Ronald Reagan

Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was the 40th President of the United States (1981–1989) and the 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975). Before entering politics, Reagan was also a sports broadcaster, a lifeguard, a newspaper columnist, a motion picture actor, head of the Screen Actors Guild, a television actor, and a motivational speaker. His speaking style, which was widely regarded as well-delivered and persuasive, earned Reagan the nickname "The Great Communicator" from the media.

Reagan defeated incumbent President Jimmy Carter to win the election of 1980, carrying along the first Republican-dominated U.S. Senate in 26 years. His economic policy of supply-side economics, popularly known as "Reaganomics", is noted for a 25% cut in the income tax, reduction in inflation, reduction in interest rates, increased military spending, increased deficits and national debt, a temporary solution to the Social Security issue, elimination of loopholes in the tax code, continued deregulation of business, a sharp recession in 1981-1982 followed by a very robust economic expansion starting in '82. In other domestic issues he failed in his efforts to significantly change social policies such as welfare and abortion during his presidency, but he did move the federal judiciary to the right through appointments to the Supreme Court and other federal courts. From beginning to end he emphasized his skepticism concerning the ability of the federal government to remedy problems, particularly economic ones. His solution was to withdraw government involvement in planning and control by reducing taxation and regulation in order to allow the putative self-correcting mechanism of the free market to assert itself. He said on his day of inauguration, "government is not the solution to our problem; government is the problem."

His supporters credit him for restoring psychological optimism to an America that seemed in deep malaise in 1980 and for advocacy of laissez-faire capitalism over governmental control. In foreign policy his administration is noted for the vast buildup of the military and change from containment of the Soviet Union to confrontation. Reagan was committed to the ideologies of democratic capitalism and anti-communism.

His ability to survive significant scandals - which resulted in criminal convictions of a number of Administration officials and staff - with relatively high approval numbers, earned him the nickname "The Teflon President".

Reagan has been credited by many observers, particularly American conservatives, with being instrumental in the 1991 downfall of the Soviet Union. Historians have not yet formed a consensus, with some considering Reagan to be a leading figure in orchestrating the collapse of Soviet Communism in 1991 ; while other historians believe the demise of the Soviet Union, at the end of Reagan's two terms, was simply a coincidence.

In 1989 the presidency passed to a member of the same party, George H.W. Bush. This had not occurred in 60 years. The string of presidencies from Johnson, Nixon, Ford and Carter, in contrast, have been often portrayed as "failures".^{[citation needed]} Reagan's presidency influenced the culture of the 1980's and in the United States is often referred to as the "Reagan Era".

He was the only U.S. President to be struck by an assassin's bullet (on March 30, 1981) while in office as President and survive. He received a state funeral after his death in Bel-Air, California, in 2004 at the age of 93, after suffering from Alzheimer's disease for a decade.

Early life and career

Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in an apartment above a small bakery in Tampico, Illinois. He was the second of two sons to John "Jack" Reagan, a Catholic of Irish American ancestry, and Nelle Wilson, who was of Scots-Irish and English descent. His paternal great-grandfather, Michael Reagan, came to the United States from Ballyporeen, County Tipperary, Ireland in the 1860s. Prior to his immigration, the family name was spelled Regan. His maternal great-grandfather, John Wilson, immigrated to the United States from Paisley, Scotland in the 1840s.

In 1920, after years of moving from town to town, the family settled in Dixon, Illinois. In 1921, at the age of 10, Reagan was baptized in his mother's Disciples of Christ church in Dixon (although his brother, Neil, became a Catholic, like his father). In 1924 Ronald Reagan began attending Dixon's Northside High School. Reagan always considered Dixon to be his hometown.

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Ronald and his older brother Neil, with parents Jack and Nelle Reagan. (ca. 1916-1917)

In 1927, at age 16, Reagan took a summer job as a lifeguard in Lowell Park, two miles away from Dixon on the nearby Rock River. He continued to work as a lifeguard for the next seven years, reportedly saving 77 people from drowning. Reagan would later joke that none of them ever thanked him. In future years, he would point to that achievement, proudly showing visitors a picture of Rock River in the Oval Office.

In 1928, Reagan entered Eureka College in Eureka, Illinois, majoring in economics and sociology, and graduating in 1932. As a freshman he participated in a student strike against the downsizing of the faculty that was lead by Leslie Pierce, the president of Reagan's pledged fraternity. In the end the college president resigned, but his downsizing went forward. In 1929 Reagan joined the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity which he later recalled as one of the greatest experiences he had during his college years. He rarely studied and earned mediocre grades, but was "Big Man on Campus" as leader of numerous clubs and sports groups, and as student body president he made many lasting friendships.

Reagan developed an early gift for storytelling and acting. These abilities led to his selection as one of the freshman speakers during the late-night meeting prior to the student strike at Eureka. In 1932, Reagan was at radio stations WOC in Davenport, Iowa, and then WHO in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games, getting only the bare outlines of the game from a ticker and relying on his imagination to flesh out the game. Once, during the ninth inning of a game, the wire went dead but Reagan smoothly improvised a fictional play-by-play (in which hitters on both teams fouled off numerous pitches) until the wire was restored.

Hollywood

In 1937, when in California to cover spring training for the Chicago Cubs as a Headline radio announcer, Reagan took a screen test that led to a seven-year contract with the Warner Brothers studio. Reagan's clear voice, easy-going manner, and athletic physique made him popular with audiences; the majority of his screen roles were as the leading man in B movies. His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is On the Air. By the end of 1939, he had appeared in 19 films. Before Santa Fe Trail in 1940, he played the role of George "The Gipper" Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American. From this role he acquired the nickname the Gipper, which he retained the rest of his life. Reagan considered his best acting work to have been in Kings Row (1942). He played the part of a young man whose legs were amputated. He used a line he spoke in this film, "Where's the rest of me?", as the title for his autobiography. Other notable Reagan films include Tennessee's Partner, Hellcats of the Navy, This Is the Army, and Bedtime for Bonzo. Reagan was kidded widely about the last named film because his co-star was a chimpanzee. He has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

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Nancy and Ronald Reagan married in 1952. Nancy Reagan became a powerful and important background advisor in Reagan's campaigns and administrations

Reagan was commissioned as a reserve officer in the United States Army in 1935. In November 1941 Reagan was called up but disqualified for combat duty due to his astigmatism. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Lieutenant Reagan was activated and assigned to the First Motion Picture Unit in the United States Army Air Forces, which made training and education films, where his acting experience could be put to work. He remained in Hollywood for the duration of the war.

Reagan's film roles became fewer in the late 1950s, he moved into television as a host and frequent performer for General Electric Theater. Reagan appeared in over 50 television dramas. One of his most notorious appearances was in 1954 starring alongside James Dean in "Out of the Night." Reagan served as the president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) from 1947 until 1952, and again from 1959 to 1960. In 1952, a Hollywood dispute raged over his granting of a SAG blanket waiver to MCA, which allowed it to both represent and employ talent for its burgeoning TV franchises. He went from host and program supervisor of General Electric Theater to producing and claiming an equity stake in the TV show itself. At one point in the late 1950s, Reagan was earning approximately $125,000 per year (around $800,000 in 2006 dollars). His final regular acting job was as host and performer on Death Valley Days. Reagan's final big-screen appearance came in the 1964 film The Killers, a remake of an earlier version, based on a short story by Ernest Hemingway. Reagan portrayed a mob chieftain. This film, the first made-for-TV movie, was originally produced for NBC but the network's censor found it too violent. Reagan's co-stars were John Cassavetes, Lee Marvin, and Angie Dickinson.

Marriages

Reagan married actress Jane Wyman on January 24, 1940; they had a daughter, Maureen in 1941; an adopted son, Michael in 1945, and a second daughter, Christine, who died shortly after her birth in 1947. They divorced in 1948. (Reagan was the only American President to have been divorced.) Reagan remarried on March 4, 1952 to actress Nancy Davis. Their daughter Patti was born on October 21 of the same year. In 1958 they had a second child, Ron.

Early political career

Ronald Reagan was originally a Democrat, supporting Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal. Indeed in the late 1940s he was one of the most visible speakers in the country defending President Harry S. Truman. By the early 1960s he had become a staunch social and fiscal conservative, and, in 1976, said "fascism was really the basis of the New Deal." His first major political role was president of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union that included most Hollywood actors, but which, he claimed, was being infiltrated by Communists. In this position, he testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee on Communist influence in Hollywood. He also kept tabs on actors he considered disloyal and informed on them to the FBI under the code name "Agent T-10," but he would not denounce them publicly. In public statements he opposed the practice of blacklisting in Hollywood, while in practice he and his first wife, Jane Wyman, met with FBI agents in 1947 and named "suspected subversives." Among those he fingered were actors Larry Parks (The Jolson Story), Howard Da Silva (The Lost Weekend) and Alexander Knox (Wilson). Each of them was later called before the House Un-American Activities Committee and blacklisted in Hollywood. (This information was not revealed until a 2002 FOIA request.) FBI files show that over time he repeatedly gave the FBI names of people he suspected of harboring communist sympathies.

Believing that the Republican Party was better able to combat communism, and that he would gain more corporate support if he did so, Reagan gradually abandoned his progressive political views, supporting the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 and Richard Nixon in 1960— all while remaining a Democrat.

Governorship

Order:	33rd Governor of California
Term of office:	1967–1975
Predecessor:	Pat Brown
Successor:	Jerry Brown
Political Party:	Republican
Lieutenant Governor:	Robert Finch, Ed Reinecke, John L. Harmer

In 1966, he was elected the 33rd Governor of California, defeating two-term incumbent Pat Brown; he was re-elected in 1970, defeating Jesse Unruh, but chose not to seek a third term. Ronald Reagan was sworn in as governor of California on January 3, 1967. In his first term, he froze government hiring, but also approved tax hikes to balance the budget. Reagan took a hard line against protest movements of the era. During the People's Park protests in 1969, he sent 2,200 National Guard troops onto the Berkeley campus of the University of California. He stated, "If it takes a bloodbath, let's get it over with, no more appeasement."^{[citation needed]}

He worked with Democratic Assembly Speaker, Bob Moretti, to reform welfare in 1971. Reagan had earlier opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. He later reversed his position and felt that they 'must be enforced at the point of a bayonet, if necessary.'[1] Reagan also opposed the construction of a large federal dam, the Dos Rios, which would have flooded a valley of Indian ranches. Later, Reagan and his family took a summer backpack trip into the high Sierra to a place where a proposed trans-Sierra highway would be built. Once there, he declared it would not be built. One of Reagan's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment. He had campaigned as a strong supporter; however, his efforts to enforce the state's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision, which invalidated all death sentences issued in California prior to 1972, although the decision was quickly overturned by a constitutional amendment. Despite his support for the death penalty, Reagan granted two clemencies and a temporary reprieve during his governorship. As of 2006, no other clemency has been granted to a condemned person in California. The only execution during Reagan's governorship was on April 12, 1967, when Aaron Mitchell's life ended in San Quentin's gas chamber. There would not be another execution in California until 1992. When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor, Reagan suggested that it would be a good time for an outbreak of botulism.^{[citation needed]} After the media reported on the comment, he apologized.

Reagan promoted the dismantling of the public psychiatric hospital system, proposing that community-based housing and treatment replace involuntary hospitalization, which he saw as a violation of civil liberties issue. The community replacement facilities have never been adequately funded, either by Reagan or his successors.

Reagan was the first governor to use a corporate business jet for official travel. California received one of the first Cessna Citation Jets manufactured. His pilot, Bill Paynter, changed his Democratic voting registration to Republican within six months of meeting Reagan. Paynter often told listeners the Reagan on TV was the same Reagan in person, a man who walked his talk. Unlike other public officials or corporate heads, Reagan would ask his flight crew if it would be any inconvenience to change the published flight schedule because he did not want to keep his support staff from being with their families and any family planned events. Reagan made it a point to be a family man and sincerely afforded all who worked for him to be a family man or family woman. At the same time, Reagan commanded respect and inspired people to produce at their highest vision and capability.

Presidential campaigns

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Ronald Reagan on the cover of TIME as "Man of the Year."

1976 presidential campaign

Reagan's first attempt to gain the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 was unsuccessful. He tried again in 1976 against incumbent Gerald Ford, but again met defeat at the Republican National Convention by a few votes.

The 1976 campaign was a critical moment for Ronald Reagan's political development. Gerald Ford was largely a symbol of the "old guard" of the Republican Party. Reagan's success was remarkable considering Ford's status as an incumbent President. At the convention in 1976, Reagan gave a stirring speech in which he discussed the dangers of nuclear war and the moral threat of the Soviet Union. After that speech, many at the convention said they felt like "they had voted for the wrong man."

After the 1976 presidential election had ended, and as the Electoral College votes were being cast, Reagan unexpectedly received 1 electoral vote for President from a Republican "faithless elector" (Mike Padden, a lawyer from Spokane, Washington) who had been pledged to vote for Gerald Ford. While some have argued that receiving this 1 electoral vote did encourage Reagan to run "one more time" for president, this hypothesis remains unconfirmed.

1980 presidential campaign

In 1980, Reagan finally won the Republican nomination for president, handily winning most of the primaries after an early defeat in the Iowa caucuses. During the convention, Reagan proposed a complex power-sharing arrangement with Gerald Ford as vice president, but nothing came of it. Instead, Reagan selected his opponent in the primaries, former Congressional Representative and RNC Chairman George H. W. Bush, although Bush had declared that he would never be Reagan's Vice-President.

Bush was many things Reagan was not — a lifelong Republican, a combat veteran and an internationalist with UN, CIA and China experience. Bush's economic and political philosophies were supposedly more moderate than Reagan's. Bush had, in fact, referred to Reagan's supply-side influenced proposal for a 30% across-the-board tax cut as "voodoo economics."

On August 4, 1980, Reagan declared his support for states' rights in a speech at the Neshoba County (Mississippi) Fair. Liberal critics complained that his speech was too close to the site where three civil rights activists were murdered in 1964.^{[citation needed]} Reagan's supporters justified the speech by the fact that it was consistent with his overall philosophy of government and that the fair was an important political event in a traditionally Democratic-voting state that Reagan went on to carry by less than 13,000 votes in the general election.^{[citation needed]}

1980 Presidential electoral votes by state.

The campaign, led by William J. Casey, was conducted in the shadow of the Iran hostage crisis; Every day during the campaign the networks reported on Carter's unavailing efforts to free the hostages. Most analysts argue this weakened Carter's political base and gave Reagan the opportunity to attack Carter's ineffectiveness. On the other hand, Carter's inability to deal with double-digit inflation and unemployment, lackluster economic growth, instability in the petroleum market leading to long gas lines, and the perceived weakness of the U.S. national defense may have had a greater impact on the electorate. With respect to the economy, Reagan said, "I'm told I can't use the word depression. Well, I'll tell you the definition. A recession is when your neighbor loses his job; depression is when you lose your job. Recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his."

Reagan's showing in the televised debates boosted his campaign. He seemed more at ease, deflecting President Carter's criticisms with remarks like "There you go again." His most influential remark was a closing question to the audience, during a time of skyrocketing prices and high interest rates, "Are you better off today than you were four years ago?"

Carter's eventual ouster was accompanied by a 12-seat change in the Senate from Democratic to Republican hands, giving the Republicans a majority in the Senate for the first time in 28 years.

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1984 Presidential electoral votes by state.

1984 presidential campaign

In the 1984 presidential election, Reagan was re-elected over Carter's Vice President Walter Mondale, winning 49 of 50 states (Mondale carried only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia). Reagan received nearly 60% of the popular vote. His chances of winning were not harmed when, at the Democratic National Convention, Mondale accepted the party nomination with a speech that was regarded as a self-inflicted mortal wound to his presidential aspirations. In it, Mondale remarked "Mr. Reagan will raise taxes, and so will I. He won't tell you. I just did."

Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas, Texas, on a wave of good feeling bolstered by the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the Los Angeles Olympics that summer, which he himself opened, becoming the first American president to open a summer Olympic games held in the U.S.

The campaign of 1984 also featured one of Reagan's most famous gaffes, "My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes", spoken as a sound check prior to a radio address. Some argued that the quote, spoken during a time of great tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, was a mistake; some critics were left questioning Reagan's understanding of some of the realities of his foreign policy and of international affairs in general. Others, however, saw it merely as a humorous joke, meant only for the reporters in the room, that was accidentally broadcast. Samples of the recording of the quotation were later turned into the dance record "Five Minutes" by Jerry Harrison and Bootsy Collins.

Despite a weak performance in the first debate, Reagan recovered in the second and was considerably ahead of Mondale in polls taken throughout much of the race. Reagan's landslide win in the 1984 presidential election is often attributed by political commentators to be a result of his conversion of the "Reagan Democrats," the traditionally Democratic voters who voted for Reagan in that election.

Presidency 1981-1989

Domestic policies

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Chaos outside the Washington Hilton Hotel after the assassination attempt on President Reagan in 1981.

As Reagan entered office the nation was in a severe economic crisis. The economy suffered from double-digit inflation (making planning very unpredictable) and 20% interest rates (making mortgages prohibitive for most people). Nearly eight million were unemployed. Workers had suffered a 5% decline in real hourly wages over the previous five years, while federal personal taxes for the average family had gone up 67%. The national debt was approaching $1 trillion. Reagan was considered to be economically libertarian, in favor of tax cuts, smaller government, and deregulation, but no one knew what concrete steps he meant to take, or whether the House, controlled by Democrats, would support him.

Reagan's first official act was to terminate oil price controls, a policy designed to boost America's domestic production and exploration of oil.

Vice President George H.W. Bush, right, meets with President Reagan, left, in 1984.

In the summer of 1981 Reagan, backing up a pledge he made when the union threatened to strike, fired a majority of federal air traffic controllers (members of the PATCO union) when they went on an illegal strike. Since this union was one of only two unions to support Reagan in the prior election, this action proved to be a political coup.

A major focus of Reagan's first term was reviving the economy his administration inherited, which was plagued by a new phenomenon known as stagflation (a stagnant economy combined with high inflation). His administration fought double-digit inflation by supporting Federal Reserve Board chairman Paul Volcker's decision to tighten the money supply by dramatically hiking interest rates. Economist Milton Friedman says that Reagan "understood that there was no way of ending inflation without monetary restraint and a temporary recession," Reagan pursued a strategy of combining this tight-money policy with across-the-board tax cuts designed to boost business investment (in Reagan's words: "Chicago school economics, supply-side economics, call it what you will — I noticed that it was even known as Reaganomics at one point until it started working..."). While ridiculed by opponents as "voodoo," "trickle-down," and "Reaganomics," he managed to push across-the-board tax cuts.

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Truman to W.Bush in National Debt

As a result of the tight-money policy intended to end inflation, the economy went into a sharp downswing starting in July 1981, and bottomed out a year later in November 1982. Following this recession of 1981-82, the economy staged a dramatic recovery beginning in 1983. The Reagan administration claimed the tax cuts helped revive the economy and create jobs which led to the increase of federal income tax revenues during the 1980s from $517 billion to over $1 trillion per annum. The increases in the military budget stemming from the administration's new cold war strategy led to the federal deficit reaching levels that had not been seen in years. Critics noted that pumping so much deficit funding into the defense industry was, in reality, classic Keynesian economics, and that the ensuing economy was not the result of tax cuts, but a predictable response to so much government spending.

The House of Representatives, with a Democratic majority, opposed slowing the growth of social welfare and other domestic spending. One such cost-cutting move was abolition of the U.S. Metric Board established by President Gerald R. Ford.

Alarmed by the growth in Social Security outlays, Reagan appointed a Social Security reform commission, headed by Alan Greenspan, that reached a consensus on how to slow the growth. The age of receiving benefits would be slowly raised (in tune with rising life expectancy), so that the system would be solvent for the next 50-75 years. The plan also increased government revenues by accelerating a previously enacted increase in the rates of social security payroll taxes.

To cover the deficit, the administration borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, and by the end of Reagan's second term the national debt held by the public rose from 26% of GDP (1980), to 41% in 1989, the highest level since 1963. By 1988, the debt totaled $2.6 trillion. The country owed more to foreigners than it was owed, and the United States moved from being the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation. [2]

During the Reagan presidency, the inflation rate dropped from 13.6% in 1980 (President Carter's final year in office) to 4.1% by 1988, the economy added 16,753,000 jobs and the unemployment rate fell from 7.5% to 5.3% (although it increased at one point peaking near 10%). In addition, the poverty rate fell from 14% to 12.8%.

Reagan’s economic policies created an increase in the gap between the rich and the poor; however, during the Reagan presidency, all economic groups saw their income rise in real terms, including the bottom quintile, whose income rose 6 percent (Bureau of the Census, 1996). The richest 1 percent of the US population saw in increase in 1 trillion dollars during the same time period (Zinn, 2003). See also: Economic inequality.

The "war on drugs" during his presidency involved Nancy Reagan's high-profile "Just Say No" series of messages.

President Reagan was criticized by the gay rights movement and others for the perception that his administration and others did not respond quickly enough to the arrival of HIV-AIDS. The first official mention of the disease in the White House was in October 1982; Reagan himself first publicly discussed the federal government's role in fighting the disease at a press conference in 1985.

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Reagan stands during the recommissioning ceremony for the battleship USS New Jersey, December 1982.

Despite the criticism, under Reagan $5.7 billion was spent on AIDS and HIV, with large amounts going to the National Institutes of Health. The resources for research increased by 450% in 1983, 134% in 1984, 99% the next year, and 148% the year after. In September of 1985, Reagan said: "Including what we have in the budget for '86, it will amount to over a half a billion dollars that we have provided for research on AIDS, in addition to what I'm sure other medical groups are doing. And we have $100 million in the budget this year; it'll be $126 million next year. So this is a top priority with us. Yes, there's no question about the seriousness of this and the need to find an answer." By 1986 Reagan had endorsed a large prevention and research effort and declared in his budget message that AIDS "remains the highest public health priority of the Department of Health and Human Services."

Reagan's policies in regard to AIDS and gay rights were controversial even after his administration had ended and have remained a subject of debate after his death. During his political career, he had gone on record as supporting sodomy laws, opposing anti-discrimination laws including sexual preference, and the conservative United States Supreme Court Justices that he appointed would help produce the majority opinion in the 1986 case of Bowers v. Hardwick. However, he opposed the 1978 California anti-gay Briggs Initiative. In 1984, he was the first president to invite an openly homosexual couple to spend the night in the White House. In a rare public pronouncement on the topic of AIDS, Reagan stated his belief that morality and science conflate to make abstinence the best method to prevent the disease.

Reagan had another, more unusual, role to play in the HIV-AIDS issue. Controversy surrounding the discovery of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) was intense after American researcher Robert Gallo and French scientist Luc Montagnier both claimed to have discovered it. They had given the new virus different names. The controversy was eventually settled by an agreement (helped along by the mediation of Dr Jonas Salk) between Reagan and French President François Mitterrand, which gave equal credit to both men and their teams. This was an extraordinary event, which ignored scientific realities and was the first time a biological controversy had to be resolved at such an elevated political level. Clearly, Mitterrand and Reagan felt that this was not an issue for two great nations to fall out over.

Reagan made the abolition of communism and the implementation of supply-side economics the primary focuses of his presidency, but he also took a strong stand against abortion. He published the book Abortion and the Conscience of a Nation, which decried what Reagan saw as disrespect for life, promoted by the practice of abortion. Many conservative activists refer to Reagan as the most pro-life president in history. However, two of the three Supreme Court justices he selected, Sandra Day O'Connor and Anthony Kennedy, voted to uphold Roe v. Wade and as governor, Reagan signed into law California's liberal abortion rights legislation.

Although Reagan's second term was mostly noteworthy for matters related to foreign affairs, his administration supported significant pieces of legislation on domestic matters. In 1982, Reagan signed legislation reauthorizing the Voting Rights Act of 1965 for another 25 years even though he had opposed such an extension during the 1980 campaign. This extension added protections for blind, disabled, and illiterate voters.

Other significant legislation included the overhaul of the Internal Revenue Code in 1986, as well as the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 which compensated victims of the Japanese-American internment during World War II. Reagan also signed legislation authorizing the death penalty for offenses involving murder in the context of large-scale drug trafficking; wholesale reinstatement of the federal death penalty would not occur until the presidency of Bill Clinton.

Milton Friedman has pointed to the number of pages added to the Federal Register each year as evidence of the anti-regulatory nature of Reagan's presidency (the Register records the rules and regulations that federal agencies issue per year). The number of pages added to the Register each year declined sharply at the start of the Ronald Reagan presidency breaking a steady and sharp increase since 1960. The increase in the number of pages added per year resumed an upward, though less steep, trend after Reagan left office.

Foreign policy and interventions

Reagan, left, in one-on-one discussions with Mikhail Gorbachev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR from 1985 to 1991.

Reagan was the first major world leader to declare that Communism would soon collapse. In March 3, 1983 he was blunt: "I believe that communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last — last pages even now are being written." His most detailed analysis came on June 8, 1982 to the British Parliament[18], stunning the Soviets and allies alike. The prevailing doctrine in the West was that the Soviet Union would be around for generations to come, and it was essential to recognize that and work with them. But Reagan argued that the Soviet Union was in deep economic crisis, which he intended to make worse by cutting off western technology. Worst of all the Soviet Union "runs against the tide of history by denying human freedom and human dignity to its citizens."

What some US scholars call the "orthodox view" of the end of the Cold War is that, "The Soviet Union's capitulation and the Cold War victory for the forces of freedom and democracy were ultimately due to the relentless application of the West's military superiority and the dynamism of its ideas and economic system. These factors revealed communism's moral illegitimacy and highlighted its economic stagnation." [Salla and Summy, p 3] It is broadly endorsed by both Republicans (who emphasize Reagan's role), and by Democrats (who emphasize the containment policies of Truman, Kennedy, Johnson and Carter). It is widely echoed in Eastern Europe. For example Lech Walesa, leader of the Solidarity movement in Poland, said in 2004, "When talking about Ronald Reagan, I have to be personal. We in Poland took him so personally. Why? Because we owe him our liberty. This can't be said often enough by people who lived under oppression for half a century, until communism fell in 1989." [3] Helmut Kohl, chancellor of West Germany, said, "He was a stroke of luck for the world. Two years after Reagan called on Gorbachev to tear down the wall, he noted, it fell and 11 months later Germany was reunified. We Germans have much to thank Ronald Reagan for." Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern said, "President Reagan was a determined opponent of Communism and he played an important role in bringing an end to Communism and to the artificial division of Europe imposed after the Second World War." Vaclav Havel, who became the Czech president in 1989, said, "He was a man of firm principles who was indisputably instrumental in the fall of Communism." [4]

Reagan forcefully confronted the Soviet Union, marking a sharp departure from the détente observed by his predecessors Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter. Under the assumption that the Soviet Union could not then outspend the US government in a renewed arms race, he strove to make the Cold War economically and rhetorically hot.

The administration oversaw a military build-up that represented a policy named "peace through strength", a name which hearkens back to the strong foreign policy of Teddy Roosevelt and the expression "Speak softly and carry a big stick". The Reagan administration set a new policy toward the Soviet Union with the goal of winning the Cold War by using a strategy outlined in NSDD-32 (National Security Decisions Directive). The directive outlined Reagan's plan to confront the USSR on three fronts: economic - decrease Soviet access to high technology and diminish their resources, including depressing the value of Soviet commodities on the world market; military - increase American defense expenditures to strengthen the U.S. negotiating position and force the Soviets to devote more of their economic resources to defense; and clandestine - support anti-Soviet factions around the world from Afghani insurgents to Poland's Solidarity movement, which also received extensive support from George Soros and the Holy See. He proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative, dubbed "Star Wars", a space-based missile shield, widely viewed outside the US as a threat because it would nullify the Soviets ability to assure their end of "mutually assured destruction"—it would theoretically allow the US to execute a first strike and avoid the resulting Soviet retaliation; the prospect of losing parity in the arms balance that underpinned the world strategic situation and Soviet military power greatly distressed both the leaders and people of the USSR. In October 1986, Reagan met with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in Iceland where Gorbachev ardently opposed this defensive/offensive shield. On March 11, 1990, Lithuania, lead by newly elected Vytautas Landsbergis, declared independence from the Soviet Union and was followed by other Soviet Republics and by 1991, the Soviet Union was officially dissolved. Margaret Thatcher said, "Ronald Reagan won the Cold War without firing a shot."

Reagan argued that the American economy was on the move again; with the rapid computerization of the economy, high technology was the driving force. But the Soviets lagged far behind even South Korea when it came to high technology, and slipped further every year. Reagan made the Soviet predicament far worse by forbidding high tech exports to the Soviets from the US or its allies. For a while the decline was masked by high prices for Soviet oil exports, but that advantage collapsed in the early 1980s. The economic race with the West required radical reforms, which Gorbachev imposed. He hoped his new policies of glasnost and perestroika would revitalize the Soviet economy, but instead of new solutions he heard new complaints. Reagan's military build-up, coupled with his fierce anti-soviet rhetoric, contributed to Soviet near-panic reaction to a routine NATO exercise in November 1983, ABLE ARCHER 83. Though the threat of nuclear war ended abruptly with the end of the exercise, this historically obscure incident illustrates the possible negative repercussions of Reagan's "standing tall" to a nuclear power. Some historians, among them Beth B. Fischer in her book The Reagan Reversal, argue that the ABLE ARCHER 83 near-crisis had a profound effect on President Reagan and his turn from a policy of Confrontation towards the Soviet Union to a policy of rapprochement.

President Reagan and Margaret Thatcher at Camp David.

Among European leaders, his main ally and undoubtedly his closest friend was Margaret Thatcher, who as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom supported Reagan's policies of deterrence against the Soviets.

Although the administration negotiated arms-reduction treaties such as the INF Treaty and START Treaty with the U.S.S.R., it also aimed to increase strategic defense. A controversial plan, named the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), was proposed to deploy a space-based defense system to make the U.S. invulnerable to nuclear weapon missile attack, by means of a network of armed satellites orbiting the Earth. Critics dubbed the proposal "Star Wars" and argued that SDI was unrealistic, a violation of ABM treaties, and as a weapon that defends the U.S. if it strikes first, would inflame the Arms Race. Supporters responded that even the threat of SDI forced the Soviets into unsustainable spending to keep up. In fact, the Soviets both attempted to follow suit with their own program and attempted to reign in, or at least slow down the growing US military advantage with a program program of arms reduction treaties. Ultimately they proved (somewhat) more successful with the latter approach, as trying to keep up with the US in the area of military spending and R&D (not just on Strategic Defense systems) severely damaged an already shaky Soviet economy. This is considered one of the major contributing factors to the fall of the Soviet Union.

Support for anti-communist groups including armed insurgencies against communist governments was also a part of administration policy, referred to by his supporters as the Reagan Doctrine. Following this policy, the administration funded groups they called "freedom fighters"— described as terrorists by their detractors — such as the mujahideen in Afghanistan, the Contras in Nicaragua, and Jonas Savimbi's rebel forces in Angola all of which were fighting Soviet or Cuban backed Marxist governments. The Reagan administration increased military funding for anti-communist dictatorships throughout Latin America, and has been widely accused of ordering the assassination of several Latin American presidents and prime ministers. ^{[citation needed]} The administration also helped fund central European anti-communist groups such as the Polish Solidarity movement and took a hard line against the Communist regime in Cambodia. Covert funding of the Contras in Nicaragua would lead to the Iran-Contra Affair, while overt support led to a World Court ruling against the United States in Nicaragua v. United States.

The administration took a strong stance against the Lebanese Hezbollah terrorist organization, which was taking American citizens hostage and attacking civilian targets after Israel invaded Lebanon in the 1982 Lebanon War. It similarly took a strong stance against Palestinian terrorists in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. More disputed was Reagan's consideration of the Salvadoran FMLN and Honduran guerrilla fighters as terrorists. Reagan also considered the anti-apartheid ANC armed wing known as Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) as a terrorist organization.

Reagan offered controversial support to the rightist El Salvador government throughout his term, as he feared a takeover by the FMLN during the El Salvador Civil War which had began in the late 1970s. The war left 75,000 people dead, 8,000 missing and one million homeless. He backed attempts at introducing democratic elections with mixed success.

U.S. involvement in Lebanon followed a limited-term United Nations mandate for a multinational force. A force of 800 U.S. Marines was sent to Beirut to evacuate PLO forces. The September 16, 1982 massacre of hundreds of Palestinian civilians in Beirut (see Sabra and Shatila Massacre) prompted Reagan to form a new multinational force. Intense administration diplomatic efforts resulted in a peace agreement between Lebanon and Israel. U.S. forces were withdrawn shortly after the October 23, 1983 bombing of a barracks in which 241 Marines were killed. Reagan called this day the saddest day of his presidency and of his life.

A communist coup on the small island nation of Grenada in 1983 led the administration to quickly develop an international agreement to restore order. The resulting Operation Urgent Fury achieved this goal.

Initially neutral, the administration increasingly became involved in the Iran-Iraq War. At various times, the administration supported both nations, but mainly sided with Iraq, believing that Iraqi President Saddam Hussein was less of a threat to the stability of the region than Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini. Henry Kissinger articulated the administration's policy when he stated "Too bad they both can't lose". The American fear was that an Iranian victory would embolden Islamic fundamentalists in the Arab states, perhaps leading to the overthrow of secular governments, and Western corporate holdings, in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Kuwait. After initial Iraqi military victories were reversed and an Iranian victory appeared possible in 1982, the American government initiated Operation Staunch to attempt to cut off the Iranian regime's access to weapons (notwithstanding their later shipment of weapons to Iran in the Iran-Contra Affair). The U.S. also provided intelligence information and financial assistance to the Iraqi military regime. The administration also allowed the shipment of "dual use" materials, that could be used for chemical and biological weapons, which Iraq claimed were required for agriculture, medical research, and other civilian purposes, but which were diverted to use in Saddam's weapons of mass destruction programs.

Concurrently with the support of Iraq, the administration also engaged in covert arms sales to Iran in order to fund Contra rebels in Nicaragua. The resulting Iran-Contra Affair became a scandal. Reagan professed ignorance of the plot's existence and quickly called for an Independent Counsel to investigate. Ten officials in the Reagan administration were later convicted and others forced to resign as a result of the investigation. His Secretary of Defense Casper Weinberger was indicted for perjury and later received a presidential pardon from George H W Bush, days before the trial was to begin. Historians in 2006 ranked the Iran-Contra affair as the #9 worst presidential mistake ever made.

On April 11, 1985, it was announced that Reagan would visit the Kolmeshohe Cemetery near Bitburg, at the suggestion of Chancellor Helmut Kohl of West Germany, to pay respects to the soldiers interred there. The White House staff was under the impression that those interred included both American and German soldiers. The visit was intended to be symbolic of the goodwill between the two countries, but unbeknownst to Reagan and Deputy Chief of Staff Michael Deaver, who visited the cemetery in advance of the event, 49 of the graves contained the remains of men who had served in the Waffen-SS. The cemetery also contained remains of about 2,000 other German soldiers who had died in both World Wars, but no Americans.

Reagan also visited the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, where he cited Anne Frank and ended his speech with the words, "Never again."

"The Great Communicator"

Vice President Bush, and President Ronald Reagan and Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev at New York City in 1988

Speaking in front of the Brandenburg Gate on June 12, 1987 Ronald Reagan challenged reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, exclaiming: "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!"

Dubbed "The Great Communicator," Reagan was known for his ability to express ideas and emotions in an almost personal manner, even when making a formal address. He honed these skills as an actor, live television and radio host, and politician, and as president hired skilled speechwriters who could capture his folksy charm. Reagan's rhetorical style varied. He used strong, even ideological language to condemn the Soviet Union and communism, particularly during his first term.

But he could also evoke lofty ideals and a vision of the United States as a defender of liberty. His October 27, 1964 speech entitled "A Time for Choosing" reintroduced a phrase, "rendezvous with destiny," first made famous by Franklin D. Roosevelt, to popular culture. Other speeches recalled America as the "shining city on a hill", "big-hearted, idealistic, daring, decent, and fair," whose citizens had the "right to dream heroic dreams."

On January 28, 1986, after the Challenger accident, he postponed his State of the Union address and addressed the nation on the disaster. In a speech written by Peggy Noonan, he said, "We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved good-bye and 'slipped the surly bonds of earth' to 'touch the face of God.'" (quotations in this speech are from the famous poem "High Flight" by John Gillespie Magee, Jr..)

It was perhaps Reagan's humor, especially his one-liners, that disarmed his opponents and endeared him to audiences the most. Discussion of his advanced age led him to quip in his second debate against Walter Mondale during the 1984 campaign, "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience." On his career he joked, "Politics is not a bad profession. If you succeed there are many rewards, if you disgrace yourself you can always write a book."

Both opponents and supporters noted his "sunny optimism", which was welcomed by many in comparison to his Presidential predecessor, the often smiling, but serious, Carter. Reagan once said "The lessons of leadership were the same; hard work, a knowledge of the facts, a willingness to listen and be understanding, a strong sense of duty and direction, and a determination to do your best on behalf of the people you serve."

Assassination attempt

On March 30, 1981, Reagan, his press secretary James Brady, and two others were shot by John Hinckley, Jr.. Missing Reagan’s heart by less than one inch, the bullet instead struck his left lung, which likely spared his life. Reagan joked, "I hope you're all Republicans" to his surgeons. (Though they were not, Dr. Joseph Giordano replied "We're all Republicans today.") Reagan later famously told his wife "Honey, I forgot to duck."

Major legislation approved

• Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981
• Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982
• Social Security Amendments of 1983
• Tax Reform Act of 1986
• Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986

Administration and Cabinet

President Reagan, with his Cabinet and staff, in the Oval Office (February 4, 1981)

OFFICE	NAME	TERM
President	Ronald Reagan	1981–1989
Vice President	George H. W. Bush	1981–1989
State	Alexander M. Haig	1981–1982
	George P. Shultz	1982–1989
Treasury	Donald Regan	1981–1985
	James A. Baker III	1985–1988
	Nicholas F. Brady	1988–1989
Defense	Casper Weinberger	1981–1987
	Frank C. Carlucci	1987–1989
Justice	William F. Smith	1981–1985
	Edwin A. Meese III	1985–1988
	Richard L. Thornburgh	1988–1989
Interior	James G. Watt	1981–1983
	William P. Clark, Jr.	1983–1985
	Donald P. Hodel	1985–1989
Commerce	Malcolm Baldrige	1981–1987
	C. William Verity, Jr.	1987–1989
Labor	Raymond J. Donovan	1981–1985
	William E. Brock	1985–1987
	Ann Dore McLaughlin	1987–1989
Agriculture	John Rusling Block	1981–1986
	Richard E. Lyng	1986–1989
HHS	Richard S. Schweiker	1981–1983
	Margaret Heckler	1983–1985
	Otis R. Bowen	1985–1989
Education	Terrell H. Bell	1981–1984
	William J. Bennett	1985–1988
	Lauro Cavazos	1988–1989
HUD	Samuel R. Pierce, Jr.	1981–1989
Transportation	Drew Lewis	1981–1982
	Elizabeth Hanford Dole	1983–1987
	James H. Burnley IV	1987–1989
Energy	James B. Edwards	1981–1982
	John S. Herrington	1985–1989

Supreme Court appointments

Reagan nominated the following jurists to the Supreme Court of the United States:

• Sandra Day O'Connor – 1981
• William Rehnquist – Chief Justice, 1986 (an associate justice since 1972)
• Antonin Scalia – 1986
• Robert Bork – 1987 (rejected by Senate)
• Douglas Ginsburg – 1987 (withdrawn)
• Anthony M. Kennedy – 1988

Criticism

A frequent objection by his critics, however, was that his personal charm also permitted him to say nearly anything and yet prevail, a quality that earned him the nickname "The Teflon President" (i.e., nothing sticks to him). His denial of awareness of the Iran-Contra scandal was belied by quotations in now-archived notes by his defense secretary, Caspar Weinberger, that he (Reagan) could survive violating the law or Constitution, but not the negative public image that "big, strong Ronald Reagan passed up a chance to get the hostages free." In December 1985, Reagan signed a secret presidential "finding" describing the deal as "arms-for-hostages." Reagan-era papers which might provide further details were originally scheduled to be released starting in 2001, but President George W. Bush enacted a rule change to allow many of these to be withheld indefinitely. The United States was found guilty of having supported terrorism in Nicaragua by the International Court of Justice (Nicaragua v. United States) during Reagan's presidency. Despite a United Nations General Assembly resolution demanding compliance, the U.S. never paid the required fine.

Reagan's fiscal and tax policies were alleged to have increased social inequality, his efforts to cut welfare and income taxes becoming common flashpoints between critics who charged that this primarily benefited the well off in America. The unprecedented growth of the national debt during his presidency also sparked charges of endangering the economic health of the nation. Following the deregulation of the banking industry in the 1980s, savings and loan associations (also known as thrifts) were given the flexibility to invest their depositors' funds in commercial real estate (previously, they had been restricted to investing in residential real estate). Many savings and loan associations began making risky investments. As a result, the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, the federal agency that regulates the industry, tried to clamp down on the trend. In so doing, however, the FHLBB clashed with the Reagan administration's policy of permitting the deregulation of many industries, including the thrift industry. The administration declined to submit budgets to Congress that would request more funding for the FHLBB's regulatory efforts. The resulting savings and loan scandal bailout ultimately cost the United States $150 billion and nearly caused the total collapse of the industry.

Reagan's foreign policy also drew intense criticism from liberals who predicted nuclear war was imminent. Critics stated that he was ignoring human rights in Central and South America and South Africa. Reagan's support of apartheid South Africa was sharply attacked by African American leaders. Although Reagan sought an end to apartheid and liberalization of South Africa, he opposed economic sanctions "on grounds that it would diminish influence on the South African government and create economic hardship for the very people in South Africa that the sanctions were ostensibly designed to help" (Donald T. Regan, "For the Record").

Residents of Western European countries often saw Reagan very differently from many Americans. In the United Kingdom, though Reagan had the strong support of Margaret Thatcher, he was routinely lampooned by much of the media as being dim-witted, if not senile. This was fueled by certain real-life incidents, including a November 9, 1985, speaking engagement in which he forgot the name of Diana, Princess of Wales and after some hesitation referred to her as 'Princess David', to widespread embarrassment.

Scandals and controversies

The Reagan administration saw several controversies unfold in their ranks which resulted in a number of administration staffers being convicted. The most well known, the Iran-Contra Affair, involved a plan where weapons were sold to the radical Ayatollah Khomeini regime in Iran and the profits diverted to fund the Nicaraguan anti-Sandinista group, the Contras. Ten members of the administration were convicted of charges ranging from lying to Congress to lying about income to the IRS. However, Reagan survived the scandal after expressing regret for the incident.

Several other controversies also occurred in the Reagan administration; one involved staff members of the Department of Housing. Contributors to the administration's campaign were rewarded with funding for low income housing development without the customary background checks, and lobbyists, such as former EPA head James G. Watt, were rewarded with lobbying fees for assisting campaign contributors with receiving government loans and guarantees. Six administration staffers were convicted. Also involving the EPA: grants from the Superfund to clean up toxic waste sites were being released to enhance the election prospects of local politicians aligned with the administration. Assistant Adminstrator Rita Lavelle was convicted of various charges.

Numerous other scandals impacted the administration throughout the entire eight years. Reagan aides Michael Deaver and Lyn Nofziger were convicted of lobbying offenses though Nofziger's conviction was later overturned.

Religious beliefs

Though he rarely attended church as an adult, Reagan was a Christian from his childhood, and frequently addressed Christian groups. In a March 1978 letter to a liberal Methodist minister who was skeptical about Christ's divinity—and accused Reagan of a "limited Sunday school level theology"—Reagan argued strongly for Christ's divinity, using C.S. Lewis's Trilemma. Despite his personal wishes and beliefs, his State Funeral was an interfaith service.

Post Presidential years

(Left to right:) Presidents Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, George H. W. Bush, Ronald Reagan, and Jimmy Carter at the dedication of the Reagan Presidential Library.

File:Pres38-42.jpg

Five presidents and first ladies attended the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994, in Nixon's hometown of Yorba Linda, . From left: Bill Clinton Hillary Clinton, George H. W. Bush, Barbara Bush, Ronald Reagan, Nancy Reagan, Jimmy Carter and Rosalynn Carter, Gerald Ford, Betty Ford.

On January 11, 1989, Reagan addressed the nation one last time on television from the Oval Office of the White House, nine days before handing over the presidency to George H. W. Bush. After Bush's inauguration, Reagan returned to his estate, Rancho del Cielo, near Santa Barbara, California, to write his autobiography, ride his horses, and chop wood. He eventually moved to a new home in Bel-Air, Los Angeles. In the autumn of 1989, Fujisankei Communications Group of Japan hired him to make two speeches and attend a small number of corporate functions. Reagan's fee during his nine-day visit was about $2 million, more than he had earned during eight years as president. Reagan made occasional appearances on behalf of the Republican Party, including a well-received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention. He publicly spoke out in favor of a line-item veto, a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget, and repealing the 22nd Amendment, which prohibits a president from serving more than two terms.

Alzheimer's Disease

On November 5, 1994, Reagan announced that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. He informed the nation of his condition via a hand-written letter. With his trademark optimism, he stated in conclusion: "I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life. I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God always bless you." As the years went on, the disease slowly destroyed his mental capacity, forcing him to live in quiet isolation. By late 2003, Reagan had begun to enter the final, fatal stage of Alzheimer’s disease.

Legacy

The Gallup Organization recently took a poll on the most popular presidents in U.S. history. Ronald Reagan was chosen by 87% of Americans polled, followed by John F. Kennedy, Dwight D. Eisenhower and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Ronald Reagan continues to be named year after year by Gallup and other polling organizations as one of the United States' greatest presidents.

Job approval rating

According to ABC News by date:

Date	Event	Approval (%)	Disapproval (%)
April 22, 1981	Shot by Hinckley	73	19
January 22, 1983	High unemployment	42	54
April 26, 1986	Libya bombing	70	26
February 26, 1987	Iran-Contra affair	44	51
January 20, 1989	End of presidency	64	–
n/a	Career Average	57	39
July 30, 2001	(Retrospective)	64	27

Death

Reagan died of pneumonia on June 5, 2004 at his home in Bel-Air, California and is buried at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley. He lay in state to allow people to pay their last respects. Because of his love for Jelly Belly jelly beans, a small pack was buried with him in his suit pocket.

Reagan holds the record as the longest lived U.S. President, at 93 years and 120 days, breaking the record of John Adams. Reagan also holds the record as the oldest-elected president (73), and the oldest president to serve (77).

Nicknames

Reagan is often referred to as the Gipper, referring to his performance as George Gipp in the film Knute Rockne, All American, often along with his popular line "Win one for the Gipper." As a youth he was called "Dutch," a nickname given him by his father. As president, supporters dubbed him "The Great Communicator," and more recently "The Great Liberator," referring to policies which they contend led to the defeat of communism in the Cold War. His Secret Service codename was "Rawhide." Conservative radio host Rush Limbaugh refers to Reagan as "Ronaldus Magnus," a play on the names of Roman Emperors. Detractors sometimes referred to Reagan as "Ronald Ray-Gun," a term coined in the introduction to the song Drug Store Truck Drivin' Man sung by Joan Baez and Jeffrey Shurtleff at the 1969 Woodstock Festival. He was also "the Teflon(R) President" because criticisms supposedly never stuck to him or lessened his popularity.

Honors

File:ReaganStamp37.jpg

In a 1995 poll of 2,307 coin collectors by the Littleton Coin Company, Reagan was ranked as the most popular person to appear on a future U.S. coin.

On February 6, 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Bill Clinton. Three years later, on USS Ronald Reagan was christened by the Navy. It is one of few ships christened in honor of a living person and the first to be named in honor of a living former president. Many other highways, schools and institutions were also named after Reagan in the years after his retirement and death. In 2005, Reagan was given two posthumous honors:

• On May 14, CNN, along with the editors of TIME, named him the "most fascinating person" of the network's first 25 years on a broadcast anchored by Bill Hemmer.
• On June 26, participating voters selected Reagan as the "Greatest American" during a live television special sponsored by AOL and broadcast live on the Discovery Channel.

The honors were "a final win for the Gipper," as Hemmer said on May 14 to close his broadcast.

In 2002, Congress authorized the creation of Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home National Historic Site in Dixon, Illinois pending federal purchase of the property.

In 2004, the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority voted to rename Interstate 88, which was formerly called the East-West Tollway, in his memory.

Awards and decorations

• Lifetime "Gold" membership in the Screen Actors Guild
• In 1989, Reagan received an honorary British knighthood, Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. This entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters GCB, but did not entitle him to be known as "Sir Ronald Reagan." He, Dwight D. Eisenhower and George H.W. Bush are the only American presidents to have received the honor.
• Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, Japan 1989
• Presidential Medal of Freedom, US 1993

Coinage

Many coin redesign advocates have called for Reagan to be placed on the dime, in lieu of Franklin D. Roosevelt (whose profile was chosen for the dime in honor of his founding of the March of Dimes charity). In 2003, Congressional Republicans proposed this, but it was abandoned after Nancy Reagan rejected the idea. For a short period of time, they called for him to be placed on the penny. The penny is no longer possible because a permanent redesign is planned for 2010, and Abraham Lincoln will remain on the coin. The dime has not been redesigned, and there are no plans to redesign it, however, it has not been ruled out. They have also called for Reagan to be placed in addition to/in lieu of the dime, on the ten dollar bill or twenty dollar bill. The twenty was redesigned, and there are no plans to change the former President on it. The new ten was released on March 2 2006, and Alexander Hamilton is still featured on the bill. Reagan will be featured on the $1 coin in 2016 during the end of the Presidential Dollar Coin Program.

Reagan documentaries

• "True Grit", Ronald Reagan (CMT) 2005
• Ronald Reagan - An American President (The Official Reagan Library Tribute), January 25 2005.
• Great Speeches, October 19 2004.
• Stand Up Reagan, September 7 2004.
• NBC News Presents - Ronald Reagan, August 10 2004.
• ABC News Presents Ronald Reagan - An American Legend, July 13 2004.
• Ronald Reagan - His Life and Legacy, June 22 2004.
• Ronald Reagan - His Life and Times, May 11 2004.
• Ronald Reagan - A Legacy Remembered (History Channel), 2002
• Ronald Reagan - The Great Communicator, 2002.
• Salute to Reagan - A President's Greatest Moments, 2001.
• American Experience - Reagan, 1998.
• Tribute to Ronald Reagan, 1996.
• The Reagan Legacy, (Discovery Channel) 1996.

See also

• Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan
• "Five Minutes" speech
• List of songs about Ronald Reagan
• October Surprise
• Reagan Administration
• Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom
• USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76)
• Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
• Ramones (Controversy involving Reagan by Joey Ramone and Johnny Ramone)
• Reagan Youth
• Ronald Reagan Trail
• The Reagans

Further reading

Secondary sources

• Arnson Cynthia J. Crossroads: Congress, the Reagan Administration, and Central America Pantheon, 1989.
• Andrew E. Busch; "Ronald Reagan and the Defeat of the Soviet Empire" in Presidential Studies Quarterly. Vol: 27. Issue: 3. 1997. pp 451+.
• Berman, Larry, ed. Looking Back on the Reagan Presidency (1990),essays by academics
• Brownlee, W. Elliot and Hugh Davis Graham, eds. The Reagan Presidency: Pragmatic Conservatism and Its Legacies (2003)
• Campagna; Anthony S. The Economy in the Reagan Years: The Economic Consequences of the Reagan Administrations Greenwood Press. 1994
• Cannon, Lou. President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime Public Affairs. ISBN 1891620916 (2nd ed 2000) detailed biography
• Cannon, Lou. Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power Public Affairs. ISBN 1586480308, detailed biography
• Cannon, Lou. Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio. Public Affairs. ISBN 1891620843
• Collins, Chuck, Felice Yeskel, and United for a Fair Economy. "Economic Apartheid in America: A Primer on Economic Inequality and Insecurity." (2000). on tax policies.
• Dallek, Matthew. The Right Moment: Ronald Reagan's First Victory and the Decisive Turning Point in American Politics. (2004). Study of 1966 election as governor.
• Denton Jr., Robert E. Primetime Presidency of Ronald Reagan: The Era of the Television Presidency (1988)
• Draper Theodore. A Very Thin Line: The Iran-Contra Affairs Hill and Wang, 1991.
• D'Souza, Dinesh. Ronald Reagan: How An Ordinary Man Became An Extraordinary Leader. (1999). ISBN 0684848236
• Ehrman, John. The Eighties: America in the Age of Reagan. (2005)
• Ferguson Thomas, and Joel Rogers, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics 1986.
• Fitzgerald, Frances. Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War. political history of S.D.I. (2000). ISBN 0684844168.
• Germond, Jack W. and Jules Witcover. Blue Smoke & Mirrors: How Reagan Won & Why Carter Lost the Election of 1980. 1981. Detailed journalism.
• Greenstein Fred I. ed. The Reagan Presidency: An Early Assessment 1983 by political scientists
• Greffenius, Steven. The Last Jeffersonian: Ronald Reagan's Dreams of America. June, July, & August Books. 2002.
• Haftendorn, Helga and Jakob Schissler, eds. The Reagan Administration: A Reconstruction of American Strength? Berlin: Walter de Guyer, 1988. by European scholars
• Hertsgaard Mark. On Bended Knee: The Press and the Reagan Presidency 1988. criticizes the press
• Haynes Johnson. Sleepwalking through History: America in the Reagan Years (1991)
• Jones, Charles O. ed. The Reagan Legacy: Promise and Performance (1988) essays by political scientists
• Kengor, Paul. God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life Regan Books, 2004. ISBN 0060571411.
• Jeffrey W. Knopf "Did Reagan Win the Cold War?" Strategic Insights, Volume III, Issue 8 (August 2004)
• Kyvig, David. ed. Reagan and the World (1990), foreign policy
• Levy, Peter B. Encyclopedia of the Reagan-Bush Years (1996), short articles
• Muir, William Ker. The Bully Pulpit: The Presidential Leadership of Ronald Reagan (1992), examines his speeches
• Patterson, James T. Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush vs. Gore. (2005), standard scholarly synthesis.
• Pemberton, William E. Exit with Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan (1998) biography by historian
• Reeves, Richard. President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination (2005) detailed analysis by historian
• Salamon Lester M., and Michael S. Lund. eds. The Reagan Presidency and the Governing of America 1985. articles by political scientists
• Salla; Michael E. and Ralph Summy, eds. Why the Cold War Ended: A Range of Interpretations Greenwood Press. 1995.
• Schmertz, Eric J. et al eds. Ronald Reagan's America 2 Volumes (1997) articles by scholars and officeholders
• Schmertz, Eric J. et al eds. Ronald Reagan and the World (1997) articles by scholars and officeholders
• Troy, Gill. Morning in America: How Ronald Reagan Invented the 1980's (2004). Study of Reagan's image.
• Wills, Garry. Reagan's America: Innocents at Home. (1987)

Primary sources

• FitzWater, Marlin . Call the Briefing! Bush and Reagan, Sam and Helen, a Decade with Presidents and the Press. 1995. Memoir by press spokesman.
• Michael Deaver and Mickey Herskowitz. Behind the Scenes. 1987. Memoir by a top aide.
• Reagan, Ronald. An American Life: The Autobiography (1991)
• Reagan, Ronald. Reagan, In His Own Hand: The Writings of Ronald Reagan That Reveal His Revolutionary Vision for America (2001)
• Stahl, Lesley. "Reporting Live" (1999) memoir by TV news reporter

New York times

External links

Biographical information

• RonaldReagan.com - The Official Site
• White House biography
• Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Foundation
• Ronald Reagan Legacy Project
• Ronald Reagan Memorial Foundation
• Ronald Reagan: Medical History
• Ronald Reagan profile at NNDB
• Ronald Reagan at the Internet Movie Database

Speeches and interviews

• Reagan 2020 - numerous speeches collected
• Audio recordings of Reagan's speeches
• State of the Union Address, available for free via Project Gutenberg
• Profile, Portrait and Inaugural Addresses as California Governor
• 1980s Inside Governor Ronald Reagan A 1975 interview with Reason magazine concerning his political philosophy
• State of the Union Addresses: 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988 at UCSB's American Presidency Project

Multimedia links

• RonaldReagan.tk - a large Audio & Video archive
• Kudlow & Company - Short clip with Ronald Reagan on government spending
• A GE Tribute to Ronald Reagan
• CNN interrupts normal programming to report attempted assassination of President Reagan.
• Bill Hicks view on Ronald Regan
• Ronald Reagan Image Gallery

Preceded by: Robert Montgomery	President of Screen Actors Guild 1947 – 1952	Succeeded by: Walter Pidgeon
Preceded by: Howard Keel	President of Screen Actors Guild 1959 – 1960	Succeeded by: George Chandler
Preceded by: Pat Brown	Governor of California 1967 – 1975	Succeeded by: Jerry Brown
Preceded by: Gerald Ford	Republican Party Presidential candidate 1980 (won), 1984 (won)	Succeeded by: George H. W. Bush
Preceded by: Jimmy Carter	President of the United States January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989	Succeeded by: George H. W. Bush

Template:CAGovernors

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