 5:17-7:29) - David sets out for Jerusalem, and manages to take the stronghold of [[Zion]]. Since he was told by the Jebusites that the blind and the lame would turn him away, he makes the blind and the lame his personal enemy. David instructs his people to attack the Jebusites via the water shaft. [[Hiram]], king of Tyre, sends master craftsmen to David to build him a palace, and David also builds up the area surrounding it. The Philistines attack, overrunning the valley of Rephaim, but he defeats them at a place that becomes known as [[Baal-perazim]] (''lord of scatterings''). The second attack by the Philistines is defeated when David approaches via the rear, and they are routed. David then requests the Ark be moved to Jerusalem, but when it reaches Nodan it is unsteady, and [[Uzzah]] puts his hand on it to steady it, but is struck dead for this by Yahweh. David becomes more cautious and leaves the ark with [[Obed-edom]] for three months, though noting Obed-edom's subsequent good fortune, brings the Ark to Zion. David joins the subsequent celebrations, but is castigated for doing so by Michal, who accuses him of exposing himself, and hence Michal is made permanently infertile by Yahweh. David asks Nathan whether the Ark should be housed in grander settings, but Nathan tells him that where it is fine for the moment and prophecies that one of David's sons will be the one to build a new home for it.
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*'''The death of Saul and Jonathan''' (1 Samuel 33 to 2 Samuel 1)—The Philistines attack the [[Israelites]] at Gilboa, inflicting a mortal wound on Saul and killing Jonathan and two of Saul's other sons. Saul asks his armor bearer to finish him off, but he refuses, so Saul falls on his own sword. The Philistines cut the bodies of Saul and his sons into pieces, displaying them on the wall of Beth Shan. However, the inhabitants of [[Jabesh-gilead]] later rescue the bodies, cremating them and burying the bones with honor. An Amalekite comes to David and informs him that Saul and Jonathan are dead. The Amalekite boasts that he himself put Saul out of his misery. David orders the messenger's immediate execution and sings a hymn of [[eulogy]] to Saul and Jonathan.
  
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*'''The story of [[David's vassal states]]''' (2 Samuel 8:1-15) - David attacks the Philistines, taking their ''[[methegammah]]'' (literally ''bridle of the cubit'' though many translations render this as ''chief cities''). David also defeats Moab and executes a proportion (either ⅓ or ⅔) of their entire population, making Moab a vassal. David then defeats [[Hadadezer]], and though the Aramaeans come to Hadadezer's aid, David slaughters them, making the Aramaeans vassals. King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's enemy, congratulates David and adds to his spoils of precious metals. On his return (from an unspecified location), David becomes famous for slaughtering 18,000 Edomites, whereupon Edom becomes a vassal state.  
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==David, King of Judah==
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[[Image:Ishbosheth-men-David's men.jpg|thumb|200px|Ish-bosheth's men, under Abner, battle David's forces, under Joab.]]
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*'''Ish-boseth''' (2 Samuel 2-5)—[[David]] is anointed king of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in Hebron. Saul's son, [[Ish-bosheth]], also called Ishbaal, reigns as Saul's successor over the [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. Warfare breaks out on a small scale when Ish-bosheth's general, [[Abner]], and David's general, [[Joab]], confront each other at Gibeon. Joab's brother Ashael sets out after Abner, who seeks to avoid combat but finally kills his pursuer. A substantial battle follows, and a long civil war between [[Judah]] and Israel ensues, lasting about seven years. Abner eventually has a falling out with Ish-bosheth and decides to change sides. He brings Michal back to David and promises to deliver the whole of the [[tribe of Benjamin]] and other northern elements to David's cause. Joab, however, puts an end to Abner's plan when he avenges his brother's death by murdering the northern general. David curses Joab for this, but does not demote him for his crime. Instead, he sings a eulogy to Abner and buries him with honor. Soon Ish-bosheth is assassinated in his sleep by two of his captains. Seeking a reward from David, they cut off their king's head and take it to David at Hebron, where, consistent with his prior behavior, he rewards them by having them executed. This does not prevent him, however, from reaping the benefit of their deed. Still headquartered in Hebron, David is anointed King of Israel. A list of the sons of David born at Hebron and Jerusalem is given in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:13-16.
  
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*A '''list of [[officers in David's court]]''' (2 Samuel 8:16-18, and 20:23-26) - A list of officers in David's court is given on two occasions. The list includes the head of the army, chancellor ([[Jehoshaphat]]), master of the slaves, and commander of foreign troops, as well as the two priests - [[Zadok]] and [[Abiathar]], David's personal priest - [[Ira]] the [[Jairite]], and the name of a scribe - [[Shawsha]].  
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*'''Jerusalem''' (2 Samuel 5-7)—David sets out for the [[Jebusite]] stronghold of [[Jerusalem]] and, with Joab in the lead, succeeds in capturing the city. [[Hiram]], king of Tyre, sends master craftsmen to David to build him a palace. The Philistines attack, overrunning the valley of Rephaim, but David defeats them at a place that David names Baal-perazim. A second attack by the Philistines is defeated when David, advised by Yahweh, approaches via the rear, routing the attackers. David then orders that the [[Ark of the Covenant]] be moved to Jerusalem. However, it becomes unsteady during transport and a man called Uzzah, who succeeds in steadying it, is struck dead by Yahweh for touching the [[taboo]] object. David despairs and decides to leave the Ark at the house of a man named Obed-edom. There it remains for three months until David brings it to Jerusalem with great ceremony and celebration. David's ecstatic dancing during the procession, however, prompts Michal to castigate him for exposing himself, resulting in a permanent estrangement between her and David.<ref>The text indicates that she had no children until she died. An alternative reading is therefore that Michal was made permanently infertile for speaking out against the king.</ref> David inquires of the [[prophet]] Nathan whether the Ark—which serves as the throne of [[Yahweh]]—should be housed in grander settings. Nathan at first approves of the plan, but soon receives a revelation in which Yahweh informs him that not David, but one of his sons, will be the one to build a temple for the God of Israel.
  
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*'''The story of the [[mercenaries of the Ammonites]]''' (2 Samuel 10:1-19) - The king of the Ammonites dies, and is succeeded by Hanun, so, reflecting the prior king's kindness to David, David sends messengers to Hanun to give his condolences. However, they are interpreted by Hanun as spies, so he has the base of their beards cut off, and the base of their garments below their buttocks, giving them a Babylonian appearance. When they return, David tells them to wait in Jericho until their beards grow. The Ammonites then prepare for war, and hire a mercenary army from [[Aram]], [[Tob]], and [[Maacah]], but it doesn't reach the Ammonites before David's army are too close. Joab splits David's army into two groups, one to attack the Aramaeans, and one to attack the Ammonites. The Aramaeans flee before David's army, and so the Ammonites, now without help, withdraw. Hadadezer hires Aramaeans that live beyond the Euphrates, and they attack the Israelites at Helam. Shobach, Hadadezer's general, is defeated and killed, and so Hadadezer's vassal states decide to become David's vassals instead.
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*'''David's vassal states''' (2 Samuel 8)—David attacks the Philistines, taking some of their territory. He then defeats Moab and executes two thirds of its male population, making [[Moab]] a vassal. He then defeats and subjugates "Hadadezer of Zobah" and his Syrian (Aramean) allies. King Toi (or Tou) of Hamath becomes a willing tributary to David. Finally, David becomes famous for slaughtering 18,000 [[Edom]]ites, after which he stations garrisons in Edom to ensure their compliance with his orders. A list of officers in David's court is given in 2 Samuel 8:16-18 and 20:23-26.
  
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*'''The story of [[Bathsheba]]''' (11:1-12:31) David sends his army to besiege [[Rabbah]]. From his rooftop, he spots a pretty woman, and later finds out that she is Bathsheba, the wife of [[Uriah]], Joab's armour bearer. David has ''relations'' with her, and she becomes pregnant, so he orders Uriah to be placed in the heaviest part of the fighting, and for the army to draw back from him. Uriah is consequently killed by an archer, and David marries Bathsheba. Nathan, a prophet, tells David a parable, asking him for an analysis. When Nathan reveals that the parable describes his actions over Uriah, David realises that by his analysis he has condemned himself. Nathan tells him that the house of David will be cursed with always falling victim to the sword. More directly, Bathsheba's child dies as punishment. David has ''relations'' with her again, and she has a son that she names ''[[Solomon]]'', but Nathan names Jedediah. Joab finally captures Rabbah and the bejewelled crown of [[Milcom]] is taken and given to David for his own head.
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*'''Mephi-bosheth''' (2 Samuel 9)—[[Jonathan]] had a son named Mephi-bosheth or Meribbaal, crippled in both feet, who was five-years-old when Jonathan and Saul were killed. David shows Meribbaal "kindness," by recognizing his rights to Saul's personal lands and letting him dine at the royal table—thus in effect keeping him under house arrest.<ref>A story given in the "appendix" indicates that David had earlier handed all of Saul's other descendants over to the Gibeonites for execution.</ref>
  
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*'''The rape of [[Tamar]]''' (13:1-14:33). David's son, Amnon, becomes lovesick for his half-sister, Tamar. His cousin advises him to feign illness and have Tamar be his sick nurse, which he does. Persuading Tamar to feed him at his bedside, Amnon rapes her. Tamar complains to her brother, Absalom, but as Amnon is his eldest son, David won't do anything. Absalom holds a party and invites all the princes, and Amnon is sent there on David's behalf. When Amnon becomes drunk, he is killed by Absalom's servants, under the order of Absalom. The princes flee back to David, and Absalom flees to the king of Geshur. Over time, David becomes reconciled to Amnon, and so Joab hatches a plan. Joab gets a woman to visit David and feign sorrow about a situation that mirrors that of David, tricking him into acknowledging that Absalom should be brought back and not harmed. When Absalom is brought back, David orders him to remain in his own home, but Absalom keeps asking Joab to see David. Joab doesn't respond so Absalom sets Joab's field on fire, and when Joab turns up, persuades him to let him see David, who becomes reconciled to Absalom.
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*'''War with the  Ammonites''' (2 Samuel 10)—The king of the [[Ammon]]ites dies, and David sends messengers to express condolences. However, they are interpreted as spies, insulted, and sent away. The Ammonites and their allies, including the formerly subdued Arameans, then prepare for war. Joab splits David's army into two groups, one to attack the Aramaeans, and one to attack the Ammonites.
  
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*'''The rebellion of [[Absalom]]''' (15:1-37, 16:5-19:24, and 19:32-41) - Absalom builds up a gradual following, eventually having enough supporters that he plans a [[coup]] against David. An informant tells David, who tells his supporters to flee Jerusalem to the Mount of Olives. At the Mount of Olives, David tells his foreign mercenaries to go back to Jerusalem as they owe no allegiance, but they insist on going with David. David also sends back [[Zadok]] and Abiathar, the priests, and his friend, Hushai, to act as an informant. A man, [[Shimei]], throws stones at David and curses him, so Abishai asks David to kill Shimei, but David won't let him, claiming that Yahweh has made Shimei do this. On the advice of Ahithophel, Absalom has ''relations'' with David's concubines, on his roof, so that the whole nation can see his contempt for David. After receiving counsel from both Ahithophel and Hushai, Absalom chooses Hushai's plan to send all Israel to attack David over Ahithophel's, so Ahithophel commits suicide in shame. Hushai sends word to David of the plan via spies hidden in a cistern at [[En-rogel]]. Absalom sends his army across the Jordan, and David prepares his own troops, asking that Absalom be treated gently. A huge battle erupts between the armies in the forests near Mahanaim, but while riding on his mule, Absalom gets caught in a tree by his hair, and is stuck hanging there. Although the first people from David's side to discover Absalom like this refuse to harm him, owing to David's request, Joab has no such qualms and kills Absalom. David becomes extremely upset, but pulls himself together and returns victorious to Jerusalem, accompanied by Judah.
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===A troubled later-reign===
  
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*'''The story of [[Meribbaal]]''' (2 Samuel 4:4, 9:1-13, 16:1-4, and 19:25-31) - Jonathan had a son named Meribbaal, who was 5 when Jonathan and Saul were killed. When she heard the news of this, Meribaal's nurse took him and fled, but he fell and became crippled. In memory of Jonathan, David shows Meribbaal kindness, gives him Saul's lands, and lets him dine at David's table. He also tells [[Ziba]], a servant of Saul, that Ziba, and his family, must now serve Meribbaal. During Absalom's revolt, Meribbaal remained in Jerusalem, Ziba telling David that this was because Meribbaal hoped that the people of Israel would restore him to his father's throne. Meribbaal doesn't wash his feet, or his clothes, or even trim his moustache, until David returns to the throne in Jerusalem. On meeting David, Meribbaal tells him that Ziba was lying about his motive for remaining, and reminds David that Meribbaal is lame. David doesn't care, and orders Meribbaal to split his property with Ziba.
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*'''Bathsheba''' (11-12)—David sends his army to besiege the [[Ammon]]ites at [[Rabbah]]. Among the leaders of the assault are [[Joab]] and [[Uriah]]the Hittite. David falls in love with Uriah's beautiful wife, [[Bathsheba]], and impregnates her. He attempts to cover his sin by having Uriah return and sleep with Bathsheba. When he declines to take such comfort while his troops are in the field, David conspires with Joab to place Uriah in harm's way, and Uriah consequently dies in battle. David marries Bathsheba, but is later confronted by the [[prophet]] Nathan for his offense. David repents, but Bathsheba's son nevertheless dies as punishment. A second son is then born to them, [[Solomon]]. After Joab has brought Rabbah to the verge of conquest, David rides out to lead the victory, and the bejewelled crown of [[Milcom]] is given to David.
  
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*The '''[[Sheba (rebel)|Rebellion of Sheba]]''' (2 Samuel 19:42-20:22) - The people of Israel feel slighted that those of Judah were preferred by David to accompany him back to the throne, so a war of words breaks out between them. A man named Sheba sounds a horn rallying the people of Israel to him. David asks Amasa to summon the people of Judah to him, and go after Sheba. At ''the great stone'' in Gibeon, Amasa meets Joab and ''them'', and while asking how he is, Joab stabs Amasa to death, and drag the body to the side of the road. Joab leads the amassed army of Judah against Sheba who has amassed his own army of Israel at [[Abel Beth-maachah]]. Joab lays siege to the town, but a ''wise woman'' tells Joab of an ancient expression and that Joab is effectively trying to destroy ''Yahweh's inheritance''. Joab tells her they are only after Sheba, so she gets the townspeople to cut off Sheba's head and throw it over the wall to Joab. Joab then returns to Jerusalem and the rebellion ends.
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*'''The rape of Tamar''' (13:1-14:33)—David's son, Amnon, becomes lovesick for his half-sister, Tamar. Feigning illness, he persuades Tamar to feed him at his bedside, rapes her, and immediately rejects her. Tamar complains to her brother, [[Absalom]], but David does not punish Amnon. Two years later, Absalom takes revenge and has Amnon assassinated. Absalom flees to Geshur in [[Syria]]. Over time, Joab effects a seeming reconciliation between Absalom and David.
  
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;The appendix contains a fairly unorganised miscellany of information:
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[[Image:Joab-kills-absalom.jpg|thumb|Joab slays Absalom.]]
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*''[[Gibeon avenged]]''' (2 Samuel 21:1-14) - A famine arises which David blames on Saul having put many of the Gibeonites to death. David asks the Gibeonites what he should do as atonement, and they ask to dismember seven men from among Saul's descendants on Yahweh's mountain. David gives seven of Sauls descendants to them, and they are dismembered. [[Rizpah]], the mother of two of them, uses a sackcloth to protect the remains from scavengers, and so David collects the bones of Saul, Jonathon, and those of the seven, and buries them at the tomb of Kish. The famine consequently ends.
 
  
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*The '''[[Rephaim]]''' (2 Samuel 21:15-22) There are four battles against the Philistines, in each one a Rephaim being killed. [[Goliath]] (specified as the "brother of Goliath" in [[1 Chronicles]] 20:5) is one of these, and is killed by [[Elhanan]].  
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*'''Absalom's rebellion''' (15-16)—The handsome and charming Absalom builds up a following, eventually gaining enough supporters to move against David. Both Judahites and elements of the northern tribes rally to Absalom's cause, and David is forced to flee [[Jerusalem]]. Absalom's forces occupy the city, and Absalom displays his contempt for David by publicly having sex with the king's [[concubine]]s. With "all Israel" behind him, Absalom attacks David's forces, who have fled across the Jordan. During the battle, Absalom gets caught in a tree by his hair, where Joab—against David's wishes—kills him. David goes into a deep depression, but finally snaps out of it when Joab confronts him with his failure to act as a true king.
  
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*The '''[[Song of David]]''' (2 Samuel 22) - a psalm, which also constitutes Psalm 18, with minor variations, and involves an obscure reference to leaping over a wall, and another to Yahweh riding a Cherub.
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*'''The Rebellion of Sheba''' (2 Samuel 19-20)—The northern tribes, energized by Absalom's revolt, unite under a man named Sheba, against David. Apparently still angry with Joab for killing Absalom, David commands Amasa, who had supported Absalom, to command the army in the fight against Sheba. At ''the great stone'' in Gibeon, Amasa meets Joab, who stabs Amasa to death and drags his body to the side of the road. Joab then leads the army of Judah and besieges Sheba's Israelite forces at the town of Abel Beth-maachah. A ''wise woman'' parlays with Joab from the town walls and soon convinces the townspeople to cut off Sheba's head and throw it over the wall to Joab. Joab then returns to Jerusalem, the rebellion ends, and Joab is once again commander-in-chief of David's armies.
  
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*The '''[[Last words of David]]''' (2 Samuel 23:1-7) - an enigmatic poem purporting to be David's last words, but lacking context, ending abruptly, and occurring some way before David's death.
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The narrative is taken up again at the beginning of the [[Books of Kings]], after the insertion of the material in the following "appendix."
  
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*The '''[[Exploits of the Three and the Thirty]]''' (2 Samuel 23:8-24a) - Several warriors of David are listed, with a gloss covering some of their deeds. A significance is attached to ''the Thirty'' and ''the Three'', all the warriors being in at least one of these groups, with ''the Three'' being the more significant. The last part of the text is presumed lost, since after naming Ashahel it abruptly breaks off.
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==Appendix==
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The remainder of the second [[Book of Samuel]] consists of material that does not fit into the sequence of the above narrative. It is therefore considered as an appendix of related material inserted in the the scroll of 2 Samuel by later editors.
  
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*The '''[[The Thirty]]''' (2 Samuel 23:24b-39) - a list of ''the Thirty''. Despite the name of the group, 37 people are listed, and it is made explicit that there are 37. As 23:23-24 is ''...David put him in command of his bodyguard. Ashahel, brother of Joab. Among the thirty....''., the middle of verse 23:24 (between the words ''Joab'' and ''Among'') is generally presumed to have been lost.
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*'''Gibeon avenged''' (2 Samuel 21)—A three-year famine arises which [[Yahweh|God]] tells [[David]] is the result of [[Saul]] having put many of the Gibeonites to death. David asks the Gibeonites what he should do as atonement. In response to their request, David gives seven of Saul's descendants to them, sparing only Mephibosheth, and they are dismembered. Saul's concubine [[Rizpah]], the mother of two of them, uses a sackcloth to protect the remains from scavengers. David collects and buries the bones of Saul and Jonathan at the tomb of Kish. The famine consequently ends.<Ref>The story seems to be at odds with the earlier account in which David seeks to show kindness to Saul's house and is unaware of Mephibosheth.</ref>
  
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*The '''[[Census of David]]''' (2 Samuel 24:1-25). Yahweh becomes angry with the people and Satan tempts David to order a [[census]] (this story is also told in 1 Chronicles 21:1ff,). The census makes Yahweh angry, so Gad, the prophet, tells David that Yahweh has given David 3 options of punishment . David chooses the pestilence option, and so [[angel of death|an angel]] duly goes out and starts killing people. When the angel approaches Jerusalem, Yahweh commands the angel to stop. David buys the land where the angel halted from its owner, [[Araunah]], and builds an altar upon it.
+
*'''The Rephaim''' (2 Samuel 21:15-22)—Four battles against the [[Philistine]]s are described, each involving one of the giant sons of Rapha. [[Goliath]] is one of these, but he is killed by one of Judah's captains, Elhanan, not David. The king himself almost loses his life to a giant named Ishbi-Benob and is rescued by [[Joab]]'s brother, Abishai.<ref>This narrative fits well with the story of the Philistine victory over David's forces in the "valley of Rephaim," shortly after David's taking Jerusalem.</ref>
 +
 
 +
*The '''Song of David''' (2 Samuel 22)—David sings a victory song, which also constitutes much of Psalm 18. It describes Yahweh as a fire-breathing, lightening-hurling storm deity, who thunders from heaven, mounts the cherubim, and rides on the wind, much like the [[Canaan]]ite deity [[Baal]].
 +
 
 +
[[File:Benaiah by William Etty YORAG 70.JPG|thumb|250px|Benaiah, one of the Mighty Men.]]
 +
 
 +
*'''David's last words''' (2 Samuel 23:1-7)—This enigmatic poem purports to be David's last words. Its context, however, is unclear and it ends abruptly, well before David's later conversations and deathbed instructions given in 1 Kings.
 +
 
 +
*'''David's Mighty Men''' (2 Samuel 23:8-24)—Several warriors of David are listed, with a brief summary of some of their deeds. They are called ''the Thirty'' and ''the Three'', the latter being named as Josheb-Basshebeth, Eleazar son of Dodai, and Shammah son of Agee. Abishai the brother of Joab is named as chief of the Three. The list of the "Thirty" breaks off after Uriah the Hittite is named.
 +
 
 +
*'''The Census of David''' (2 Samuel 24). [[Yahweh]] becomes angry with the people and inspires David to order a [[census]]. <ref>In 1 Chronicles 21, it is not God who moves David to this action, but Satan.</ref>This, however, is a sin; and Gad, the [[prophet]], tells David that Yahweh has given David three options of punishment: famine, plague, or military defeat. David chooses the plague option. The plague is designated to last until "the end of the time." David buys the land on the spot where the angel of death has halted near Jerusalem, builds an altar upon it, and offers sacrifice. God then withdraws the plague.
  
 
==Authorship==
 
==Authorship==
−
Traditionally, the authors of the books of Samuel have been held to be [[Samuel (Bible)|Samuel]], [[Gad]], and [[Nathan]]. Samuel is believed to have penned the first twenty-four chapters of the first book. Gad, the companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), is believed to have continued the history thus commenced; and Nathan is believed to have completed it, probably arranging the whole in the form in which we now have it ([[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 29:29). 
+
Traditionally, the authors of the books of Samuel have been held to be the prophets [[Samuel]], Gad, and Nathan. Samuel is believed to have penned the first 24 chapters of the first book. Gad, a companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), is believed to have continued the history after Samuel's death; and Nathan is believed to have completed it. This scenario is based in [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 29:29, which states:
  
−
However, this theory is not supported by most modern scholars, who consider that the text is clearly not the work of men contemporary with the events chronicled. Even the Book of Chronicles explicitly refers to multiple source texts for the information, naming several. Roughly in the order they are believed to have been created historically, the sources that modern scholarship considers to have been interlaced to construct 1 & 2 Samuel are:
+
<blockquote>As for the events of King [[David]]'s reign, from beginning to end, they are written in the records of Samuel the seer, the records of Nathan the prophet and the records of Gad the seer.</blockquote>
−
*''Jerusalem source'': a fairly brief source briefly discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites
 
−
*''republican source'': a source with an anti-monarchial bias. This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual, chosen by God, to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul's court to calm his moods. Saul's son, Jonathon, takes a shine to David, which [[David and Jonathan|many commentators view as romantic]], and later acts as his protector against Saul's more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God, on the eve of battle, Saul find himself consulting the Witch of Endor, only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel's ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathon, tearing his clothes apart.
 
−
*''[[court history of David]]'' a very continuous source covering the history of David's kingship, and believed to be the source going by this name in the Book of Chronicles. This source continuously describes Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms, with David originally being king of Judah only. David conquers Israel, but Israel rebels under Absalom, identified as David's son, and David is forced into exile. Israel's forces attack David while he is in exile, but he wins, and Judah accompanies him back to Jerusalem. Israel makes another rebellion, but David lays siege to a city housing the leader, and wins.
 
−
*''sanctuaries source'': a short source which interrupts the narrative in order to recount an episode concerning the capture of the Ark by the Philistines, and their subsequent voluntary return of it. The source demonstrates a bias toward the viewpoint of the Kingdom of Israel.
 
−
*''monarchial source'': a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the ''republican source''. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel (many scholars think it originally referred to Saul, see below). It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites and hence being chosen by the people to be a king, leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging Goliath and defeating the Philistines. David's warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including Michal, Saul's daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible killed.
 
−
*''redactions'': additions by the redactor to harmonise the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this
 
−
*''various'': several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists.
 
  
−
The relationship between these sources is uncertain, though it is generally agreed that many of the various shorter sources were embedded into the larger ones before these were in turn [[redaction|redacted]] together. Though a slim majority of scholars disagree, many academics have proposed that several of the sources are continuations of others, such as the Jerusalem source, and royal source being in some way continuous with one another, and the prophetic source and sanctuaries source being likewise continuous with each other. Some, most recently [[Richard Elliott Friedman]], have proposed that the sources were originally parts of the same texts as the [[Elohist]], [[Yahwist]], and possibly [[Priestly source|Priestly]], sources of the [[Torah]], with the ''court history of David'' being considered part of the Yahwist text. What is definitely considered likely is that the [[deuteronomist]] is the one which redacted together these sources into the Books of Samuel.
+
However, this theory is not supported by most modern scholars, who consider that the text is clearly not contemporary with the events described. The sources that modern scholarship considers to have been interlaced to construct 1 & 2 Samuel are:
  
−
Currently, the verses attributed to these sources are:
+
*''The Republican Source'': a source with a strong anti-monarchial bias. This source enters the text in the description of Samuel, rather than [[Saul]], ridding the land of the [[Philistines]], and only begrudgingly appointing an individual, chosen by [[God]], to be king, namely Saul.
−
*''Jerusalem source'': 2 Samuel 5:6-16, 6:9-20
+
*''The Court History of David'': a document covering the history of David's kingship, and referred to explicitly in 1 Chronicles 27:24. This source continuously describes Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms, with David being the unchallenged king of Judah only. David conquers Saul's son [[Ish-bosheth]], but his reign there is not consolidated. Israel rebels under [[Abasalom]], and David is forced into exile. The army of Judah accompanies him back to [[Jerusalem]], but Israel rebels again under Sheba. Not until the reign of [[Solomon]] would the kingdoms be truly united, and that union lasted only one generation.
−
*''republican source'': 1 Samuel 9:1-10:16, 11:1-11, 11:15, 13:1-14:52, 16:14-23, 18:6-11, 18:20-27, 19:11-21:1, 21:11-16, 25:1b-25:43, 28:3-25, 31:1-13, 2 Samuel 1:1-5, 1:8-12, 2:1-3:1, 3:6-33a, 3:34b-5:2, 5:17-25, 21:15-22
+
*''The Monarchial Source'': a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the ''republican source''. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of "Samuel" (many scholars think this passage originally referred to [[Saul]]). It describes Saul as becoming king as a result of his leading a war against the [[Ammon]]ites. God's love for David and his promise to David's descendants are strong themes here, while there is no hint of God's disapproval of the kingship per se as in the "Republican Source."
−
*''court history of David'': 2 Samuel 9:1-20:26, 1 Kings 1:1-2:46
 
−
*''sanctuaries source'': 1 Samuel 4:1-7:1
 
−
*''monarchial source'': 1 Samuel 1:1-3:21, 8:1-22. 10:17-24, 17:1-18:5, 18:12-19, 18:28-19:10, 21:2-10, 22:1-23, 26:1-28:2, 29:1-30:31, 2 Samuel 1:6-7, 1:13-16
 
−
*''redactions'': 1 Samuel 2:27-36, 7:2b-16, 11:12-14, 12:1-25, 15:1-35, 2 Samuel 7:1-29
 
−
*''various'': 2 Samuel 1:17-27; 3:2-5; 3:33b-34a; 22:1-51; 23:1-7; 23:8-24a; 23:24b-39; 24:1-25
 
−
*''uncertain'': 1 Samuel 7:2a, 7:17, 10:25-27, 16:1-13, 23:1-25:1a, 2 Samuel 6:1-8, 6:21-23, 8:1-18, 21:1-14
 
  
−
Within these, there are sometimes what appear to be very minor redactions. For example, 1 Samuel 1:20 explains that Samuel is so called because his mother had ''asked'' Yahweh for him; however ''Samuel'' means ''name of God'', and it is ''Saul'' that means ''asked''; this has suggested to many biblical critics that the narrative originally concerned Saul at this point, a later editor substituting Samuel's name. There are also several points in the [[masoretic text]] that appear more obviously corrupted in comparison to the [[septuagint]] version.
+
*''The Sanctuaries Source'': a relatively short source dealing mainly with the capture of the Ark—here described as residing at [[Shiloh]]—by the Philistines, and their subsequent voluntary return of it.
 +
*''The Jerusalem source'': a fairly short source briefly discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the [[Jebus]]ites.
 +
*''Redactions'': additions by the redactor to harmonize the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this.
 +
*''Various'': several short sources, which have little connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Examples include, genealogies, lists of military officers, poems, and the "appendix" material.  
  
−
==Tribes and peoples==
+
The relationship between these sources is uncertain, though it is generally agreed that many of the various shorter sources were embedded into the larger ones before these were in turn [[redaction|redacted]] together. Based on the [[documentary hypothesis]], some—most recently Richard Elliott Friedman—have proposed that the sources were originally parts of the same texts as the [[Elohist]], [[Yahwist]], and possibly [[Priestly source|Priestly]] sources of the [[Torah]]. The priestly source, for example, is thought to correlate to the Republican Source, while the Yahwist source correlates to Court History of David. Many scholars believe the [[Deuteronomist]], or those associated with him, is the one who redacted together these sources into the Books of Samuel.  
−
Although most traditional interpretations of Jewish history view the ''Israelites'' as the ancestors of both the Kingdom of Israel and that of Judah, which arose only after David's rule, and ''Hebrews'' as an alternative name for them, the text makes a strong distinction between ''Hebrews'', ''Judahites'', and ''Israelites'':
 
−
*''Israelites'' consistently refers to Saul's forces. It also is used to refer to the supporters of the rebellions against David's reign, in contrast to his supportes.
 
−
*''Judahites'' consistently refers to David's supporters during the rebellions against his rule, in contrast to the rebels.
 
−
*''Hebrews'' is consistently used to designate a group that are separate and distinct to the ''Israelites'' and ''Judahites'', and who sometimes take the side of the Philistines against those of Israel and Judah. It is weakly associated with Jonathan initially, and then more strongly with David's band of outlaws.
 
  
−
An additional curiosity is that none of the three terms are ever described as representing groups which were ever part of one another, suggesting that Israel, Judah, and the Hebrews, had always been three distinct groups, rather than divisions that arose from a once united peoples.
+
A suggested assignment of the verses to these sources, in their supposed historical order, is:
 +
*''Jerusalem Source'': 2 Samuel 5:6-16, 6:9-20
 +
*''Republican Source'': 1 Samuel 9:1-10:16, 11:1-11, 11:15, 13:1-14:52, 16:14-23, 18:6-11, 18:20-27, 19:11-21:1, 21:11-16, 25:1b-25:43, 28:3-25, 31:1-13, 2 Samuel 1:1-5, 1:8-12, 2:1-3:1, 3:6-33a, 3:34b-5:2, 5:17-25, 21:15-22
 +
*''Court History of David'': 2 Samuel 9:1-20:26, 1 Kings 1:1-2:46
 +
*''Sanctuaries Source'': 1 Samuel 4:1-7:1
 +
*''Monarchial Source'': 1 Samuel 1:1-3:21, 8:1-22. 10:17-24, 17:1-18:5, 18:12-19, 18:28-19:10, 21:2-10, 22:1-23, 26:1-28:2, 29:1-30:31, 2 Samuel 1:6-7, 1:13-16
 +
*''Redactions'': 1 Samuel 2:27-36, 7:2b-16, 11:12-14, 12:1-25, 15:1-35, 2 Samuel 7:1-29
 +
*''Various'': 2 Samuel 1:17-27; 3:2-5; 3:33b-34a; 22:1-51; 23:1-7; 23:8-24a; 23:24b-39; 24:1-25
 +
*''Uncertain'': 1 Samuel 7:2a, 7:17, 10:25-27, 16:1-13, 23:1-25:1a, 2 Samuel 6:1-8, 6:21-23, 8:1-18, 21:1-14
  
−
When referring to the northern tribes of Israel, [[Gilead]] and [[Jezreel]] are listed amongst three other tribes, rather than being treated strictly as locations. In accordance with evidence of this kind elsewhere, all attributed by scholars to the earliest sources, such as in the [[Song of Deborah]], some scholars have concluded that the tribal system wasn't rigidly the 12 tribes now referred to as '''the''' [[tribes of Israel]], but actually evolved over a period of time. The different tribal structures being visible by virtue of the different dates of sources hypothesised under textual criticism. The four following aspects are usually amongst such proposals:
+
==Notes==
−
*Gilead, Jezreel, and Joseph were originally three tribes in the confederation
+
<references/>
−
*Jezreel later split into [[Zebulon]] and [[Issachar]]
 
−
*Gilead later split into [[Machir]], [[Gad]], and [[Reuben]]
 
−
*Machir later merged with part of Joseph to form [[Manasseh]], while the other part split off to become [[Ephraim]]
 
  
−
== Trivia ==
+
==References==
−
Samuel himself does not appear in the Second Book of Samuel.
+
* Bright, John. ''A History of Israel''. Westminster John Knox Press; 4th edition, 2000. ISBN 0664220681
−
 
+
* Dever, William G. ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?'' William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0802809758
−
==In Islam==
+
* Finkelstein, Israel, and David Silberman. ''David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition''. New York: Free Press (Simon and Schuster), 2006. ISBN 0743243625
−
The [[Qur'an]] also contains elements of the books of Samuel. The stories of David and Goliath and the appointment of King Saul are told (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
+
* Friedman, Richard E. ''Who Wrote The Bible?'' Harper and Row, 1987. ISBN 0060630353
 +
* Grant, Michael. ''The History of Ancient Israel''. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1984. ISBN 0684180812
 +
*Keller, Werner. ''The Bible as History''. Bantam, 1983. ISBN 0553279432
 +
* Kirsch, Jonathan. ''King David: the real life of the man who ruled Israel''. Hendersonville, TN: Ballantine, 2000. ISBN 0345432754.
 +
* Laymon, Charles M. ''The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible''. Abingdon Press, 1971. {{ASIN|B000J53AMG}}
 +
* Mazar, Amihai. ''The Archeology of the Land of the Bible.'' Anchor, 1992. ISBN 978-0385425902
 +
* Miller, J. Maxwell. ''A History of Ancient Israel and Judah''. Westminster John Knox Press, 1986. ISBN 066421262X
 +
* Pinsky, Robert. ''The Life of David''. New York: Schocken, 2005. ISBN 0805242031
 +
* Rosenberg, David. ''The Book of David: A New Story of the Spiritual Warrior and Leader Who Shaped Our Inner Consciousness''. New York: Harmony, 1997. ISBN 0517708000
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
{{wikisource|wikisource:Bible (King James)/1 Samuel|1 Samuel}}
+
All links retrieved November 20, 2023.
−
{{wikisource|wikisource:Bible (King James)/2 Samuel|2 Samuel}}
 
−
*[[Masoretic text]]:
 
−
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a01.htm שמואל א ''Shmuel Aleph'' - Samuel A] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
 
−
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08b01.htm שמואל ב ''Shmuel Bet'' - Samuel B] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
 
−
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
 
−
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et08a01.htm 1 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
 
−
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et08b01.htm 2 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
 
−
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15751 Shmuel I - Samuel I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
 
−
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15752 Shmuel II - Samuel II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
 
−
*[[Christian]] translations:
 
−
**[http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=1Sam+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org]
 
−
** [http://biblefu.com/1_Samuel/1.html ''1 Samuel'' at BibleFu] (King James Version)
 
−
** [http://biblefu.com/2_Samuel/1.html ''2 Samuel'' at The Great Books] (King James Version)
 
−
 
 
−
*Related articles:
 
−
** [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=131&letter=S&search=Samuel ''Books of Samuel'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
 
  
−
{{eastons}}
+
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15751 Translation with Rashi's commentary] – ''www.Chabad.org''
 +
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=131&letter=S&search=Samuel Books of Samuel] – ''Jewish Encyclopedia''.
  
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{{Books of the Bible}}
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[[Category:Bible]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
{{Credit|126770431}}
 
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Latest revision as of 19:27, 20 November 2023

Books of the

Hebrew Bible

The Books of Samuel (Hebrew: ספר שמואל—Sefer Sh'muel) , are part of the Hebrew Bible), or Old Testament. They deal with beginnings of the Hebrew kingdoms of Israel and Judah in the eleventh century, B.C.E.. The main characters in the story are Samuel, Saul, David, and God. The plot traces Samuel's birth and ministry as Israel's last and greatest judge, the anointing and rise of Saul as Israel's first king, the rejection of Saul by God and Samuel, the rise of David, the struggle between Saul and David, the consolidation of David's kingdom after Saul's death, and various intrigues and rebellions within David's realm.

The Books of Samuel originally formed a single text, which probably continued through the first chapters of the current Books of Kings. Due to limitations in the lengths of texts that could be contained in a single scroll, however, they had to be divided. The translators who created the Greek Septuagint version of the Bible divided the text of Samuel and Kings into four books, which they named the Books of the Kingdoms. In the Latin Vulgate version, this was rendered as the Books of the Kings. Thus, the books known today as 1 and 2 Samuel were 1 and 2 Kings, while today's Books of Kings were called 3 and 4 Kings. The modern English designations of Samuel and Kings began with the King James Bible.

While the traditional authorship of the Books of Samuel is ascribed primarily to Samuel himself modern scholarship generally believes that several later sources, some with contradictory views of events, were combined into the books as we have them today.

David holds Goliath's head aloft.

The contents of the books

The two books can be essentially broken down into five parts:

  • The period of Yahweh's rejection of Eli, Samuel's birth, and his subsequent leadership of Israel (1 Samuel 1:1-7:17)
  • Samuel's interaction with Saul and the early kingship of Saul (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35)
  • Saul's later kingship and interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1-2 Samuel 1:27)
  • David's reign, the civil war between Judah and Israel, the intrigues of David's family, and the rebellions against his kingship (2 Samuel 2:1-20:22)
  • An appendix of extra material concerning David inserted out of sequence with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 22:1-24:25)

The story weaves the sagas of three separate leaders together, and there is evidence of several sources at work even in telling. For example, the story of Saul's emergence as king is told in three different versions. [1] In addition to combining the stories of Samuel, Saul, and David, the sources display their own theological viewpoints, some strongly opposed to the institution of kingship, others favoring it as a divinely ordained office.

The conclusion of the story begun in the Books of Samuel actually appears in 1 Kings 1-2, dealing with David's old age, the rebellion of Adonijah, Solomon's enthronement, and his enacting a final revenge against David's perceived enemies. The time period and general subject matter of the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in the Books of Chronicles. However this material is less detailed, and many of the stories embarrassing to David, such as the account of his affair with Bathsheba, the civil war with Ish-bosheth, and the rebellion of Absalom, are omitted in that account.

Samuel's birth and ministry

  • Story of Hannah (1 Samuel 1)—Hannah, the wife of Elkanah, is childless. She makes a pilgrimage to Shiloh, where she vows that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to Yahweh. The priest of Shiloh, Eli, blesses her, and the child Samuel is soon born. In The Song of Hannah (1 Samuel 2:1-10), Hannah pronounces a poem concerning Yahweh's magnificence that has strong similarities to the later Magnificat of Mary. After weaning Samuel, Hannah brings him to Eli at Shiloh to be raised there, visiting only once a year.
  • Eli and his sons (1 Samuel 2)—Eli's sons, Hophni and Phinehas, are also priests at Shiloh, but they abuse their position for personal gain. A prophet tells Eli that because he has failed to prevent his sons from misusing their holy offices, Yahweh has revoked his promise of perpetual priesthood for his family. Eli's sons will die, both on the same day. God will raise up a new priest, "who will do according to what is in my heart and mind."
  • The Call of Samuel (1 Samuel 3)—The boy Samuel hears God's voice in the night and confuses it for Eli's. The old priest teaches him how to respond to God's call and receive His message. The prophecy that Samuel makes, however, is a dire one: Eli's lineage will perish, for "The guilt of Eli's house will never be atoned for by sacrifice or offering." Samuel grows up and develops a powerful reputation "from Dan to Beersheba" because of the revelations given to him at Shiloh by Yahweh.
  • The Philistine captures the Ark (1 Samuel 4)—The Israelites attack the Philistines at Aphek but are defeated, losing 4,000 men. They decide to gain God's support by bringing the Ark of the Covenant from Shiloh. Nevertheless, when the Philistines attack the Israelite camp at Ebenezer, they prevail and capture the Ark. During the battle, Hophni and Phinehas, attending the Ark, are slain. In Shiloh, Eli hears the news of the battle and falls over in his chair, breaking his neck and dying. His daughter-in-law, Phinehas' wife, goes into labor prematurely and dies after giving birth to a son named Ichabod (without glory).
Samuel calls upon God at Mizpah.
  • The Ark among the Philistines (1 Samuel 5-6)—The Philistines take the Ark to Ashdod and place it in the temple of Dagon. The next morning, the statue of Dagon is found prostrate before it. The Philistines set it upright but it is found in pieces the next day. Ashdod falls victim to a plague. The ark is next sent Gath, and then to Ekron, both of which are similarly struck with a plague. On the advice of priests and diviners, the Philistines determine that the plague is no accident and decide to put the Ark on a cow-driven cart and send it off, driverless, toward Israelite territory. It arrives at Beth Shemesh and the locals celebrate. Yahweh, however, kills 70 of the town's residents for daring to look into the sacred vessel. The men of Beth Shemesh ask the people of Kiriath-Jearim to collect the ark, which they do, taking it to the house of Abinadab, where it remains for 20 years.
  • The battle of Ebenezer (1 Samuel 7)—Samuel calls the Israelites to repentance and intercedes for the nation at Mizpah. The Philistines attack, but Samuel appeals to Yahweh, and so the Philistines are decisively beaten. Samuel sets up a stone pillar at Ebenezer in memory. The Israelites then recapture the towns and villages between the Philistine strongholds of Ekron and Gath. Thus freed from concerns to the west, the Israelites are also able to make peace with the Amorites to the east.

The rise of Saul

Samuel blesses Saul at the high place near Zuph.
  • The appointment of Saul (1 Samuel 8-10)—In Samuel's old age, he appoints his sons, Joel and Abijah, as judges at Beersheba. Much like Eli's sons, however, but they don't follow their father's example. The people clamor for a king. God begrudgingly accedes to their wish and commands Samuel to comply. Meanwhile, the Benjaminie Saul is searching for his father's donkeys. When he reaches Zuph, he seeks out the local "seer," who turns out to be Samuel. The two eat a sacrificial meal together at the high place. Samuel realizes that Saul is the man that Yahweh has chosen to be king, and the next day, anoints him. On the way home, Saul meets a band of ecstatic prophets descending from the high place at Gibeah. Infected by their music and dancing, "the Spirit of God came upon him in power." This leads to the slogan: Is Saul also among the Prophets?[2]
  • Saul becomes king (1 Samuel 10)—In what may be a second version of the story of Saul's identification as king, the Israelites gather at Mizpah, where Samuel delivers a sermon preparing the people for the kingship. He is clearly unhappy about the situation, and sees their demand for a king as a rejection of God's leadership.[3] In this story, Saul is not identified by Samuel, but is chosen by lot. Saul, hiding himself in the baggage, seems an unlikely choice except for his height. The people duly shout "Long live the king!" but there is also evidence of division as some in the congregation doubt Saul's abilities. After the ceremonies, nothing much seems to have changed; and everyone, including Saul, simply returns home and lives as before.
  • Saul rescues Jabesh-gilead (1 Samuel 11)—The third story of Saul's rise to kingship follows the typical pattern of the Book of Judges, in which a tribal hero emerges through military victory. Saul is home plowing his fields when the Ammonite king, Nahash, lays siege to Jabesh-gilead. Hearing of their plight, Saul slaughters his oxen and sends the pieces to each of the Israelite tribes, calling on them to join him in an attack on Nahash.[4] Saul consequently gathers an army and attacks the Ammonites and Nahash, obliterating his army. The people take this as evidence of Saul's ability to lead, and so consequently they are told by Samuel to confirm him as king at the sacred high place of Gilgal, which they do.

Saul's fall from grace

Map of Israel and Judah, with Mizpah, Gilgal, Gath, and Carmel highlighted. Click to enlarge.
  • Saul's rejection at Gilgal (1 Samuel 12-14)—Samuel gives his "farewell speech." The Philistines assemble for a major battle, and Saul waits at Gilgal in accordance with Samuel's instructions, for seven days. After Samuel fails to arrive at the appointed time, Saul's troops begin to desert, so Saul offers a sacrifice. Samuel turns up and castigates Saul for not waiting, telling him that as a result of Saul's sin, his kingdom will not will last.[5]Jonathan emerges as a successful battle leader with strong popular support among the troops. God has not abandoned Saul altogether, as he and Jonathan put the Philistines to flight.
  • Saul and the Amalekites. (1 Samuel 15)—Samuel apparently changes his mind about Saul and conveys a message from God commanding Saul to exterminate the Amalekites. Saul devastates them, killing all the Amalekite men, women and children, but does not slaughter the choicest animals, and captures the king, Agag, alive. Saul also erects a victory monument at Mount Carmel, but Samuel berates him for not carrying out the mass extermination of the Amalekites and their cattle completely. Saul repents, pleading that it was merely his intention to offer the animals as a sacrifice to Yahweh, and begs Samuel to stay with him. Samuel refuses and leaves, but Saul grabs at him, tearing part of Samuel's mantel. Samuel declares that Saul's kingdom will likewise be torn from him and given to another. However, Samuel agrees to accompany Saul back to Gilgal, where Samuel kills Agag himself, by hacking him into pieces. Samuel and Saul then part company permanently.

The emergence of David

  • David's rise from obscurity (1 Samuel 16-17)—Samuel is told by God to go to Bethlehem, to find a replacement for Saul. There he anoints David, a shepherd and youngest son of Jesse. Yahweh sends an evil spirit to torment Saul, so Saul's servants try to find a harpist to sooth his temper. David, who is skilled with the harp, is thus brought to court and becomes Saul's armor-bearer. The Philistines rally against Israel, putting forth the giant Goliath of Gath as their champion. David, who is bringing provisions to his brothers in Israel's army, speaks against Goliath to his brothers, and Saul overhears him.[6] David persuades the reluctant Saul to let him challenge Goliath. David kills the giant with a single stone from his sling and cuts of his head with the Goliath's own sword. The fleeing Philistines are slaughtered by the Israelites all the way back to Gath.
  • David in Saul's court (1 Samuel 18-20)—Jonathan, Saul's son, befriends David, who becomes known as a promising military commander. Women sing David's praises: "Saul has killed his thousands, and David his tens of thousands." Saul grows jealous of David. Seeking to send the young upstart to his death, Saul offers his daughter Michal to him in exchange for 100 foreskins of the Philistines. David, with the aid of his fighting men, returns with double this number, and so weds Michal. Saul, however, now overtly seeks David's life. Both Michal and Jonathan refuse to cooperate with their father's plans, and thus David is spared through their help.
  • The priests of Nob (1 Samuel 21-22)—David flees to Ahimelech, priest of Nob, who aids him by giving him sanctified bread as well as the sword of Goliath. Saul's henchman, Doeg the Edomite, however, witnesses this and informs Saul. Saul confronts Ahimilech and insanely orders Doeg to slay him together with 85 priests. Only Ahimelech's son, Abiathar, escapes to tell David.
  • Saul's pursuit of David (1 Samuel 22-23)—David has fled to the cave of Adullam, where he amasses a band of outlaws like himself. He leaves his parents in the care of the king of Moab. The prophet Gad tells him to flee, so David moves to the forest of Hereth. David rescues the people of Keilah from the Philistines, but Saul hears of it and sets out against him. Saul chases David into a gorge, but is forced to break off pursuit when the Philistines invade elsewhere and he must fight them.
  • David's reconciliation with Saul (1 Samuel 24-25, 26). David hides in the caves near Engedi, and Saul pursues him. Saul enters the cave where David hides, and David sneaks up on him and cuts off the end of his mantle while the king is "relieving himself." David shows himself and convinces Saul that he is not a threat. Samuel meanwhile, dies and is buried, mourned by "all Israel." A second version of the above story is also given, in which David is hiding at Hachilah. Saul searches for him, but David sneaks into camp at night and steals his spear. David leaves the camp and calls out to Saul, once again seeming to convince the king that he is no threat.
  • Abigail (1 Samuel 25)—David's men seek hospitality from Nabal, who owns property in Carmel, but Nabal is miserly and refuses. Angered, David prepares to slaughter Nabal and his clan. However, Nabal's clever and pretty wife, Abigail, brings David provisions, urging him not to take vengeance, prophesying great things for him, and convincing him to relent. Nabal is soon struck dead by Yahweh and Abigail becomes David's wife. David also marries Ahinoam of Jezreel. Meanwhile, Michal, his original wife, is transferred by Saul to another man.
  • A vassal of Achish (27-29)—David offers his services as a mercenary to the Philistine king of Gath, Achish. David is careful not to attack Israelite settlements, but convinces Achish otherwise. Achish trusts him implicitly, and so requests that David join him in a major attack on Jezreel, against the army of Saul. The Philistines encamp against the Israelites, but some of Achish's captains are uneasy about David's presence. Achish reluctantly agrees to bar David from the fight.[7]

The end of Saul

The medium of Endor contacts the spirit of Samuel, who predicts Saul's doom.
  • The Medium of Endor (1 Samuel 28)—Saul sees the Philistines massing against him and is disheartened. He tries to consult God for advice but receives no reply. Although he banned necromancy, Saul disguises himself and goes to a medium at Endor. He asks her to bring up the spirit of Samuel from the dead, which she does. The ghost of Samuel admonishes Saul for disturbing him and tells him again that because of Saul's failure to destroy all of the Amalekites and their cattle, God will by no means support him. Saul is deeply shaken.
  • David avenges Ziklag (1 Samuel 30)—Ziklag, the town given to David by the Philistine king, is burnt to the ground by the Amalekites. They, however, do not massacre the women and children of the settlement, taking them captive instead, including David's wives. David and his men set off in pursuit, finally slaughtering all but 400 of the raiders and recovering David's property and wives. David also gains substantial additional spoil, which he shares with his followers, sending a portion to the elders of each of Judah's cities.[8]
  • The death of Saul and Jonathan (1 Samuel 33 to 2 Samuel 1)—The Philistines attack the Israelites at Gilboa, inflicting a mortal wound on Saul and killing Jonathan and two of Saul's other sons. Saul asks his armor bearer to finish him off, but he refuses, so Saul falls on his own sword. The Philistines cut the bodies of Saul and his sons into pieces, displaying them on the wall of Beth Shan. However, the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead later rescue the bodies, cremating them and burying the bones with honor. An Amalekite comes to David and informs him that Saul and Jonathan are dead. The Amalekite boasts that he himself put Saul out of his misery. David orders the messenger's immediate execution and sings a hymn of eulogy to Saul and Jonathan.

David, King of Judah

Ish-bosheth's men, under Abner, battle David's forces, under Joab.
  • Ish-boseth (2 Samuel 2-5)—David is anointed king of Judah in Hebron. Saul's son, Ish-bosheth, also called Ishbaal, reigns as Saul's successor over the Israel. Warfare breaks out on a small scale when Ish-bosheth's general, Abner, and David's general, Joab, confront each other at Gibeon. Joab's brother Ashael sets out after Abner, who seeks to avoid combat but finally kills his pursuer. A substantial battle follows, and a long civil war between Judah and Israel ensues, lasting about seven years. Abner eventually has a falling out with Ish-bosheth and decides to change sides. He brings Michal back to David and promises to deliver the whole of the tribe of Benjamin and other northern elements to David's cause. Joab, however, puts an end to Abner's plan when he avenges his brother's death by murdering the northern general. David curses Joab for this, but does not demote him for his crime. Instead, he sings a eulogy to Abner and buries him with honor. Soon Ish-bosheth is assassinated in his sleep by two of his captains. Seeking a reward from David, they cut off their king's head and take it to David at Hebron, where, consistent with his prior behavior, he rewards them by having them executed. This does not prevent him, however, from reaping the benefit of their deed. Still headquartered in Hebron, David is anointed King of Israel. A list of the sons of David born at Hebron and Jerusalem is given in 2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:13-16.
  • Jerusalem (2 Samuel 5-7)—David sets out for the Jebusite stronghold of Jerusalem and, with Joab in the lead, succeeds in capturing the city. Hiram, king of Tyre, sends master craftsmen to David to build him a palace. The Philistines attack, overrunning the valley of Rephaim, but David defeats them at a place that David names Baal-perazim. A second attack by the Philistines is defeated when David, advised by Yahweh, approaches via the rear, routing the attackers. David then orders that the Ark of the Covenant be moved to Jerusalem. However, it becomes unsteady during transport and a man called Uzzah, who succeeds in steadying it, is struck dead by Yahweh for touching the taboo object. David despairs and decides to leave the Ark at the house of a man named Obed-edom. There it remains for three months until David brings it to Jerusalem with great ceremony and celebration. David's ecstatic dancing during the procession, however, prompts Michal to castigate him for exposing himself, resulting in a permanent estrangement between her and David.[9] David inquires of the prophet Nathan whether the Ark—which serves as the throne of Yahweh—should be housed in grander settings. Nathan at first approves of the plan, but soon receives a revelation in which Yahweh informs him that not David, but one of his sons, will be the one to build a temple for the God of Israel.
  • David's vassal states (2 Samuel 8)—David attacks the Philistines, taking some of their territory. He then defeats Moab and executes two thirds of its male population, making Moab a vassal. He then defeats and subjugates "Hadadezer of Zobah" and his Syrian (Aramean) allies. King Toi (or Tou) of Hamath becomes a willing tributary to David. Finally, David becomes famous for slaughtering 18,000 Edomites, after which he stations garrisons in Edom to ensure their compliance with his orders. A list of officers in David's court is given in 2 Samuel 8:16-18 and 20:23-26.
  • Mephi-bosheth (2 Samuel 9)—Jonathan had a son named Mephi-bosheth or Meribbaal, crippled in both feet, who was five-years-old when Jonathan and Saul were killed. David shows Meribbaal "kindness," by recognizing his rights to Saul's personal lands and letting him dine at the royal table—thus in effect keeping him under house arrest.[10]
  • War with the Ammonites (2 Samuel 10)—The king of the Ammonites dies, and David sends messengers to express condolences. However, they are interpreted as spies, insulted, and sent away. The Ammonites and their allies, including the formerly subdued Arameans, then prepare for war. Joab splits David's army into two groups, one to attack the Aramaeans, and one to attack the Ammonites.

A troubled later-reign

  • Bathsheba (11-12)—David sends his army to besiege the Ammonites at Rabbah. Among the leaders of the assault are Joab and Uriahthe Hittite. David falls in love with Uriah's beautiful wife, Bathsheba, and impregnates her. He attempts to cover his sin by having Uriah return and sleep with Bathsheba. When he declines to take such comfort while his troops are in the field, David conspires with Joab to place Uriah in harm's way, and Uriah consequently dies in battle. David marries Bathsheba, but is later confronted by the prophet Nathan for his offense. David repents, but Bathsheba's son nevertheless dies as punishment. A second son is then born to them, Solomon. After Joab has brought Rabbah to the verge of conquest, David rides out to lead the victory, and the bejewelled crown of Milcom is given to David.
  • The rape of Tamar (13:1-14:33)—David's son, Amnon, becomes lovesick for his half-sister, Tamar. Feigning illness, he persuades Tamar to feed him at his bedside, rapes her, and immediately rejects her. Tamar complains to her brother, Absalom, but David does not punish Amnon. Two years later, Absalom takes revenge and has Amnon assassinated. Absalom flees to Geshur in Syria. Over time, Joab effects a seeming reconciliation between Absalom and David.
Joab slays Absalom.
  • Absalom's rebellion (15-16)—The handsome and charming Absalom builds up a following, eventually gaining enough supporters to move against David. Both Judahites and elements of the northern tribes rally to Absalom's cause, and David is forced to flee Jerusalem. Absalom's forces occupy the city, and Absalom displays his contempt for David by publicly having sex with the king's concubines. With "all Israel" behind him, Absalom attacks David's forces, who have fled across the Jordan. During the battle, Absalom gets caught in a tree by his hair, where Joab—against David's wishes—kills him. David goes into a deep depression, but finally snaps out of it when Joab confronts him with his failure to act as a true king.
  • The Rebellion of Sheba (2 Samuel 19-20)—The northern tribes, energized by Absalom's revolt, unite under a man named Sheba, against David. Apparently still angry with Joab for killing Absalom, David commands Amasa, who had supported Absalom, to command the army in the fight against Sheba. At the great stone in Gibeon, Amasa meets Joab, who stabs Amasa to death and drags his body to the side of the road. Joab then leads the army of Judah and besieges Sheba's Israelite forces at the town of Abel Beth-maachah. A wise woman parlays with Joab from the town walls and soon convinces the townspeople to cut off Sheba's head and throw it over the wall to Joab. Joab then returns to Jerusalem, the rebellion ends, and Joab is once again commander-in-chief of David's armies.

The narrative is taken up again at the beginning of the Books of Kings, after the insertion of the material in the following "appendix."

Appendix

The remainder of the second Book of Samuel consists of material that does not fit into the sequence of the above narrative. It is therefore considered as an appendix of related material inserted in the the scroll of 2 Samuel by later editors.

  • Gibeon avenged (2 Samuel 21)—A three-year famine arises which God tells David is the result of Saul having put many of the Gibeonites to death. David asks the Gibeonites what he should do as atonement. In response to their request, David gives seven of Saul's descendants to them, sparing only Mephibosheth, and they are dismembered. Saul's concubine Rizpah, the mother of two of them, uses a sackcloth to protect the remains from scavengers. David collects and buries the bones of Saul and Jonathan at the tomb of Kish. The famine consequently ends.[11]
  • The Rephaim (2 Samuel 21:15-22)—Four battles against the Philistines are described, each involving one of the giant sons of Rapha. Goliath is one of these, but he is killed by one of Judah's captains, Elhanan, not David. The king himself almost loses his life to a giant named Ishbi-Benob and is rescued by Joab's brother, Abishai.[12]
  • The Song of David (2 Samuel 22)—David sings a victory song, which also constitutes much of Psalm 18. It describes Yahweh as a fire-breathing, lightening-hurling storm deity, who thunders from heaven, mounts the cherubim, and rides on the wind, much like the Canaanite deity Baal.
Benaiah, one of the Mighty Men.
  • David's last words (2 Samuel 23:1-7)—This enigmatic poem purports to be David's last words. Its context, however, is unclear and it ends abruptly, well before David's later conversations and deathbed instructions given in 1 Kings.
  • David's Mighty Men (2 Samuel 23:8-24)—Several warriors of David are listed, with a brief summary of some of their deeds. They are called the Thirty and the Three, the latter being named as Josheb-Basshebeth, Eleazar son of Dodai, and Shammah son of Agee. Abishai the brother of Joab is named as chief of the Three. The list of the "Thirty" breaks off after Uriah the Hittite is named.
  • The Census of David (2 Samuel 24). Yahweh becomes angry with the people and inspires David to order a census. [13]This, however, is a sin; and Gad, the prophet, tells David that Yahweh has given David three options of punishment: famine, plague, or military defeat. David chooses the plague option. The plague is designated to last until "the end of the time." David buys the land on the spot where the angel of death has halted near Jerusalem, builds an altar upon it, and offers sacrifice. God then withdraws the plague.

Authorship

Traditionally, the authors of the books of Samuel have been held to be the prophets Samuel, Gad, and Nathan. Samuel is believed to have penned the first 24 chapters of the first book. Gad, a companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), is believed to have continued the history after Samuel's death; and Nathan is believed to have completed it. This scenario is based in 1 Chronicles 29:29, which states:

As for the events of King David's reign, from beginning to end, they are written in the records of Samuel the seer, the records of Nathan the prophet and the records of Gad the seer.

However, this theory is not supported by most modern scholars, who consider that the text is clearly not contemporary with the events described. The sources that modern scholarship considers to have been interlaced to construct 1 & 2 Samuel are:

  • The Republican Source: a source with a strong anti-monarchial bias. This source enters the text in the description of Samuel, rather than Saul, ridding the land of the Philistines, and only begrudgingly appointing an individual, chosen by God, to be king, namely Saul.
  • The Court History of David: a document covering the history of David's kingship, and referred to explicitly in 1 Chronicles 27:24. This source continuously describes Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms, with David being the unchallenged king of Judah only. David conquers Saul's son Ish-bosheth, but his reign there is not consolidated. Israel rebels under Abasalom, and David is forced into exile. The army of Judah accompanies him back to Jerusalem, but Israel rebels again under Sheba. Not until the reign of Solomon would the kingdoms be truly united, and that union lasted only one generation.
  • The Monarchial Source: a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the republican source. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of "Samuel" (many scholars think this passage originally referred to Saul). It describes Saul as becoming king as a result of his leading a war against the Ammonites. God's love for David and his promise to David's descendants are strong themes here, while there is no hint of God's disapproval of the kingship per se as in the "Republican Source."
  • The Sanctuaries Source: a relatively short source dealing mainly with the capture of the Ark—here described as residing at Shiloh—by the Philistines, and their subsequent voluntary return of it.
  • The Jerusalem source: a fairly short source briefly discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites.
  • Redactions: additions by the redactor to harmonize the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this.
  • Various: several short sources, which have little connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Examples include, genealogies, lists of military officers, poems, and the "appendix" material.

The relationship between these sources is uncertain, though it is generally agreed that many of the various shorter sources were embedded into the larger ones before these were in turn redacted together. Based on the documentary hypothesis, some—most recently Richard Elliott Friedman—have proposed that the sources were originally parts of the same texts as the Elohist, Yahwist, and possibly Priestly sources of the Torah. The priestly source, for example, is thought to correlate to the Republican Source, while the Yahwist source correlates to Court History of David. Many scholars believe the Deuteronomist, or those associated with him, is the one who redacted together these sources into the Books of Samuel.

A suggested assignment of the verses to these sources, in their supposed historical order, is:

  • Jerusalem Source: 2 Samuel 5:6-16, 6:9-20
  • Republican Source: 1 Samuel 9:1-10:16, 11:1-11, 11:15, 13:1-14:52, 16:14-23, 18:6-11, 18:20-27, 19:11-21:1, 21:11-16, 25:1b-25:43, 28:3-25, 31:1-13, 2 Samuel 1:1-5, 1:8-12, 2:1-3:1, 3:6-33a, 3:34b-5:2, 5:17-25, 21:15-22
  • Court History of David: 2 Samuel 9:1-20:26, 1 Kings 1:1-2:46
  • Sanctuaries Source: 1 Samuel 4:1-7:1
  • Monarchial Source: 1 Samuel 1:1-3:21, 8:1-22. 10:17-24, 17:1-18:5, 18:12-19, 18:28-19:10, 21:2-10, 22:1-23, 26:1-28:2, 29:1-30:31, 2 Samuel 1:6-7, 1:13-16
  • Redactions: 1 Samuel 2:27-36, 7:2b-16, 11:12-14, 12:1-25, 15:1-35, 2 Samuel 7:1-29
  • Various: 2 Samuel 1:17-27; 3:2-5; 3:33b-34a; 22:1-51; 23:1-7; 23:8-24a; 23:24b-39; 24:1-25
  • Uncertain: 1 Samuel 7:2a, 7:17, 10:25-27, 16:1-13, 23:1-25:1a, 2 Samuel 6:1-8, 6:21-23, 8:1-18, 21:1-14

Notes

  1. ↑ Biblical literalists insist that these three tales are merely three stages of Saul's anointing by Samuel, his recognition by the people, and his confirmation through military leadership.
  2. ↑ However, 1 Samuel 10:12 provides an alternative explanation for the apparently well known saying about Saul being among the prophets. In this version, Saul seeks David's life, but is overcome by the spirit of prophecy and lies naked in ecstasy before David's protector, Samuel, instead.
  3. ↑ Coincidentally, Samuel himself will no longer by Israel's primary human leader, nor will his sons succeed him in the office of judge.
  4. ↑ The episode is reminiscent of Judges 19, where an unnamed Levite summons the Israelites to war by cutting the murdered body of his own concubine into 12 pieces and sending one to each of the tribes. In that case, however, the other Israelites make war against the tribe of Benjamin. Here, the situation is reversed, as the Benjaminite Saul unites the Israelites in war against the Ammonites.
  5. ↑ The cause for God's rejection of Saul here is apparently his usurpation of the priestly office, although Israelite kings offered sacrifices without priestly aid in other contexts.
  6. ↑ In this version of the story, clearly from a different source, Saul has not previously met David.
  7. ↑ Some scholars suggest that the biblical narrative goes far out of its way to make David's alliance with the Philistines palatable. The Philistines, after all, were the Israelites' mortal enemy, whom David had earlier slaughtered by the hundreds with no compunction. Likewise, David's refraining from killing Saul on two occasions and his public mourning of Saul's death leaves some readers incredulous.
  8. ↑ This would stand him in good stead with the Judahite leaders, who later nominated him king at Hebron.
  9. ↑ The text indicates that she had no children until she died. An alternative reading is therefore that Michal was made permanently infertile for speaking out against the king.
  10. ↑ A story given in the "appendix" indicates that David had earlier handed all of Saul's other descendants over to the Gibeonites for execution.
  11. ↑ The story seems to be at odds with the earlier account in which David seeks to show kindness to Saul's house and is unaware of Mephibosheth.
  12. ↑ This narrative fits well with the story of the Philistine victory over David's forces in the "valley of Rephaim," shortly after David's taking Jerusalem.
  13. ↑ In 1 Chronicles 21, it is not God who moves David to this action, but Satan.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bright, John. A History of Israel. Westminster John Knox Press; 4th edition, 2000. ISBN 0664220681
  • Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN 0802809758
  • Finkelstein, Israel, and David Silberman. David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition. New York: Free Press (Simon and Schuster), 2006. ISBN 0743243625
  • Friedman, Richard E. Who Wrote The Bible? Harper and Row, 1987. ISBN 0060630353
  • Grant, Michael. The History of Ancient Israel. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1984. ISBN 0684180812
  • Keller, Werner. The Bible as History. Bantam, 1983. ISBN 0553279432
  • Kirsch, Jonathan. King David: the real life of the man who ruled Israel. Hendersonville, TN: Ballantine, 2000. ISBN 0345432754.
  • Laymon, Charles M. The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible. Abingdon Press, 1971. ASIN B000J53AMG
  • Mazar, Amihai. The Archeology of the Land of the Bible. Anchor, 1992. ISBN 978-0385425902
  • Miller, J. Maxwell. A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press, 1986. ISBN 066421262X
  • Pinsky, Robert. The Life of David. New York: Schocken, 2005. ISBN 0805242031
  • Rosenberg, David. The Book of David: A New Story of the Spiritual Warrior and Leader Who Shaped Our Inner Consciousness. New York: Harmony, 1997. ISBN 0517708000

External links

All links retrieved November 20, 2023.

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