Acts, Book of

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{{Books of the New Testament}}
 
{{Books of the New Testament}}
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The '''Acts of the Apostles''' is a book of the [[Bible]], which now stands fifth in the [[New Testament]]. It is commonly referred to as simply '''Acts'''. The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Greek ''Praxeis Apostolon'') was first used by [[Irenaeus]] in the late second century, but some have suggested that the title "Acts" be interpreted as the "Acts of the Holy Spirit" or even the "Acts of Jesus," since 1:1 gives the impression that Acts is set forth as 'an account of what Jesus ''continued'' to do and teach', Christ himself being the principal ''actor''.<ref>Carson, D. A., Moo, Douglas J. and Morris, Leon ''An Introduction to the New Testament'' (Leicester: Apollos, 1999), 181.</ref>
 
  
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Acts tells the story of the [[Early Christian]] church, with particular emphasis on the ministry of the [[Twelve Apostles]] and of [[Paul of Tarsus]]. The early chapters, set in [[Jerusalem]], discuss Jesus's [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]], his [[Ascension]], the [[Pentecost|Day of Pentecost]], and the start of the Twelve Apostles' ministry. The later chapters discuss Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest and imprisonment and trip to [[Rome]].  
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The '''Acts of the Apostles''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. It is commonly referred to as the '''Book of Acts''' or simply '''Acts'''. The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Greek ''Praxeis Apostolon'') was first used as its title by [[Irenaeus]] of Lyon in the late second century.
  
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It is almost universally agreed that the author of Acts also wrote the [[Gospel of Luke]]. The traditional view is that both the two books were written ''c.'' 60  by a companion of Paul named [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] — a view which is still held by some scholars, though some view the books as having been written by an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 70 and 100.  
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Acts tells the story of the [[Early Christian]] church, with particular emphasis on the ministry of the apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus]], who are the central figures of the middle and later chapters of the book. The early chapters, set in [[Jerusalem]], discuss Jesus' [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]], his [[Ascension]], the [[Pentecost|Day of Pentecost]], and the start of the apostles' ministry. The later chapters discuss Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest, imprisonment, and trip to [[Rome]]. A major theme of the book is the expansion of the [[Holy Spirit]]'s work from the Jews, centering in [[Jerusalem]], to the [[Gentile]]s throughout the [[Roman Empire]].
  
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==Content==
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{{toc}}
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{{col-begin|width=95%}}
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It is almost universally agreed that the author of Acts also wrote the [[Gospel of Luke]]. The traditional view is that both Luke and Acts were written in the early 60s C.E. by a companion of Paul named [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], but many modern scholars believe these books to have been the work of an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 80 and 100 C.E. Although the objectivity of the Book of Acts has been seriously challenged, it remains, together with the letters of Paul, one of the most extensive sources on the history of the early Christian church.
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{{Col-break}}
 
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*Dedication to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]] (1:1-2)
 
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*[[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|Resurrection appearances]] (1:3)
 
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*[[Great Commission]] (1:4-8)
 
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*[[Ascension]] (1:9)
 
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*[[Second Coming|Second Coming Prophecy]] (1:10-11)
 
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*[[Saint Matthias|Matthias]] replaced [[Judas Iscariot|Judas]] (1:12-26)
 
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*[[Holy Spirit]] came at [[Pentecost]] (2), see also [[Paraclete]]
 
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*[[St. Peter|Peter]] healed a crippled beggar (3)
 
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*Peter and [[John the Apostle|John]] before the [[Sanhedrin]] (4:1-22)
 
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**[[Resurrection of the dead]] (4:2)
 
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*[[Prayer in the New Testament|Believers' Prayer]] (4:23-31)
 
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*[[Discourse on ostentation#Materialism|Everything is shared]] (4:32-37)
 
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*[[Ananias and Sapphira]] (5:1-11)
 
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*Signs and Wonders (5:12-16)
 
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*[[Apostles]] before the Sanhedrin (5:17-42)
 
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*[[Seven Deacons|Seven Greeks appointed]] (6:1-7)
 
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*[[Saint Stephen]] before the Sanhedrin (6:8-7:60)
 
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*[[Paul of Tarsus|Saul]] persecuted the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem#Bishops of Jerusalem|Church of Jerusalem]] (8:1-3)
 
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*[[Philip the Evangelist]] (8:4-40)
 
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**[[Simon Magus]] (8:9-24)
 
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**[[Ethiopian]] [[eunuch]] (8:26-39)
 
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*[[Road to Damascus|Conversion of Saul]] (9:1-31, 22:1-22, 26:9-24)
 
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*Peter raised [[Aramaic of Jesus#Tabitha .28.CE.A4.CE.B1.CE.B2.CE.B5.CE.B9.CE.B8.CE.B1.29|Tabitha]] from the dead (9:32-43)
 
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{{Col-break}}
 
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*[[Centurion Cornelius|Conversion of Cornelius]] (10:1-8, 24-48)
 
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*Peter's [[Vision hypothesis#Visionary experiences in the New Testament|vision]] (10:9-23, 11:1-18)
 
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*[[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Church of Antioch]] founded (11:19-30)
 
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**term "[[Christian]]" first used {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|11:26}}
 
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*[[Saint James the Great]] executed (12:1-2)
 
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*Peter's escape from prison (12:3-19)
 
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*Death of Herod [[Agrippa I]] [in 44] (12:20-25)
 
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**"the voice of a god" {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|12:22}}
 
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*[[Paul_of_Tarsus#First_missionary_journey|Mission of Barnabas and Saul]] (13-14)
 
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**"Saul, who was also known as Paul" {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|13:9}}
 
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**called "gods ... in human form" {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|14:11}}
 
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*[[Council of Jerusalem]] (15:1-35)
 
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*Paul separated from Barnabas (15:36-41)
 
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**[[Paul_of_Tarsus#Second_missionary_journey|2nd]] and [[Paul_of_Tarsus#Third_missionary_journey|3rd]] missions (16-20)
 
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***[[Last Judgment|"God...has set a day"]] {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|17:30-31}}
 
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**[[Paul_of_Tarsus#Arrest_and_death|Trip to Jerusalem]] (21)
 
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***rumor of [[antinomianism]] {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|21:21}}
 
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**Before the people and the Sanhedrin (22-23)
 
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**Before [[Antonius Felix|Felix]]-[[Porcius Festus|Festus]]-[[Agrippa II]] (24-26)
 
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**Trip to Rome (27-28)
 
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***called a god on [[Malta]] {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|28:6}}
 
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{{Col-end}}
 
  
 
==Summary==
 
==Summary==
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The author begins with a prologue addressed to a person named [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilius]] and references "my earlier book"—almost certainly the [[Gospel of Luke]]. This is immediately followed by a narrative in which the the resurrected Jesus instructs the disciples to remain in Jerusalem to await the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]. They ask him if he intends now to "restore the kingdom to Israel," a reference to his mission as the Jewish [[Messiah]], but Jesus replies that the timing of such things is not for them to know. (1:6-7) After this, Jesus asends into a cloud and disappears. Too "men" appear and ask why they look to the sky, since Jesus will return in the same way he went.<ref>Some believe this refers to his second coming on the clouds, while others hold that say this cannot be, since the disciples are told not to look to the sky for his return.</ref>
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===Prologue===
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The author begins with a prologue addressed to a person named [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilius]] and references "my earlier book"—almost certainly the [[Gospel of Luke]].
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This is immediately followed by a narrative in which the resurrected [[Jesus]] instructs the disciples to remain in [[Jerusalem]] to await the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]. They ask him if he intends now to "restore the kingdom to Israel," a reference to his mission as the Jewish [[Messiah]], but Jesus replies that the timing of such things is not for them to know (1:6-7). After this, Jesus ascends into a cloud and disappears, a scene known to Christians as the [[Ascension]]. Two "men" appear and ask why they look to the sky, since Jesus will return in the same way he went.<ref>Some believe this refers to his second coming on the clouds, while others hold that, since the disciples are told not to look to the sky for his return, the second coming will not occur on the clouds.</ref>
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From this point on, Jesus ceases to be a central figure in the drama of Acts, while the Holy Spirit becomes the prime actor, performing great miracles through the disciples and bringing the Gospel to all people.
  
 
===The Jerusalem church===
 
===The Jerusalem church===
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[[Image:ivorwilliams_beggar.jpg|thumb|right|''The Leaping Beggar, Acts 3'' (1960-61) by [[Ivor Williams]]]]
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The apostles, along with [[Mother Mary|Jesus' mother]], his brothers,<ref>Catholic tradition, which affirms Mary's perpetual [[virgin]]ity, denies that these "brothers" are Mary's sons, interpreting them to be either cousins or Joseph's sons by a previous marriage.</ref> and other followers, meet and elect [[Matthias]] to replace [[Judas Iscariot]] as a member of [[The Twelve]]. On [[Pentecost]], the [[Holy Spirit]] descends on them. The [[apostle]]s hear a great wind and witness "tongues of flames" descending on them. Thereafter, the apostles have the miraculous power to "[[glossolalia|speak in tongues]]" and when they address a crowd, each member of the crowd hears their speech in his own native language. Three thousand people reportedly become believers and are baptized as a result of this miracle (2:1-40).
  
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The apostles, along with other of Jesus' mother, his brothers,<ref>Catholic tradition, which affirms Mary's perpetual virginity, denies these "brothers" are Mary's sons, interpreting them to be either cousins or Joseph's sons by a previous marriage.</ref> and other followers meet and elect [[Matthias]] to replace [[Judas Iscariot]] as a member of [[The Twelve]]. On [[Pentecost]], the [[Holy Spirit]] descends on them. The [[apostle]]s hear a great wind and witness "tongues of flames" descending on them, paralleling {{bibleverse||Luke|3:16-17}}. Thereafter, the apostles have the miraculous power to "[[glossolalia|speak in tongues]]" and when they address a crowd, each member of the crowd hears their speech in his own native language. Three thousand people reportedly become believers and are baptized as a result of this miracle (2:1-40).
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[[Peter]], along with John, preaches to many in [[Jerusalem]], and performs miracles such as healings, the [[Exorcism|casting out of evil spirits]], and the raising of the dead (ch. 3). A controversy arises due to Peter and John preaching that Jesus had been resurrected. [[Sadducee]]an priests—who, unlike the [[Pharisee]]s, denied the doctrine of the [[resurrection]]—have the two apostles arrested. The High Priest, together with other Sadduceean leaders, question the two but fear punishing them on account of the recent miracle at the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Temple]] precincts. Having earlier condemned Jesus to the Romans, the priests command the apostles not to speak in Jesus' name, but the apostles make it clear they do not intend to comply (4:1-21).
  
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[[Peter]], along with John, preaches to many in [[Jerusalem]], and perform miracles such as healings, the [[Exorcism|casting out of evil spirits]], and the raising of the dead (ch. 3).  
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The growing community of [[Jewish Christians]] practices a form of communism: "selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need." (1:45) The policy is strictly enforced, and when one member, [[Ananias]], withholds for himself part of the proceeds of a house he has sold, he and his wife are both slain by the [[Holy Spirit]] after attempting to hide their sin from Peter (5:1-20).
  
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A controversy arises due to Peter and John preaching that Jesus had been raised from the dead. Sadduceean priests—who, unlike the [[Pharisee]]s, denied the doctrine of the resurrection—have the two apostles arrested. The High Priest Annas, together with other Sadduceean leaders, question the two but fear punishing them on account of their having recently healed a man in the Temple precincts. Having earlier condemned Jesus to the Romans, they command the apostles not to speak in Jesus' name, but the apostles make it clear they do not intend to comply (4:1-21)
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As their numbers increase, the believers are increasingly persecuted. Once again the Sadducees move against them. Some of the apostles are arrested again. The leader of the [[Pharisee]]s, [[Gamaliel]], however, defends them, warning his fellow members of the [[Sanhedrin]] to "Leave these men alone! Let them go! For if their purpose or activity is of human origin, it will fail. But if it is from God, you will not be able to stop these men; you will only find yourselves fighting against God." (5:38-39) Although they are flogged for disobeying the High Priest's earlier order, the disciples are freed and continue to preach openly in the Temple courtyards.
  
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The growing community of [[Jewish Christians]] practices a form of communism: "selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need." (1:45) The policy is strictly enforced, and when one member, Ananias, withholds for himself part of the proceeds of a house he has sold, he and his wife are both slain by the [[Holy Spirit]] after hiding the fact from Peter. (5:1-20)
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An internal controversy arises within the Jerusalem church between the Judean and Hellenistic Jews,<ref>Hellenistic Jews, here, were apparently those whose origins were in the [[diaspora]] and were less connected to the [[Jerusalem]] tradition of the early believers in Jesus</ref> the latter alleging that their widows were being neglected. [[The Twelve]], not wishing to oversee the distributions themselves, appointed [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] and six other non-Judean Jews for this purpose so that the apostles themselves can concentrate on preaching (6:1-7. Many in Jerusalem soon join the faith, including "a large number of priests."
  
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As their numbers increase, the believers begin to be increasingly persecuted. Once again the Sadducees move against them. Some of the apostles are arrested and flogged, but ultimately freed. The Pharisaic leader [[Gamaliel]], however, defends them, warning his fellow members of the Sanhedrin to "Leave these men alone! Let them go! For if their purpose or activity is of human origin, it will fail. But if it is from God, you will not be able to stop these men; you will only find yourselves fighting against God." (5:38-39) Although they are flogged for disobeying the High Priest's earlier order, the disciples are freed and continue to preach open in the Temple courtyards.  
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[[Image:Stephen-martyred.jpg|thumb|The martyrdom of Saint Stephen]]
  
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An internal controversy arises within the Jerusalem church between the Judean and Hellenistic Jews<ref>Hellenistic Jews, here, were apparently those whose origins were in the [[diaspora]] and were less connected to the [[Jerusalem]] tradition of the early believers in Jesus</ref>, the latter alleging that their widows were being neglected. [[The Twelve]], not wishing to oversee the distrubtions themselves, appointed Stephen and six others for this purpose so that the apostles themselves could concentrate on preaching (6:1-7) Many in Jerusalem join the faith, include "a large number of priests."
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Although the apostles themselves thus manage to stay out of trouble and gain [[religious conversion|converts]] among the Jewish religious establishment, Stephen soon finds himself embroiled in a major controversy with other Hellenistic Jews, who accuse him of [[blasphemy]]. At his trial, Stephen gives a long, eloquent summary of providential history, but concludes by accusing those present of resisting the [[Holy Spirit]], killing the [[prophet]]s, and murdering the [[Messiah]]. This time, no one steps forward to defend the accused, and Stephen is immediately stoned to death, becoming the first Christian [[martyr]] (ch. 6-7). One of those present and approving of his death is a Pharisee named Saul of Taursus, the future [[Saint Paul]].
  
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Although the apostles themselves manage to stay out of trouble, [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] soon finds himself embroiled in a major controversy with other Hellenistic Jews, who accusing him of blasphemy. At his trial, Stephen gives an long, eloquent summary of providential history, but concludes by accusing those present of resisting the [[Holy Spirit]], killing the prophets, and murdering the [[Messiah]]. This time, no one steps forward to defend the accused, and Stephen is immediately stoned to death, become the first Christian [[martyr]].(ch. 6-7) One of those present at and approving of his death is Saul and Taursus, the future [[Saint Paul]].
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As a result of Stephen's confrontation with the Temple authorities, a widespread [[persecution]] breaks out against those Jews who affirm Jesus as the [[Messiah]]. Many believers flee Jerusalem to the outlying areas of [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]], although the apostles remain in Jerusalem. Saul is authorized by the High Priest to arrest believers and put them in prison.
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As a result of Stephen's confrontation with the Temple authorities, a widespread persecution breaks out against those Jews who affirm Jesus as Messiah. Many believers flee Jerusalem to the outlying areas of Judea and Samaria, although the apostles remain in Jerusalem. Saul is authorized by the High Priest to arrest believers and put them in prison.
 
  
 
===The faith spreads===
 
===The faith spreads===
  
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In [[Samaria]], a disiple named Philip<ref>apparently not the apostle, since they have stayed in Jerusalem</ref> performs miracles and influences many to believe. One of the new believers is [[Simon Magus]], himself a miracle worker with a great reputation among the [[Samaritans]]. Peter and John soon arrive in order to impart the gift of the Holy Spirit to the newly baptized. Simon Magus is amazed at this and offers the apostles money that he too may learn to perform this great miracle. Peter takes offense at this, declaring, "may you money perish with you." Simon immediately repents and asks Peter to pray to God on his behalf. The apostles continue their journey among the Samaritans and many believe.<ref>In later tradition, Simon is thought to be the first of the [[Gnosticism|Gnostic heretics]]. The term "[[simony]]"—the buying of ecclesiastical office—is derived from his name.</ref>
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In [[Samaria]], a [[disciple]] named Philip<ref>This is not the apostle, since they have stayed in Jerusalem. Later he is identified as one of the "seven," a [[deacon]], like Stephen.</ref> performs [[miracle]]s and influences many to believe. One of the new believers is [[Simon Magus]], himself a miracle worker with a great reputation among the [[Samaritans]]. [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[John the Beloved|John]] soon arrive in order to impart the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]—something Philip is apparently unable to do—to the newly baptized. [[Simon Magus]] is amazed at this gift and offers the apostles money that he too may learn to perform this miracle. Peter takes offense at this offer, declaring, "may your money perish with you." (8:20) Simon immediately repents and asks Peter to pray to God on his behalf. The apostles continue their journey among the Samaritans, and many believe.<ref>In later tradition, Simon is thought to be the first of the [[Gnosticism|Gnostic heretics]]. The term "[[simony]]"—the buying of ecclesiastical office—is derived from his name.</ref>
  
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Philip converts an Ethopian eunuch, the first Gentile offical to join the new faith.
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Philip also converts an Ethiopian eunuch, the first [[Gentile]] official reported to join the new faith (8:26-40).
  
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===Paul's ministry===
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===Paul's conversion===
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Paul of Tarsus, also known as Saul, is the main character of the second half of Acts, which deals with the work of the Holy Spirit as it moves beyond Judea and begins to bring large numbers of Gentiles into faith in the [[Gospel]]. In one of the [[New Testament]]'s most dramatic episodes, Paul travels on the road to Damascus, where he intends to arrest Jews who profess faith in Jesus. "Suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground" (9:3-4) and Paul becomes blind for three days (9:9). In a later account Paul hears a voice saying: "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? ... I am Jesus" (26:14-15). In Damascus, Paul is cured from his blindness and becomes as ardent believer. However, the Jerusalem community is suspicious and fearful of him at first, but he wins the apostles' trust and faces danger from the Hellenistic Jews whom he debates. After this the church in Judea, Galilee, and Samaria enjoys a period of growth and relative peace. (9:31)
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[[Image:Paul's-conversion.jpg|thumb|The conversion of Saul]]
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[[Paul of Tarsus]], also known as Saul, is the main character of the second half of Acts, which deals with the work of the Holy Spirit as it moves beyond Judea and begins to bring large numbers of Gentiles into faith in the [[Gospel]]. In one of the [[New Testament]]'s most dramatic episodes, Paul travels on the road to [[Damascus]], where he intends to arrest Jews who profess faith in [[Jesus]]. "Suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground" (9:3-4) and Paul becomes blind for three days (9:9). In a later account Paul hears a voice saying: "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? … I am Jesus" (26:14-15). In Damascus, Paul is cured from his blindness and becomes as ardent believer. The [[Jerusalem]] community is suspicious and fearful of him at first, but he wins the [[apostle]]s' trust and faces danger from the Hellenistic Jews whom he debates. After this, the church in [[Judea]], [[Galilee]], and [[Samaria]] enjoys a period of growth and relative peace. (9:31)
  
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Peter, meanwhile, conducts several miraculous healings, including the raising of the female disciple, Tabitha, from the dead (9:40). During Peter's travels a Roman centurion named Cornelius receives a revelation from an [[angel]] that he must meet Peter. Cornelius sends to invite Peter to dine with him. Peter himself, meanwhile, has a dream in which God commands him to eat non-[[kosher]] food, which Peter has never done previously. The next day, Peter eats at Cornelius' home and preaches there. Several Gentiles are converted, and Peter batpizes them.<ref>The fact that these men are baptized into the faith without first being circumcized is significant in showing that not only Paul, but Peter, too, practiced this tradition.</ref> Back in Jerusalem, Peter is criticized by the "cirumcized believers" for enter a Gentile home and eating with non-Jews. His critics are silenced, however, when Peter relates the above events.<ref>Many scholars believe these chapters are related to the incident in Galatians 3 in which Paul criticizes Peter for refusing to eat with Gentiles, seeing a tendency in Luke to play down the any tension between the Pauline tradition and that of Peter or the Jerusalem church</ref>
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===Gentile converts===
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Peter, meanwhile, conducts several miraculous healings, including the raising of the female disciple Tabitha from the dead (9:40). During Peter's travels, a Roman [[centurion]] named [[Cornelius]] receives a revelation from an [[angel]] that he must meet Peter.<ref>Although he is a [[Gentile]], Cornelius is already a believer in the God of the Jews. These "[[God-fearer]]s" would become a primary audience of Christian preaching, which promised them salvation without having to be circumcised or following all of the Mosaic laws.</ref> Cornelius sends an invite Peter to dine with him. Peter himself, meanwhile, has a dream in which God commands him to eat non-[[kosher]] food, which Peter has never done previously (ch. ten). The next day, Peter eats at Cornelius' home and preaches there. Several Gentiles are converted, and Peter baptizes them.<ref>The fact that these men are baptized into the faith without first being circumcised is significant in showing that not only Paul, but Peter, too, practiced this tradition.</ref> Back in [[Jerusalem]], Peter is criticized by the "circumcised believers" for entering a Gentile home and eating with non-Jews. His critics are silenced, however, when Peter relates the above events.<ref>Many scholars believe these chapters are related to the incident in Galatians 3, in which Paul criticizes Peter for refusing to eat with Gentiles. Some hold that the incidents of chapter ten are misplaced in the narrative, while others believe them to be fictional.</ref>
  
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Meanwhile a sizeable community of Gentile believers has grown in Syrian Antioch. The Jerusalem church send Barnabas, a [[Levite]], to minister to them.<ref>As a Levite, Barnabas would be particularly knowledgable about Jewish tradition. He is thus and interesting choice as Jerusalem's representative to the first Gentile Christian community.</ref>Barnabas finds Paul in Tarsus and brings him to Antioch as well. It is here that the followers of Jesus are first called Christians. Christian prophets, one of whom is named Agabus, come to Antioch from [[Jerusalem]] and predict to the Aniochans that a famine will soon spread across the Roman world. A collection is taken up to send aid to the Judean church. Interestingly, no mention is made of the visit from Peter to Antioch, mentioned by Paul in Galatians 3 <ref>Some have suggested that these prophets may be the "men from James" with whom Paul has such difficulty. Galatians 3 also reveals a split between Peter and Paul, with Peter refusing to eat with Gentiles and Paul publicly condemning him for this. In the argument, Barnabas, the Levite, sides with Peter. That such an event could have happened after Peter's supposed revelation from God is highly doubtly, leaving many to question whether the episode of Acts 10-11 is out of chronological order, or perhaps even fictional.</ref>
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Soon a sizable group of Gentile believers has joined the faith in Syrian [[Antioch]], the [[Roman Empire]]'s third largest city. The [[Jerusalem church]] sends [[Barnabas]], a [[Levite]], to minister to them.<ref>As a Levite, Barnabas would be particularly knowledgeable about Jewish tradition. He is thus an interesting choice as Jerusalem's representative to the first Christian community composed largely of Gentiles.</ref>Barnabas finds Paul in Tarsus and brings him to Antioch to assist in the mission. It is here that the followers of Jesus are first called Christians. Christian prophets, one of whom is named [[Agabus]], come to Antioch from [[Jerusalem]] and predict to the Anitochans that a famine will soon spread across the Roman world. A collection is taken up to send aid to the Judean church.
  
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Several years later, [[Barnabas]] and Paul set out on a mission (13-14) to further spread Christianity, particularly among the Gentiles. Paul travels through [[Asia Minor]], preaching and visiting churches throughout the region.  Paul then travels to Jerusalem where he meets with the apostles—a meeting known as the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (15). Paul's own record of the meeting appears in (Gal.2}. <ref>However, the account differs significantly from Acts, and some argue Gal 2 is a different meeting.</ref> Some members of the [[Jerusalem church]] have been preaching that [[circumcision]] is required for Gentiles who join the faith. Paul and his associates strongly disagree. After much discussion, [[James]], the brother of Jesus, leader of the Jerusalem church, decrees that Gentile members need not follow all of the [[Mosaic Law]], and in particular, they do not need to be circumcised.
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Peter, meanwhile, is imprisoned by King [[Herod Agrippa]],<ref>"Kings" such as Agrippa ruled by the consent of [[Rome]] and were often perceived as Roman agents by local populations such as the Jews.</ref> but miraculously escapes. Agrippa himself is soon slain by an angel after allowing himself to be honored instead of God (ch. 12).
  
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Paul spends the next few years traveling through western [[Asia Minor]] and founds his first Christian church in [[Philippi]]. He then travels to [[Thessalonica]], where he stays for some time before departing for [[Greece]]. In [[Athens]], Paul visits an altar with an inscription dedicated to the [[Unknown God]], so when he gives his speech on the [[Areios Pagos|Areopagos]], he proclaims to worship that same Unknown God whom he identifies as the Christian God. During these travels, Paul collects funds for a major donation he intends to bring to Jersualem. His return is delayed by shipwrecks and close calls with the authorities, but finally he lands in Haifa.  
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Probably several years later, [[Barnabas]] and Paul set out on a mission to further spread the faith (13-14). They travel first to [[Selucia]] and [[Cyprus]], and then to [[Asia Minor]], preaching in synagogues and visiting existing Christian congregations throughout the region. They have many adventures, often running afoul of Jewish leaders.<ref>One reason for this persecution is that Paul often addresses the "Gentiles who worship God" in the synagogues, offering them complete membership in the new faith without circumcision or having to adhere to the entire Mosaic Law. In the synagogues, such "God-fearers" (and their financial support) were welcome, but they could not attain full membership without circumcision.</ref>In [[Lystra]], after a miracle of healing, the local [[Gentile]] community hails [[Barnabas]] as [[Zeus]] and Paul as [[Hermes]], titles they, of course, reject. They establish local churches and appoint leaders to guide them, finally returning to Antioch for a long stay.
  
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Upon Paul's arrival in Jerusalem, he is met by James who confronts him with the rumor of that he is teaching against the [[Law of Moses]] (21:21), telling even Jews that they must refain from circumcising their sons. To prove that he himself is "living in obedience to the law," Paul accompanies some fellow Jewish Christians to complete a [[Nazirite|vow]] at the Temple (21:26). Near the end of the seven days of the vow, Paul is recognized and nearly beaten to death by a mob, accused of the sin of bringing Gentiles into the Temple confines. (21:28). Paul is rescued by a Roman commander.
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===The council of Jerusalem===
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[[Image:Saint James the Just.jpg|thumb|150px|James "the Just," leader of the Jerusalem church]]
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At Antioch, a controversy arises when members from [[Jerusalem]] arrive and insist that Gentile believers must be circumcised (15:1). Paul and Barnabas then travel to Jerusalem and consult with the apostles—a meeting known as the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (15). Paul's own record of the meeting is apparently recorded in [[Galatians]] 2.<ref>However, the account differs significantly from Acts, and some argue Gal. 2 is a different meeting.</ref> Some members of the Jerusalem church are strict [[Pharisee]]s and hold that [[circumcision]] is required for [[Gentile]]s who join the faith. Paul and his associates strongly disagree.
  
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but is imprisoned in [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] ({{bibleverse-nb|Acts||23–26}}).  Paul asserts his right, as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome. Paul is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the [[Kingdom of God]] and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ" ({{bibleverse-nb||Acts|28:30-31}}).  Surprisingly, Acts does not record the outcome of Paul's legal troubles — some traditions hold that Paul was ultimately executed in Rome, while other traditions have him surviving the encounter and later traveling to Spain and Great Britain — see [[Paul of Tarsus#Paul's trip to Rome, imprisonment and death|Paul - Imprisonment & Death]].
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After much debate, [[James]], the brother of [[Jesus]] and leader of the Jerusalem church, decrees that Gentile members need not follow all of the [[Mosaic Law]], and in particular, they do not need to be circumcised. Paul's party, however, is required to accept that Gentiles must obey the commandments against eating food sacrificed to idols, meat that is not fully cooked, and meat of strangled animals, as well as from sexual immorality.<ref>Paul's own letters call into question whether he would have agreed with these stipulations, for he often argues that obedience to [[dietary laws]] is not necessary at all for Gentiles. He also says in 1 Corinthians 8 that [[idol]]s are not really gods, so only those with weak consciences are harmed by this action; but it is still good practice to refrain from eating such meat publicly, because those who think idols are indeed gods should not be led to think that Christians are honoring this false gods. This policy leaves the true believer free to eat such meats in private, and since much meat was ritually slaughtered by [[pagan]] butchers, this would likely be a frequent practice.</ref> (15:29)
  
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==Themes and style==
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===Paul and Barnabas part ways===
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Paul and Barnabas now plan a second missionary journey. However, they have a falling out over whether [[John Mark]] should accompany them, Paul objecting on the grounds that he had deserted them during their first journey and returned to Jerusalem.<ref>Some believe that the true nature of Paul's split with Barnabas was over the question of table fellowship with Gentiles, mentioned in Galatians 3. Others add that Paul may have believed Mark to be a spy whose loyalties were with the conservative elements of the Jerusalem church.</ref> Paul continues on without Barnabas or Mark, who are not heard from again. Paul takes [[Silas]] with him and goes to [[Derbe]] and then [[Lystra]], where they are joined by [[Timothy]], the son of a Jewish woman and a Greek man. According to Acts 16:3, Paul circumcises Timothy before continuing his journey, in order to satisfy the objections of conservative Jews.<ref>Considering Paul's views on circumcision in his letter to the [[Galatians]], such an act constitutes a major concession by Paul. Some scholars consider the episode a fiction.</ref>
  
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;Universality of Christianity
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Paul spends the next several years traveling through western [[Asia Minor]] and founds the first Christian church in [[Philippi]]. He then travels to [[Thessalonica]], where he stays for some time before departing for [[Greece]]. In [[Athens]], he visits an altar with an inscription dedicated to the [[Unknown God]], and when he gives his speech on the [[Areios Pagos|Areopagos]], he declares that he worships that same Unknown God, which he identifies as the Christian God. In Corinth, he settles for more than a year but faces charges that he was "persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law." (18:12–17) Typically, Paul begins his stay in each city by preaching in the [[synagogue]]s, where he finds some sympathetic hearers but also provokes stiff opposition. At [[Ephesus]], he gains popularity among the Gentiles, and a riot breaks out as idol-makers fear that Paul's preaching will harm their business, associated with the [[Temple of Artemis]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]] (ch. 19).
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One of the central themes of Acts, indeed of the New Testament, see also [[Great Commission]], is the universality of Christianity &mdash; the idea that Jesus's teachings were for all humanity &mdash; [[Jews]] and [[Gentiles]] alike. In this view, Christianity is seen as a religion in its own right, rather than a subset of Judaism, if one makes the common assumption that Judaism is not universal, however see [[Noahide Laws]] and [[Judaism and Christianity]] for details.  Whereas the members of [[Jewish Christianity]] were circumcised and adhered to dietary laws, the [[Pauline Christianity]] featured in Acts did not require Gentiles to be circumcised or to obey all of the [[Mosaic laws]], which is consistent with Noahide Law. The final chapter of Acts ends with Paul condemning non-Christian Jews and saying "Therefore I want you to know that God's salvation has been sent to the Gentiles, and they will listen!" ({{bibleverse-nb||Acts|28:28}}). See also [[New Covenant (theology)]].
 
  
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;Holy Spirit
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During these travels, Paul not only founds and strengthens several churches; he also collects funds for a major donation he intends to bring to [[Jerusalem]].<ref>The theme of Paul's uneasy relations with Jerusalem runs just beneath the surface of Acts, leading many to believe his donation is, in effect, an attempt to show both his good will and his value, despite his controversial teachings.</ref> His return is delayed by shipwrecks and close calls with the authorities, but finally he lands in [[Tyre]], where he is warned by the Holy Spirit not to continue on to Jerusalem. Likewise in [[Caesarea]], Paul is warned by the prophet Agabus that he will be arrested if he goes to the Holy City. Paul stubbornly refuses to be dissuaded, however.
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As in the Gospel of Luke, there are numerous references to the Holy Spirit throughout Acts.  Acts features the "baptism in the Holy Spirit" on Pentecost<ref>Acts 1:5, 8; 2:1-4; 11:15-16 according to [http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Acts.htm here]</ref> and the subsequent spirit-inspired speaking in tongues.  The Holy Spirit is shown guiding the decisions and actions of Christian leaders<ref>Acts 15:28; 16:6-7; 19:21; 20:22-23 according to [http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Acts.htm here]</ref>, and the Holy Spirit is said to "fill" the apostles, especially when they preach.<ref>Acts 1:8; 2:4; 4:8, 31; 11:24; 13:9, 52 according to [http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Acts.htm here]</ref> As a result, Acts is particularly influential among branches of Christianity which place particular emphasis the Holy Spirit, such as [[Pentecostalism]] and the [[Charismatic movement]].
 
  
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;Attention to the oppressed and persecuted
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===Paul trials and final journey===
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The Gospel of Luke and Acts both devote a great deal of attention to the oppressed and downtrodden.  The impovershed are generally praised<ref>e.g. "Preach good news to the poor" (Luke 4:18), "Blessed are the poor" (Luke 6:20–21), [http://www.apuritansmind.com/Stewardship/NorthbrookWarrenLukeRichPoor.htm Luke's Attitude Towards Rich and Poor] </ref>, while the wealthy are criticized.  Luke-Acts devotes a great deal of attention to women in general<ref>Luke 1, Luke 2 </ref> and to widows in particular.<ref>Luke 2:37; 4:25-26; 7:12; 18:3, 5; 20:47; 21:2-3)</ref>  The [[Samaritans]] of [[Samaria]] (see map at [[Iudaea Province]]), had their temple on [[Mount Gerizim]], and along with some other differences, see [[Samaritanism]], were in conflict with Jews of [[Judea]] and [[Galilee]] and other regions who had their [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and practiced [[Judaism]]. Unexpectedly, since Jesus was a Jewish Galilean, the Samaritans are shown favorably in Luke-Acts.<ref>e.g. the good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37), the story of the Samaritan who expressed gratitude to Jesus for being healed (Luke 17:11-19),and the entrance of the Samaritans into the church of God (Acts 8:4-25).</ref>  In Acts, attention is given to the religious persecution of the early Christians, as in the case of Stephen's martyrdom and the numerous examples are Paul's persecution for his preaching of Christianity. 
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Upon Paul's arrival in Jerusalem, he is met by James, who confronts him with the rumor that he is teaching against the [[Law of Moses]]:
  
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;Prayer
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<blockquote>"You see, brother, how many thousands of Jews have believed, and all of them are zealous for the law. They have been informed that you teach all the Jews who live among the Gentiles to turn away from Moses, telling them not to circumcise their children or live according to our customs. What shall we do?" (21:20-22)</blockquote>
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Prayer is a major motif in both the Gospel of Luke and Acts.  Both books have a more prominent attention to prayer than is found in the other gospels.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3817/is_200012/ai_n8916000 Theology of prayer in the gospel of Luke]</ref>  The Gospel of Luke depicts prayer as a certain feature in Jesus's life.  Examples of prayer which are unique to Luke include Jesus's prayers at the time of his baptism ({{bibleverse||Luke|3:21}}), his praying all night before choosing the twelve ({{bibleverse||Luke|6:12}}), and praying for the transfiguration ({{bibleverse||Luke|9:28}}).   Acts also features an emphasis on prayer and includes a number of notable prayers such as the ''Believers' Prayer'' ({{bibleverse-nb||Acts|4:23-31}}), Stephen's death prayer ({{bibleverse-nb||Acts|7:59-60}}), and Simon Magus' prayer ({{bibleverse-nb||Acts|8:24}}). See also [[Prayer in the New Testament]].
 
  
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;Speeches
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To prove that he himself is "living in obedience to the law," Paul accompanies some fellow [[Jewish Christians]] who are completing a [[Nazirite|vow]] at the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Temple]] (21:26) and pays the necessary fees for them. Paul is recognized, however, and he is nearly beaten to death by a mob, accused of the sin of bringing Gentiles into the Temple confines (21:28). Paul is rescued from being flogged when he informs a Roman commander that he is a citizen of Rome.  
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Acts features a number of extended speeches or sermons from Peter, Paul, and others.  In fact, there are at least 24 different speeches in Acts, and the speeches comprise about 30% of the total verses.<ref>Listed [http://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/lukespeech.html here]</ref>  These speeches, which are quoted verbatim at length rather than simply summarized, have been the source of debates over the historical accuracy of Acts. (see below).
 
  
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==Authorship==
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Paul is then brought before the [[Sanhedrin]]. He runs afoul of the [[Sadducee]]an High Priest, but cleverly plays to his fellow [[Pharisee]]s on the council by claiming that the real issue at stake is the doctrine of the [[resurrection]] of the dead (23:6). Paul wins a temporary reprieve but is imprisoned in [[Caesarea]] after a plot against his life is uncovered. There, before the Roman governor [[Felix]], Paul is confronted again by the High Priest, and once again Paul insists that, although he is indeed following of "[[The Way]]," the real reason he is being accused by the Sadducees is that he believes in the doctrine of the resurrection, as do most Pharisees. Paul remains imprisoned in Caesaria for two years. He later preaches before [[Agrippa II]] and is finally sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest (28:30-31). From there he writes some of his most important letters.
  
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While the precise identity of the author is debated, the general consensus is that the author was a Greek Gentile writing for an audience of Gentile Christians.
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The Book of Acts does not record the outcome of Paul's legal troubles. It concludes:
  
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===Common authorship of Luke and Acts===
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<blockquote>For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house and welcomed all who came to see him. Boldly and without hindrance he preached the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ.</blockquote>
  
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There is substantial evidence to indicate that the author of [[Gospel of Luke|The Gospel of Luke]] also wrote the Book of Acts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book. Both prefaces are addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], the author's patron—and perhaps a label for a Christian community as a whole as the name means "Beloved by God."  Furthermore, the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus—almost certainly the work we know as The Gospel of Luke.
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==Themes and style==
  
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Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the Luke and Acts. As one scholar writes,"the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author"<ref>(Udo Schnelle, ''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings'', p. 259).</ref> Because of their common authorship, the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles are often jointly referred to simply as Luke-Acts. Similarly, the author of Luke-Acts is often known as "Luke"—even among scholars who doubt that the author was actually named Luke.
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===Salvation to the Gentiles===
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One of the central themes of Acts is the idea that Jesus' teachings were for all humanity—[[Jews]] and [[Gentiles]] alike. Christianity is presented as a religion in its own right, rather than a sect of [[Judaism]]. Whereas the [[Jewish Christians]] were circumcised and adhered to the [[kosher]] dietary laws, the [[Pauline Christianity]] featured in Acts did not require Gentiles to be circumcised; and its list of Mosaic commandments required for Gentiles was limited to a small number. Acts presents the movement of the Holy Spirit first among the Jews of Jerusalem in the opening chapters, then to the Gentiles and Jews alike in the middle chapters, and finally to the Gentiles primarily in the end. Indeed, the final statement of Paul in Acts can be seen as the basic message of the Book of Acts itself: "I want you to know that God's salvation has been sent to the Gentiles, and they will listen!" (28:28)
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===The Holy Spirit===
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As in the [[Gospel of Luke]], there are numerous references to the [[Holy Spirit]] throughout Acts. The book uniquely features the "baptism in the Holy Spirit" on Pentecost and the subsequent spirit-inspired speaking in tongues (1:5, 8; 2:1-4; 11:15-16). The Holy Spirit is shown guiding the decisions and actions of Christian leaders (15:28; 16:6-7; 19:21; 20:22-23) and the Holy Spirit is said to "fill" the apostles, especially when they preach (1:8; 2:4; 4:8, 31; 11:24; 13:9, 52).  
  
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===Luke the physician as author===
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===Concern for the oppressed===
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The [[Gospel of Luke]] and Acts both devote a great deal of attention to the oppressed and downtrodden. In Luke's Gospel, the impoverished are generally praised (Luke 4:18; 6:20–21) while the wealthy are criticized. Luke alone tells the parable of the [[Good Samaritan]], while in Acts a large number of [[Samaritans]] join the church (Acts 8:4-25) after the Jerusalem authorities launch a campaign to persecute those who believe in [[Jesus]]. In Acts, attention is given to the suffering of the early Christians, as in the case of Stephen's martyrdom, Peter's imprisonments, and Paul's many sufferings for his preaching of Christianity.
  
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The traditional view is that the Gospel of Luke and Acts were written by the physician [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a companion of Paul. This Luke is mentioned in Paul's [[Epistle to Philemon]] (v.24), and in two other epistles which are traditionally ascribed to Paul ([[Colossians]] 4:14 and [[2 Timothy]] 4:11).
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===Prayer and speeches===
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Prayer, too, is a major motif in both the Gospel of Luke and Acts. Both books have a more prominent attention to [[prayer]] than is found in the other gospels.
  
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The view that Luke-Acts was written by the physician Luke was nearly unanimous in the early Christian church. The Papyrus Bodmer XIV, which is the oldest known manuscript containing the start of the gospel (dating to around 200 [[CE]]), uses the title "The Gospel According to Luke." Nearly all ancient sources also shared this theory of authorship—[[Irenaeus]],<ref>(''Haer.'' 3.1.1, 3.14.1)</ref> [[Tertullian]],<ref>(''Marc.'' 4.2.2)</ref>  [[Clement of Alexandria]],<ref>(''Paed.'' 2.1.15 and ''Strom.'' 5.12.82)</ref> [[Origen]], and the [[Muratorian Canon]] all regarded Luke as the author of the Luke-Acts. Neither [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] nor any other ancient writer mentions another tradition about authorship.
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Acts is also noted for a number of extended speeches and sermons from Peter, Paul, and others. There are at least 24 such speeches in Acts, comprising about 30 percent of the total verses.<ref> [http://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/lukespeech.html Fictitious Speeches in Acts]. ''www.geocities.com''. Retrieved August 6, 2007.</ref>
  
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In addition to the authorship evidence provided by the ancient sources, some feel the text of Luke-Acts supports the conclusion that its author was a companion of Paul. First among such internal evidence are portions of the book which have come to be called the "'we' passages." Although the bulk of Acts is written in the [[Grammatical person|third person]], several brief sections of the book are written from a first-person perspective.<ref>Acts 16:10–17, 20:5–15, 21:1–18, and 27:1–28:16</ref> These "we" sections are written from the point of view of a traveling companion of Paul: e.g. "After Paul had seen the vision, we got ready at once to leave for Macedonia," "We put out to sea and sailed straight for Samothrace"<ref>Acts 16:10</ref> Such passages would appear to have been written by someone who traveled with Paul during some portions of his ministry. Accordingly, some have used this evidence to support the conclusion that these passages, and therefore the entire text of the Luke-Acts, were written by a traveling companion of Paul's. The physician Luke would be one such person.  
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===The "Acts" genre===
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The word "Acts" (Greek ''praxeis'') denotes a recognized [[genre]] in the [[ancient world]], "characterizing books that described great deeds of people or of cities."<ref>D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 181.</ref> Many ancient works also tell marvelous tales of travels to foreign places, and Acts fits with this type as well, complete with stories of shipwrecks, escapes from prison, miraculous healings and slayings, interventions by angelic beings, descriptions of famous foreign buildings, and dramatic close encounters with both mobs and legal authorities.  
  
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It has also been argued that level of detail used in the narrative describing Paul's travels suggests an eyewitness source. Some claim that the vocabulary used in Luke-Acts suggests its author may have had medical training, but this claim has been widely disputed.    
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There are several such books in the [[New Testament apocrypha]], including the [[Acts of Thomas]], the [[Acts of Paul]] (and [[Thecla]]), the [[Acts of Andrew]], and the [[Acts of John]].
  
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===An anonymous, non-eyewitness author===
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==Authorship==
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{{weasel}}
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While the precise identity of the author is debated, the consensus of scholarship holds that the author was an educated Greek [[Gentile]] man writing for an audience of Gentile Christians. There is also substantial evidence to indicate that the author of the Book of Acts also wrote the [[Gospel of Luke]]. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book, both of which are addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], probably the author's patron. Furthermore, the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus--almost certainly the work we know as the Gospel of Luke.
  
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Some scholars have expressed doubt that the author of Luke-Acts was the physician Luke.{{fact|date=May 2006}} Instead, they believe Luke-Acts was written by an anonymous Christian author who may not have been an eyewitness to any of the events recorded within the text.
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There are also clear linguistic and theological similarities between the Luke and Acts. Because of their common authorship, the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles are often jointly referred to as ''Luke-Acts.''
  
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Some of the evidence cited in favor of this opinion comes from the text of Luke-Acts itself. In the preface to Luke, the author refers to having eyewitness testimony "handed down to us" and to having undertaken a "careful investigation," but the author does not mention his own name or explicitly claim to be an eyewitness to any of the events.{{Fact|date=March 2007}} Except for the "we" passages in Acts, the narrative of Luke-Acts is written in the third person — the author never refers to himself as "I" or "me." To those who are skeptical of an eyewitness author, the "we passages" are usually regarded as fragments of a second document, part of some earlier account, which was later incorporated into Acts by the later author of Luke-Acts. An alternate theory is that the use of "we" was a stylistic idiosyncrasy used in many sea travel narratives written around the same time as Acts.<ref>V.K. Robbins [http://christianorigins.com/bylandbysea.html By Land and By Sea:
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===Luke the physician===
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The We-Passages and Ancient Sea Voyages]</ref>
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[[Image:Andrea Mantegna 017.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Luke, as conceived by Andrea Mantegna, c. 1453-1454]]
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The traditional view is that the Book of Acts was written by the physician [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a companion of Paul. This Luke is mentioned in Paul's [[Epistle to Philemon]] (v.24), and in two other epistles which are traditionally ascribed to Paul ([[Colossians]] 4:14 and [[2 Timothy]] 4:11).
  
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Scholars also point to a number of apparent theological and factual discrepancies between Luke-Acts and [[Pauline Epistles|Paul's letters]]. For example, Acts and the Pauline letters appear to disagree about the number and timings of Paul's visits to Jerusalem, and  Paul's own account of his conversion is slightly different from the account given in Acts. Similarly, some believe the theology of Luke-Acts is slightly different from the theology espoused by Paul in his letters. This would suggest that the author of Luke-Acts did not have direct contact with Paul, but instead may have relied upon other sources for his portrayal of Paul.
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The view that Luke-Acts was written by the physician Luke was nearly unanimous among the early [[Church Fathers]] who commented on these works. The text of Luke-Acts provides important hints that its author was either himself a companion of Paul, or that he used sources from one of Paul's companions. The so-called "'we passages" are often cited as evidence of this. Although the bulk of Acts is written in the [[Grammatical person|third person]], several brief sections are written from a first-person plural perspective.<ref>Acts 16:10–17, 20:5–15, 21:1–18, and 27:1–28:16</ref> For example: "After Paul had seen the vision, we got ready at once to leave for Macedonia… we put out to sea and sailed straight for Samothrace." (16:10-11) It has also been argued that the level of detail used in the narrative describing Paul's travels suggests an eyewitness source. Some claim that the vocabulary used in Luke-Acts suggests its author may have had medical training.    
  
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==Genre==
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Others believe that Acts was written by an anonymous Christian author who may not have been an eyewitness to any of the events recorded within the text. In the preface to Luke, the author refers to having eyewitness testimony "handed down to us" and to having undertaken a "careful investigation," but the author does not claim to be an eyewitness to any of the events. Except for the "we" passages in Acts, the narrative of Luke-Acts is written in the third person, and the author never refers to himself as "I" or "me." The "we passages" are thus regarded as fragments of a source document which was later incorporated into Acts by the author.
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The word "Acts" (Greek ''praxeis'') denoted a recognized genre in the [[ancient world]], "characterizing books that described great deeds of people or of cities."<ref>Carson, D. A., Moo, Douglas J. and Morris, Leon ''An Introduction to the New Testament'' (Leicester: Apollos, 1999), 181.</ref> There are several such books in the [[New Testament apocrypha]], including the [[Acts of Thomas]], the [[Acts of Andrew]], and the [[Acts of John]].
 
  
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Modern scholars assign a wide range of genres to the Acts of the Apostles, including [[biography]], [[novel]] and epic. Most, however, interpret it as [[history]].<ref>Phillips, Thomas E. "The Genre of Acts: Moving Toward a Consensus?" ''Currents in Biblical Research'' 4 [2006] 365 - 396.</ref>
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Scholars also point to a number of apparent theological and factual discrepancies between Luke-Acts and [[Pauline Epistles|Paul's letters]]. For example, Acts and the Pauline letters appear to disagree about the number and timings of Paul's visits to [[Jerusalem,]] and Paul's own account of his conversion is different from the account given in Acts. Similarly, some believe the theology of Luke-Acts is also different from the theology espoused by Paul in his letters. Acts moderates Paul's opposition to circumcision and the kosher dietary laws, and it downplays bitter disagreements between Paul and Peter, and Paul and Barnabas. To some, this suggests that the author of Luke-Acts did not have significant contact with Paul, but instead relied on other sources for his portrayal of Paul.
  
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==Sources==
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===Sources===
 
[[Image:Codex laudianus.jpg|thumb|right|Acts 15:22–24 from the seventh-century ''Codex laudianus'' in the [[Bodleian Library]], written in parallel columns of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].]]
 
[[Image:Codex laudianus.jpg|thumb|right|Acts 15:22–24 from the seventh-century ''Codex laudianus'' in the [[Bodleian Library]], written in parallel columns of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].]]
  
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The author of Acts likely relied upon other sources, as well as oral tradition, in constructing his account of the early church and Paul's ministry. Evidence of this is found in the prologue to the Gospel of Luke, where the author alluded to his sources by writing, "Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first were eyewitnesses and servants of the word." Some theorize that the "we" passages in Acts are one such "handed down" quotation from some earlier source who was a part of Paul's travels. 
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The author of Acts likely relied upon written sources, as well as oral tradition, in constructing his account of the early church and Paul's ministry. Evidence of this is found in the prologue to the Gospel of Luke, where the author alluded to his sources by writing, "Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first were eyewitnesses and servants of the word."  
  
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It is generally believed that the author of Acts did not have access to a collection of [[Pauline epistles|Paul's letters]]. One piece of evidence suggesting this is that although half of Acts centers on Paul, Acts never directly quotes from the epistles nor does it even mention Paul writing letters. Additionally, the epistles and Acts disagree about the general chronology of much of Paul's career. Since many of Paul's epistles are believed to be authentic, the discrepancies between the authentic epistles and Acts are probably errors on the part of Acts which were made because its author lacked access to the Pauline epistles or a similar source.
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It is generally believed that the author of Acts did not have access to a collection of [[Pauline epistles|Paul's letters]]. One piece of evidence suggesting this is, that although half of Acts centers on Paul, Acts never directly quotes from the epistles nor does it even mention Paul writing letters. Additionally, the epistles and Acts disagree about the chronology of Paul's career.
  
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Other theories about Acts' sources are more controversial. Some historians believe that Acts borrows phraseology and plot elements from [[Euripides]]' play [[The Bacchae]].<ref>Randel McCram Helms (1997) ''Who Wrote The Gospels''</ref> Some feel that the text of Acts shows evidence of having used the Jewish historian [[Josephus]] as a source (in which case it would to have been written sometime after 94 [[CE]]).<ref>[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/lukeandjosephus.html Luke and Josephus]</ref>
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===Date===
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[[conservative Christianity|Conservative Christian]] scholars often date the Book of Acts quite early. For example, [[Norman Geisler]] believes it was written between 60-62 C.E..<ref> [http://www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID=233 Dating of the New Testament, Dr. Norman Geisler] ''www.bethinking.org''. Retrieved August 6, 2007.</ref> Others have suggested that Acts was written as a defense of Paul for his upcoming trial in Rome.<ref>John L. Mauch. ''Paul On Trial: The Book Of Acts As A Defense Of Christianity.'' (Thomas Nelson, 2001)</ref>. Arguing for an early date is the fact that Paul has not yet died when the book ends, nor is there any reference to Jewish rebellion against Rome and the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, which took place in 70 C.E.
  
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==Historical==
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However, Acts 20:25 suggests that the author knows of Paul's death: "I know that none of you.. will ever see me again." Moreover many scholars believe that Luke did have knowledge of the Temple's destruction (Luke 19:44; 21:20), and that his Gospel was written during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96). One of Luke's purposes in writing to Theophilus, possibly a Roman official whom he addresses as "excellency," may have been to demonstrate that the Christians were loyal to Rome, unlike many Jews. The fact that Acts shows no awareness of Paul's letters means that Luke probably wrote before Paul's epistles were collected and distributed. Thus, liberal scholarship tends to put the date of Acts at somewhere between 85 and 100 C.E..<ref> See for example William Baird, "Acts of the Apostles," in the ''Interpreters Bible,'' 1971.</ref>
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The question of authorship is largely bound up with that as to the historicity of the contents. Conservative scholars view the book of Acts as being extremely accurate while skeptics view the work as being inaccurate. For example, the conservative [[Oxford]] scholar [[A.N. Sherwin-White]] wrote in his work ''Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament'' the following: "For the New Testament of Acts, the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming…any attempt to reject its basic historicity, even in matters of detail, must now appear absurd. Roman historians have long taken it for granted."<ref> A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), p. 189.</ref>
 
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In addition, conservative scholars see the book of Acts being corroborated by [[archaeology]].<ref>[http://www.apologeticsinfo.org/papers/actsarcheology.html]</ref>  
 
  
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Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first (chs. 1&ndash;12) deals with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as central figure—at any rate in the first five chapters. "Yet in cc. vi.-xii.," as Harnack observes,
+
The place of composition is still an open question. For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favor, but some believe internal evidence points to the Roman province of [[Asia Province|Asia]], particularly the neighborhood of [[Ephesus]].
  
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<blockquote>the author pursues several lines at once. (1) He has still in view the history of the Jerusalem community and the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary labors); (2) he inserts in vi. 1 ff. a history of the Hellenistic Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the first tends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the Antiochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of [[Philip the Apostle|Philip]] in [[Samaria]] and on the coast...; (4) lastly, he relates the history of Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young Antiochene church. In the small space of seven chapters he pursues all these lines and tries also to connect them together, at the same time preparing and sketching the great transition of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world. As historian, he has here set himself the greatest task. </blockquote>
+
==Historicity==
 +
The question of authorship of Acts is largely bound up with that of the historicity of its contents. Conservative scholars view the book as being basically accurate while skeptics view it as historically unreliable, its purpose being basically propagandistic and faith-driven.  
  
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No doubt gaps abound in these seven chapters. "But the inquiry as to whether what is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet concluded." The difficulty is that there are few external means of testing this portion of the narrative.  The second part pursues the history of the apostle Paul, and here the statements made in the Acts may be compared with the Epistles. The result is a general harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and there are many minute coincidences. But attention has been drawn to two remarkable exceptions: the account given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as compared with Acts; and the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts.  
+
Beyond these basic differences in attitude, faithful Christians as well as secular scholars have devoted much effort to discussing the accuracy of Acts. It is one of the few Christian documents that can be checked in many details against other known contemporary sources, namely the letters of Paul, one of Acts' own main characters.
  
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In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's movements until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cilicia do not really amount to more than can be explained by the different interests of Paul and the author, respectively. But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Galatians 2:1&ndash;10 and Acts 15. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually assumed, it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given in Galatians 2:9f. and Acts 15:20f., are not at all the same. Nay more, if Galatians 2:1&ndash;10 = Acts 15, the historicity of the "Relief visit" of Acts 11:30, 12:25 seems definitely excluded by Paul's narrative of events before the visit of Galatians 2:1ff. Accordingly, [[William Mitchell Ramsay|Sir W. M. Ramsay]] and others argue that the latter visit itself coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Galatians 2:10 witness thereto.  
+
===Acts. vs. Paul's epistles===
 +
Attention has been drawn particularly to the account given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as compared with Acts, to the account of Paul's conversion, his attitude toward the [[Torah|Jewish Law]], and to the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts.
  
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But why does not Paul refer to the public charitable object of his visit? It seems easier to assume that the visit of Galatians 2:1ff. is altogether unrecorded in Acts, owing to its private nature as preparing the way for public developments&mdash;with which Acts is mainly concerned. In that case, it would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be tacit explanatory allusion, in Galatians 2:10; and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in Galatians 2:1ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey and to [[Council of Jerusalem|Acts 15]].  
+
Some of the differences as to Paul's visits to Jerusalem have been explained in terms of the two authors varying interests and emphasis. The apparent discrepancy between Galatians 1-2 and Acts 15, however, is particularly problematic and is much debated.
  
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As for Paul as depicted in Acts, Paul claims that he was appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Circumcision; and that [[Circumcision in the Bible|circumcision]] and the observance of the [[Mosaic Law]] were of no importance to the Christian as such. His words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided, but see also [[Antinomianism]] and [[New Perspective on Paul]]. But in Acts, it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles. It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the intolerable burden  
+
As for Paul, character and attitude toward the Jewish Law as depicted in Acts, Paul claims in his letters that he was appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to "the [[circumcision]]." He also contends that circumcision and the observance of the [[Mosaic Law]] are of no importance to salvation. His words on these points in his letters are strong and decided. But in Acts, it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles. It is also Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the intolerable burden of the Law as a means of salvation (15:10f.; cf. 1). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal 2:11ff.). In  Acts, Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the Gentiles. Instead, he seems continually anxious to reconcile the [[Jewish Christians]] to himself by personally observing the law of Moses. He personally circumcises [[Timothy]], whose mother is Jewish; and he willingly participates in a public vow at the [[Temple of Jerusalem|the Temple]]. He is particularly careful in his speeches to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this, the letters of Paul are very different from Acts.
−
of the Law as a means of salvation (15:10f.; cf. 1), so-called [[Legalism (theology)]]. Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal 2:11ff.). The brethren in Antioch send Paul and [[Barnabas]] up to Jerusalem to ask the opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of Acts, Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the [[Jewish Christians]] to himself by personally observing the law of Moses. He personally circumcises the semi-Jew, [[Timothy]]; and he performs his vows in [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple]]. He is particularly careful in his speeches to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this, the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians, he claims perfect freedom in principle, for himself as for the Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem. The narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than what it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law?
 
−
 
 
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This is not necessarily a contradiction; only such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the standpoints and aims of the two writers amid their respective historical conditions. Peter's function toward the Gentiles belongs to early conditions present in Judaea, before Paul's distinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate&mdash;a personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of "the Twelve"&mdash;has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval, Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages (Acts 15). Paul, on his side, clearly implies that Peter felt with him that the Law could not justify (Gal 2:15ff.), and argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle (cf. "a [[yoke]]," Acts 15:10); yet for Jews it might continue for the time (pending the [[Parousia]]) to be seemly and expedient, especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism. To this he conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apostolate was not involved (1 Cor 9:19ff.). There is no reason to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this spirit in Galatians 2:11f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to draw back for expediency's sake. This incident simply did not fall within the scope of Acts to narrate, since it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension. As to Paul's submission of the issue in Acts 15 to the Jerusalem conference, Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision in favor of the [[Judaizers]], though he saw the value of getting a decision for his own policy in the quarter where they were most likely to defer. If the view that he already had an understanding with the "Pillar" Apostles, as recorded in Galatians 2:1&ndash;10, be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts 15. Paul's own "free" attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just what is implied by the hostile rumors as to his conduct in Acts 21:21, which he would be glad to disprove as at least exaggerated (vv. 24 and 26).
 
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−
(Questions and evidence of historicity are presented in Colin J. Hemer, "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History," Eisenbrauns, 1990)
 
  
 
===Speeches===
 
===Speeches===
−
The speeches in Acts deserve special notice, because they constitute about 20% of the entire book. Given the nature of the times, lack of recording devices, and space limitations, many ancient historians did not reproduce verbatim reports of speeches. Condensing and using one's own style was often unavoidable. Nevertheless, there were different practices when it came to the level of creativity or adherence individual historians practiced.  
+
The speeches in Acts deserve special notice, because they constitute a large portion of the book. Given the nature of the times, lack of recording devices, and space limitations, many ancient historians did not reproduce verbatim reports of speeches. Condensing and using one's own style was often unavoidable. There is little doubt that the speeches of Acts are summaries or condensations largely in the style and vocabulary of its author.
  
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On one end of the scale were those who seemingly invented speeches, such as the Sicilian historian [[Timaeus]] (356&ndash;260 B.C.E.). Others, such as [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] and [[Tacitus]], fell somewhere in between, reporting actual speeches but likely with significant liberty. The ideal for ancient historians, however, seems to have been to try as much as possible to report the sense of what was actually said, rather than simply placing one's own speech in a figure's mouth.  
+
However, there are indications that the author of Acts relied on source material for his speeches, and did not always treat them as mere vehicles for expressing his own theology. The author's apparent use of speech material in the Gospel of Luke, itself obtained either from the [[Gospel of Mark]] and the hypothetical [[Q document]] or the [[Gospel of Matthew]], suggests that he relied on other sources for his narrative and was relatively faithful in using them. Additionally, many scholars have viewed Acts' presentation of Stephen's speech, Peter's speeches in Jerusalem and, most obviously, Paul's speech in [[Miletus]] as relying on source material or of expressing views not typical of the Acts' author.
  
−
Perhaps the best example of this ideal was voiced by Polybius, who ridiculed Timaeus for his invention of speeches. Historians, Polybius wrote, were "to instruct and convince for all time serious students by the truth of the facts and the speeches he narrates" (''Hist.'' 2.56.10&ndash;12). Another ancient historian, [[Thucydides]], admits to having taken some liberty while narrating speeches, but only when he did not have access to any sources. When he had sources, he used them. In his own words, Thucydides wrote speeches "of course adhering as closely as possible to the general sense of what was actually said" (''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', 1.22.1). Accordingly, as stated by C.W. Fornara, "[t]he principle was established that speeches were to be recorded accurately, though in the words of the historian, and always with the reservation that the historian could 'clarify'" (''The Nature of History in Ancient Greece and Rome'', p. 145).
+
==Outline==
 +
{{col-begin|width=95%}}
 +
{{Col-break}}
 +
*Dedication to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]] (1:1-2)
 +
*[[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|Resurrection appearances]] (1:3)
 +
*[[Great Commission]] (1:4-8)
 +
*[[Ascension]] (1:9)
 +
*[[Second Coming|Second Coming Prophecy]] (1:10-11)
 +
*[[Saint Matthias|Matthias]] replaces [[Judas Iscariot|Judas]] (1:12-26)
 +
*[[Holy Spirit]] at [[Pentecost]] (2)
 +
*[[St. Peter|Peter]] heals a crippled beggar (3)
 +
*Peter and [[John the Apostle|John]] before the [[Sanhedrin]] (4:1-22)
 +
*[[Discourse on ostentation#Materialism|Everything is shared]] (4:32-37)
 +
*[[Ananias and Sapphira]] (5:1-11)
 +
*Signs and Wonders (5:12-16)
 +
*[[Apostles]] before the Sanhedrin (5:17-42)
 +
*Seven Greek Jews appointed as [[deacon]]s (6:1-7)
 +
*[[Saint Stephen]] before the Sanhedrin (6:8-7:60)
 +
*[[Paul of Tarsus|Saul]] persecutes the church (8:1-3)
 +
{{Col-break}}
 +
*[[Philip the Evangelist]] and [[Simon Magus]] (8:9-24)
 +
*[[Road to Damascus|Conversion of Saul]] (9:1-31, 22:1-22, 26:9-24)
 +
*Peter raises Tabitha from the dead (9:32-43)
 +
*Conversion of [[Cornelius]] (10:1-8, 24-48)
 +
*Peter's vision (10:9-23, 11:1-18)
 +
*Church of [[Antioch]] founded (11:19-30)
 +
*Peter and Herod [[Agrippa I]] (12:3-25)
 +
*[[Paul_of_Tarsus#First_missionary_journey|Mission of Barnabas and Saul]] (13-14)
 +
*[[Council of Jerusalem]] (15:1-35)
 +
*Paul separates from Barnabas (15:36-41)
 +
*[[Paul_of_Tarsus#Second_missionary_journey|2nd]] and [[Paul_of_Tarsus#Third_missionary_journey|3rd]] missions (16-20)
 +
*[[Paul_of_Tarsus#Arrest_and_death|Paul in Jerusalem]] (21)
 +
*Paul before the Sanhedrin (22-23)
 +
*Paul in Caesaria (24-26)
 +
*Trip to Rome an conclusion (27-28)
  
−
On what end of the scale did the author of Acts fall? There is little doubt that the speeches of Acts are summaries or condensations largely in the style and vocabulary of its author. However, there are indications that the author of Acts relied on source material for his speeches, and did not treat them as mere vehicles for expressing his own theology. The author's apparent use of speech material in the Gospel of Luke, obtained from the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document or the [[Gospel of Matthew]], suggests that he relied on other sources for his narrative and was relatively faithful in using them. Additionally, many scholars have viewed Acts' presentation of Stephen's speech, Peter's speeches in Jerusalem and, most obviously, Paul's speech in [[Miletus]] as relying on source material or of expressing views not typical of Acts' author.[http://www.christiancadre.org/member_contrib/cp_acts.html] Additionally, there is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free composition of its author, without either written or oral basis. Accordingly, in general, the author of Acts seems to be among the conscientious ancient historians, touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now understood.
+
{{Col-end}}
  
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===Miracles===
+
== Notes ==
−
{{weasel}}
+
{{reflist}}
−
[[Skeptic]]s object to the trustworthiness of Acts{{Fact|date=March 2007}} on the ground of its reports of [[miracle]]s, while [[Christian apologetics|Christian apologists]] defend the work as containing earlier sources.
 
  
−
There are possibilities of mistakes intervening between the facts and the accounts reaching its author, at second- or even thirdhand. Some modern scholars argue{{Fact|date=March 2007}} that Acts shows several errors, and suggest its value as history is doubtful. However, the use of "we" at some points in the book suggests its author was an eyewitness to some of the events he describes.
+
==References==
 +
* Borgman, Paul Carlton. ''The Way According to Luke: Hearing the Whole Story of Luke-Acts.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2006. ISBN 978-0802829368
 +
* Carson, D. A., Moo, Douglas J. and Morris, Leon. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. ISBN 978-0310238591
 +
* Gallagher, Robert L., ed. ''Mission in Acts: Ancient Narratives in Contemporary Context.'' Orbis Books, 2004. ISBN 978-1570754937
 +
* Laymon, Charles M. ''The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible.'' Abingdon Press, 1971. ISBN 0687192994
 +
* Mauch, John L. ''Paul On Trial: The Book Of Acts As A Defense Of Christianity.'' Thomas Nelson, 2001. ISBN 978-0785245988
 +
* Porter, Stanley E. ''Paul in Acts.'' Hendrickson Publishers, 2001. ISBN 978-1565636132
 +
* Spell, David. ''Peter and Paul in Acts.'' Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1597527842 
 +
* Wagner, Peter. ''Acts of the Holy Spirit.'' Gospel Light Publications, 2000. ISBN 978-0830720415
  
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''[[Quellenkritik]]'', a distinctive feature of recent research upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging such a book. For among the results of the [[Tübingen]] criticism was what Dr. W. Sanday calls "an unreal and artificial standard, the standard of the 19th century rather than the [[1st century|1st]], of [[Germany]] rather than [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], of the lamp and the study rather than of active
+
==External links==
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life." This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]], Ramsay, [[Friedrich Blass|Blass]] and Harnack, trained amid other methods and traditions than those which had brought the constructive study of Acts almost to a deadlock.
+
All links retrieved November 17, 2023.
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==Structure==
 
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<!-- shorten; edit for clarity —>
 
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The structure of the book of Luke<ref>See, for example, Gooding, David W., ''According to Luke'', (1987) ISBN 0-85110-756-7</ref> is closely tied with the structure of Acts.<ref>See, for example, Gooding, David W., ''True to the Faith'', (1990) ISBN 0-340-52563-0</ref>  Both books are most easily tied to the geography of the book. Luke begins with a global perspective, dating the birth of Jesus to the reign of the [[Roman emperors]] in Luke 2:1 and 3:1. From there we see Jesus' ministry move from Galilee (chapters 4&ndash;9), through Samaria and Judea (chs. 10&ndash;19), to Jerusalem where he is [[Crucifixion|crucified]], raised and ascended into [[heaven]] (chs. 19&ndash;24).
 
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The book of Acts follows just the opposite motion, taking the scene from Jerusalem (chs. 1&ndash;5), to Judea and Samaria (chs. 6&ndash;9), then traveling through [[Syria]], [[Asia Minor]], and [[Europe]] towards [[Rome]] (chs. 9&ndash;28). This [[chiastic structure]] emphasizes the centrality of the [[resurrection]] and [[ascension]] to Luke's message, while emphasizing the universal nature of the gospel.
 
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This geographic structure is foreshadowed in Acts 1:8, where Jesus says "You shall be My witnesses both in Jerusalem (chs. 1&ndash;5), and in all Judea and Samaria (chs. 6&ndash;9), and even to the remotest part of the earth (chs. 10&ndash;28)." The first two sections (chs. 1&ndash;9) represent the witness of the apostles to the Jews, while the last section (chs. 10&ndash;28) represent the witness of the apostles to the [[Gentiles]].
 
  
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The book of Acts can also be broken down by the major characters of the book. While the complete title of the book is the Acts of the Apostles, really the book focuses on only two of the apostles: Peter (chs. 1&ndash;12) and Paul (chs. 13&ndash;28).
+
* [http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=46287411 ''Acts (NRSV)'' at Oremus Bible Browser]. ''bible.oremus.org''.
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+
* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=acts+1 ''Online Bible'' at gospelhall.org]. ''www.gospelhall.org''.
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Within this structure, the sub-points of the book are marked by a series of summary statements, or what one commentary calls a "progress report." Just before the geography of the scene shifts to a new location, Luke summarizes how the gospel has impacted that location. The standard for these progress reports is in 2:46&ndash;47, where Luke describes the impact of the gospel on the new church in Jerusalem. The remaining progress reports are located:
+
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01117a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Acts of the Apostles]. ''www.newadvent.org''.
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*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N#714 Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament - The Acts of the Apostles]. ''jewishencyclopedia.com''.
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*Acts 6:7 Impact of the gospel in Jerusalem.
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*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/acts_long_01_intro.htm Tertullian.org: The Western Text of the Acts of the Apostles (1923) J. M. WILSON, D.D.]. ''www.tertullian.org''.
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*9:31 Impact of the gospel in Judea and Samaria.
 
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*12:24 Impact of the gospel in Syria.
 
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*16:5 Impact of the gospel in Asia Minor.
 
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*19:20 Impact of the gospel in Europe.
 
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*28:31 Impact of the gospel on Rome.
 
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This structure can be also seen as a series of concentric circles, where the gospel begins in the center, Jerusalem, and is expanding ever outward to Judea & Samaria, Syria, Asia Minor, Europe, and eventually to Rome.
 
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==Date==
 
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External evidence now points to the existence of Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd century. [[conservative Christianity|Conservative Christian]] scholars date the book of Acts early.  For example, [[Norman Geisler]] dates the book of Acts being written between 60-62 C.E. for a number of reasons.<ref> [http://www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID=233].</ref>  As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, its existence in [[Marcion]]'s day (120&ndash;140) is now assured.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Further, the traces of it in [[Polycarp]] 6 and [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] 7 when taken together are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the resemblance of Acts 13:22 and [[Epistles of Clement|First Clement]] 18:1, in features not found in [[Psalms]] 89:20 quoted by each, can hardly be accidental. That is, Acts was probably current in Antioch and [[İzmir|Smyrna]] not later than circa 115, and perhaps in Rome as early as circa 96.
 
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With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some advocacy of a date prior to 70 since the book of Acts does not mention the destruction of Jerusalem, the bulk of critical opinion is decidedly against it{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. The prologue to Luke's Gospel itself implies the dying out of the generation of eyewitnesses as a class. A strong consensus supports a date about 80; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75 seems no less possible. Two points used by advocates of pre-70 authorship is the fact that (1) [[Nero|Nero's]] mass execution of Christians in 64 is omitted, and (2) Paul's death is not recorded. Although point two can be addressed as being off focus with respect to Acts, the numerous amount of Christians that were killed would surely have contained a motif for the writer to record since in the very least it would offer a case of martyrdom. Of the reasons for a date in one of the earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the [[Tübingen school]] and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among these are the supposed traces of 2nd-century [[Gnosticism]] and "[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]]" ideas of organization{{Fact|date=March 2007}}; but especially the argument from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which [[Ramsay]]{{Fact|date=March 2007}} has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior to [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny's]] correspondence with [[Trajan]] on the subject. Another fact, now generally admitted{{Fact|date=March 2007}}, renders a [[2nd-century]] date yet more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to Paul's memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of this he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the later works of [[Josephus]], we should have to place the book about 100. But this is far from being the case.
 
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Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited. (1) The circumstances attending the death of [[Agrippa I]] in 44. Here Acts 12:21&ndash;23 is largely parallel to his ''[[Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]]'' 19.8.2; but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone gives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public appearance. Hence the parallel, when analyzed, tells against dependence on Josephus. So also with (2) the cause of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] pseudo-prophet in Acts 21:37f. and in Josephus (''[[Jewish War|J.W.]]'' 2.13.5; ''A.J.'' 20.8.6) for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of Josephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them ''[[Sicarii]]''. With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3) the curious resemblance as to the (nonhistorical) order in which [[Theudas]] and [[Judas of Galilee]] are referred to in both (Acts 5:36f.; ''A.J.'' 20.5.1) as accidental.
 
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It is worth noting, however, that no ancient source actually mentions Acts by name prior to 177. If it were composed prior to then, no one spoke of it by that name, or at least no one whose writings have survived down to the present day. This being an [[argument from silence]], not withstanding, that just as previously mentioned [[Saint Ignatius of Antioch]] (c. 35-107) quotes from the book of [http://www.ntcanon.org/Ignatius.shtml#Acts Acts] as he also quotes from the gospel of [http://www.ntcanon.org/Ignatius.shtml#Gospel_of_Luke Luke]. St [[Polycarp of Smyrna]] (birth unknown, death ca. 155) as well quotes from the book of [http://www.ntcanon.org/Polycarp.shtml#Acts Acts]
 
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==Place==
 
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The place of composition is still an open question. For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favor, and Blass combined both views in his theory of two editions. But internal evidence points strongly to the Roman province of [[Asia Province|Asia]], particularly the neighborhood of [[Ephesus]]. Note the confident local allusion in 19:9 to "the school of Tyrannus" and in 19:33 to "Alexander"; also the very minute topography in 20:13&ndash;15.  At any rate affairs in that region, including the future of the church of Ephesus (20:28&ndash;30), are treated as though they would specially interest "Theophilus" and his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the adjacent [[Bithynia]].  Finally it was in this region that there arose certain early glosses (e.g., 19:9; 20:15), probably the earliest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength of Judaism in Asia (cf. [[Book of Revelation|Rev]] 2:9, 3:9; and see Sir W. M. Ramsay, ''The Letters to the Seven Churches'', ch. xii.).
 
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==Manuscripts==
 
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Like most biblical books, there are differences between the earliest surviving manuscripts of Acts.  In the case of Acts, however, the differences between the surviving manuscripts is more substantial.  The two earliest versions of manuscripts are the [[Western text-type]] (as represented by the [[Codex Bezae]]) and the [[Alexandrian text-type]] (as represented by the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]).  The version of Acts preserved in the Western manuscripts contains about 10% more content than the Alexandrian version of Acts.  Since the difference is so great, scholars have struggled to determine which of the two versions is closer to the original text composed by the original author. 
 
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The earliest explanation, suggested by Swiss theologian [[Jean Leclerc (theologian)|Jean LeClerc]] in the 17th century, posits that the longer Western version was a first draft, while the Alexandrian version represents a more polished revision by the same author.  Adherents of this theory argue that even when the two versions diverge, they both have similarities in vocabulary and writing style— suggesting that the two shared a common author.  However, it has been argued that if both texts were written by the same individual, they should have exactly identical theologies and they should agree on historical questions.  Since most modern scholars do detect subtle theological and historical differences between the texts, most scholars do not subscribe to the rough-draft/polished-draft theory. 
 
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A second theory assumes common authorship of the Western and Alexandrian texts, but claims the Alexandrian text is the short first draft, and the Western text is a longer polished draft.  A third theory is that the longer Western text came first, but that later, some other redactor abbreviated some of the material, resulting in the shorter Alexandrian text.       
 
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While these other theories still have a measure of support, the modern consensus is that the shorter Alexandrian text is closer to the original, and the longer Western text is the result of later insertion of additional material into the text.<ref>[http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Tyndale/staff/Head/TextofActs.htm The Text of Acts]</ref>  It is believed that the material in the Western text which isn't in the Alexandrian text reflects later theological developments within Christianity.  For examples, the Western text features a greater hostility to Judaism, a more positive attitude towards a Gentile Christianity, and other traits which appear to be later additions to the text.  Some also note that the Western text attempts to minimize the emphasis Acts places on the role of women in the early Christian church.<ref>[http://www.bibletexts.com/terms/tr-wtext.htm The influence on the Textus Receptus and the KJV of the Western Text's "anti-feminist bias"]</ref>
 
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A third class of manuscripts, known as the [[Byzantine text-type]], is often considered to have developed after the Western and Alexandrian types.  The extant manuscripts of this type date from the 5th century or later; however, papyrus fragments show that this text-type may date as early as the Alexandrian or Western text-types.<ref>Such as P66 and P75.  See: E. C. Colwell, ''Hort Redivisus: A Plea and a Program,'' Studies in Methodology in Textual Criticism of the New Testament, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969, p. 45-48.</ref> The Byzantine text-type served as the basis for the 16th century [[Textus Receptus]], the first Greek-language version of the New Testament to be printed by printing press.  The Textus Receptus, in turn, served as the basis for the New Testament found in the English-language [[King James Bible]].  Today, the Byzantine text-type is the subject of renewed interest as the possible original form of the text from which the Western and Alexandrian text-types were derived.<ref>See: Robinson, Maurice A. and Pierpont, William G., ''The New Testament in the Original Greek'', (2005) ISBN 0-7598-0077-4</ref>
 
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== References ==
 
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{{reflist}}
 
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==External links==
 
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* [http://bible.oremus.org/?ql=46287411 ''Acts (NRSV)'' at Oremus Bible Browser]
 
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*[http://www.westarinstitute.org/Polebridge/Title/DatingActs/datingacts.html Dating Acts]
 
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* [http://unbound.biola.edu ''Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions'' at Biola University]
 
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* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=acts+1 ''Online Bible'' at gospelhall.org]
 
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*[http://http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts;&version=31;9; ''Book of Acts'' at Bible Gateway (NIV & KJV)]
 
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*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Acts from the Biblical Resource Database]
 
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* [http://www.parsagard.com/shipwreck.htm The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Investigation of Acts 27 and 28]
 
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01117a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Acts of the Apostles]
 
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*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Acts_of_the_Apostles Encyclopedia Britannica: Acts of the Apostles]
 
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*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N#714 Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament - The Acts of the Apostles]
 
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*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/acts_long_01_intro.htm Tertullian.org: The Western Text of the Acts of the Apostles (1923) J. M. WILSON, D.D.]
 
  
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[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
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Latest revision as of 07:25, 17 November 2023

New Testament

The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the New Testament. It is commonly referred to as the Book of Acts or simply Acts. The title "Acts of the Apostles" (Greek Praxeis Apostolon) was first used as its title by Irenaeus of Lyon in the late second century.

Acts tells the story of the Early Christian church, with particular emphasis on the ministry of the apostles Peter and Paul of Tarsus, who are the central figures of the middle and later chapters of the book. The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, discuss Jesus' Resurrection, his Ascension, the Day of Pentecost, and the start of the apostles' ministry. The later chapters discuss Paul's conversion, his ministry, and finally his arrest, imprisonment, and trip to Rome. A major theme of the book is the expansion of the Holy Spirit's work from the Jews, centering in Jerusalem, to the Gentiles throughout the Roman Empire.

It is almost universally agreed that the author of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke. The traditional view is that both Luke and Acts were written in the early 60s C.E. by a companion of Paul named Luke, but many modern scholars believe these books to have been the work of an unknown author at a later date, sometime between 80 and 100 C.E. Although the objectivity of the Book of Acts has been seriously challenged, it remains, together with the letters of Paul, one of the most extensive sources on the history of the early Christian church.

Summary

Prologue

The author begins with a prologue addressed to a person named Theophilius and references "my earlier book"—almost certainly the Gospel of Luke.

This is immediately followed by a narrative in which the resurrected Jesus instructs the disciples to remain in Jerusalem to await the gift of the Holy Spirit. They ask him if he intends now to "restore the kingdom to Israel," a reference to his mission as the Jewish Messiah, but Jesus replies that the timing of such things is not for them to know (1:6-7). After this, Jesus ascends into a cloud and disappears, a scene known to Christians as the Ascension. Two "men" appear and ask why they look to the sky, since Jesus will return in the same way he went.[1]

From this point on, Jesus ceases to be a central figure in the drama of Acts, while the Holy Spirit becomes the prime actor, performing great miracles through the disciples and bringing the Gospel to all people.

The Jerusalem church

The apostles, along with Jesus' mother, his brothers,[2] and other followers, meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas Iscariot as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends on them. The apostles hear a great wind and witness "tongues of flames" descending on them. Thereafter, the apostles have the miraculous power to "speak in tongues" and when they address a crowd, each member of the crowd hears their speech in his own native language. Three thousand people reportedly become believers and are baptized as a result of this miracle (2:1-40).

Peter, along with John, preaches to many in Jerusalem, and performs miracles such as healings, the casting out of evil spirits, and the raising of the dead (ch. 3). A controversy arises due to Peter and John preaching that Jesus had been resurrected. Sadduceean priests—who, unlike the Pharisees, denied the doctrine of the resurrection—have the two apostles arrested. The High Priest, together with other Sadduceean leaders, question the two but fear punishing them on account of the recent miracle at the Temple precincts. Having earlier condemned Jesus to the Romans, the priests command the apostles not to speak in Jesus' name, but the apostles make it clear they do not intend to comply (4:1-21).

The growing community of Jewish Christians practices a form of communism: "selling their possessions and goods, they gave to anyone as he had need." (1:45) The policy is strictly enforced, and when one member, Ananias, withholds for himself part of the proceeds of a house he has sold, he and his wife are both slain by the Holy Spirit after attempting to hide their sin from Peter (5:1-20).

As their numbers increase, the believers are increasingly persecuted. Once again the Sadducees move against them. Some of the apostles are arrested again. The leader of the Pharisees, Gamaliel, however, defends them, warning his fellow members of the Sanhedrin to "Leave these men alone! Let them go! For if their purpose or activity is of human origin, it will fail. But if it is from God, you will not be able to stop these men; you will only find yourselves fighting against God." (5:38-39) Although they are flogged for disobeying the High Priest's earlier order, the disciples are freed and continue to preach openly in the Temple courtyards.

An internal controversy arises within the Jerusalem church between the Judean and Hellenistic Jews,[3] the latter alleging that their widows were being neglected. The Twelve, not wishing to oversee the distributions themselves, appointed Stephen and six other non-Judean Jews for this purpose so that the apostles themselves can concentrate on preaching (6:1-7. Many in Jerusalem soon join the faith, including "a large number of priests."

The martyrdom of Saint Stephen

Although the apostles themselves thus manage to stay out of trouble and gain converts among the Jewish religious establishment, Stephen soon finds himself embroiled in a major controversy with other Hellenistic Jews, who accuse him of blasphemy. At his trial, Stephen gives a long, eloquent summary of providential history, but concludes by accusing those present of resisting the Holy Spirit, killing the prophets, and murdering the Messiah. This time, no one steps forward to defend the accused, and Stephen is immediately stoned to death, becoming the first Christian martyr (ch. 6-7). One of those present and approving of his death is a Pharisee named Saul of Taursus, the future Saint Paul.

As a result of Stephen's confrontation with the Temple authorities, a widespread persecution breaks out against those Jews who affirm Jesus as the Messiah. Many believers flee Jerusalem to the outlying areas of Judea and Samaria, although the apostles remain in Jerusalem. Saul is authorized by the High Priest to arrest believers and put them in prison.

The faith spreads

In Samaria, a disciple named Philip[4] performs miracles and influences many to believe. One of the new believers is Simon Magus, himself a miracle worker with a great reputation among the Samaritans. Peter and John soon arrive in order to impart the gift of the Holy Spirit—something Philip is apparently unable to do—to the newly baptized. Simon Magus is amazed at this gift and offers the apostles money that he too may learn to perform this miracle. Peter takes offense at this offer, declaring, "may your money perish with you." (8:20) Simon immediately repents and asks Peter to pray to God on his behalf. The apostles continue their journey among the Samaritans, and many believe.[5]

Philip also converts an Ethiopian eunuch, the first Gentile official reported to join the new faith (8:26-40).

Paul's conversion

The conversion of Saul

Paul of Tarsus, also known as Saul, is the main character of the second half of Acts, which deals with the work of the Holy Spirit as it moves beyond Judea and begins to bring large numbers of Gentiles into faith in the Gospel. In one of the New Testament's most dramatic episodes, Paul travels on the road to Damascus, where he intends to arrest Jews who profess faith in Jesus. "Suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground" (9:3-4) and Paul becomes blind for three days (9:9). In a later account Paul hears a voice saying: "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? … I am Jesus" (26:14-15). In Damascus, Paul is cured from his blindness and becomes as ardent believer. The Jerusalem community is suspicious and fearful of him at first, but he wins the apostles' trust and faces danger from the Hellenistic Jews whom he debates. After this, the church in Judea, Galilee, and Samaria enjoys a period of growth and relative peace. (9:31)

Gentile converts

Peter, meanwhile, conducts several miraculous healings, including the raising of the female disciple Tabitha from the dead (9:40). During Peter's travels, a Roman centurion named Cornelius receives a revelation from an angel that he must meet Peter.[6] Cornelius sends an invite Peter to dine with him. Peter himself, meanwhile, has a dream in which God commands him to eat non-kosher food, which Peter has never done previously (ch. ten). The next day, Peter eats at Cornelius' home and preaches there. Several Gentiles are converted, and Peter baptizes them.[7] Back in Jerusalem, Peter is criticized by the "circumcised believers" for entering a Gentile home and eating with non-Jews. His critics are silenced, however, when Peter relates the above events.[8]

Soon a sizable group of Gentile believers has joined the faith in Syrian Antioch, the Roman Empire's third largest city. The Jerusalem church sends Barnabas, a Levite, to minister to them.[9]Barnabas finds Paul in Tarsus and brings him to Antioch to assist in the mission. It is here that the followers of Jesus are first called Christians. Christian prophets, one of whom is named Agabus, come to Antioch from Jerusalem and predict to the Anitochans that a famine will soon spread across the Roman world. A collection is taken up to send aid to the Judean church.

Peter, meanwhile, is imprisoned by King Herod Agrippa,[10] but miraculously escapes. Agrippa himself is soon slain by an angel after allowing himself to be honored instead of God (ch. 12).

Probably several years later, Barnabas and Paul set out on a mission to further spread the faith (13-14). They travel first to Selucia and Cyprus, and then to Asia Minor, preaching in synagogues and visiting existing Christian congregations throughout the region. They have many adventures, often running afoul of Jewish leaders.[11]In Lystra, after a miracle of healing, the local Gentile community hails Barnabas as Zeus and Paul as Hermes, titles they, of course, reject. They establish local churches and appoint leaders to guide them, finally returning to Antioch for a long stay.

The council of Jerusalem

James "the Just," leader of the Jerusalem church

At Antioch, a controversy arises when members from Jerusalem arrive and insist that Gentile believers must be circumcised (15:1). Paul and Barnabas then travel to Jerusalem and consult with the apostles—a meeting known as the Council of Jerusalem (15). Paul's own record of the meeting is apparently recorded in Galatians 2.[12] Some members of the Jerusalem church are strict Pharisees and hold that circumcision is required for Gentiles who join the faith. Paul and his associates strongly disagree.

After much debate, James, the brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem church, decrees that Gentile members need not follow all of the Mosaic Law, and in particular, they do not need to be circumcised. Paul's party, however, is required to accept that Gentiles must obey the commandments against eating food sacrificed to idols, meat that is not fully cooked, and meat of strangled animals, as well as from sexual immorality.[13] (15:29)

Paul and Barnabas part ways

Paul and Barnabas now plan a second missionary journey. However, they have a falling out over whether John Mark should accompany them, Paul objecting on the grounds that he had deserted them during their first journey and returned to Jerusalem.[14] Paul continues on without Barnabas or Mark, who are not heard from again. Paul takes Silas with him and goes to Derbe and then Lystra, where they are joined by Timothy, the son of a Jewish woman and a Greek man. According to Acts 16:3, Paul circumcises Timothy before continuing his journey, in order to satisfy the objections of conservative Jews.[15]

Paul spends the next several years traveling through western Asia Minor and founds the first Christian church in Philippi. He then travels to Thessalonica, where he stays for some time before departing for Greece. In Athens, he visits an altar with an inscription dedicated to the Unknown God, and when he gives his speech on the Areopagos, he declares that he worships that same Unknown God, which he identifies as the Christian God. In Corinth, he settles for more than a year but faces charges that he was "persuading the people to worship God in ways contrary to the law." (18:12–17) Typically, Paul begins his stay in each city by preaching in the synagogues, where he finds some sympathetic hearers but also provokes stiff opposition. At Ephesus, he gains popularity among the Gentiles, and a riot breaks out as idol-makers fear that Paul's preaching will harm their business, associated with the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the World (ch. 19).

During these travels, Paul not only founds and strengthens several churches; he also collects funds for a major donation he intends to bring to Jerusalem.[16] His return is delayed by shipwrecks and close calls with the authorities, but finally he lands in Tyre, where he is warned by the Holy Spirit not to continue on to Jerusalem. Likewise in Caesarea, Paul is warned by the prophet Agabus that he will be arrested if he goes to the Holy City. Paul stubbornly refuses to be dissuaded, however.

Paul trials and final journey

Upon Paul's arrival in Jerusalem, he is met by James, who confronts him with the rumor that he is teaching against the Law of Moses:

"You see, brother, how many thousands of Jews have believed, and all of them are zealous for the law. They have been informed that you teach all the Jews who live among the Gentiles to turn away from Moses, telling them not to circumcise their children or live according to our customs. What shall we do?" (21:20-22)

To prove that he himself is "living in obedience to the law," Paul accompanies some fellow Jewish Christians who are completing a vow at the Temple (21:26) and pays the necessary fees for them. Paul is recognized, however, and he is nearly beaten to death by a mob, accused of the sin of bringing Gentiles into the Temple confines (21:28). Paul is rescued from being flogged when he informs a Roman commander that he is a citizen of Rome.

Paul is then brought before the Sanhedrin. He runs afoul of the Sadduceean High Priest, but cleverly plays to his fellow Pharisees on the council by claiming that the real issue at stake is the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead (23:6). Paul wins a temporary reprieve but is imprisoned in Caesarea after a plot against his life is uncovered. There, before the Roman governor Felix, Paul is confronted again by the High Priest, and once again Paul insists that, although he is indeed following of "The Way," the real reason he is being accused by the Sadducees is that he believes in the doctrine of the resurrection, as do most Pharisees. Paul remains imprisoned in Caesaria for two years. He later preaches before Agrippa II and is finally sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest (28:30-31). From there he writes some of his most important letters.

The Book of Acts does not record the outcome of Paul's legal troubles. It concludes:

For two whole years Paul stayed there in his own rented house and welcomed all who came to see him. Boldly and without hindrance he preached the kingdom of God and taught about the Lord Jesus Christ.

Themes and style

Salvation to the Gentiles

One of the central themes of Acts is the idea that Jesus' teachings were for all humanity—Jews and Gentiles alike. Christianity is presented as a religion in its own right, rather than a sect of Judaism. Whereas the Jewish Christians were circumcised and adhered to the kosher dietary laws, the Pauline Christianity featured in Acts did not require Gentiles to be circumcised; and its list of Mosaic commandments required for Gentiles was limited to a small number. Acts presents the movement of the Holy Spirit first among the Jews of Jerusalem in the opening chapters, then to the Gentiles and Jews alike in the middle chapters, and finally to the Gentiles primarily in the end. Indeed, the final statement of Paul in Acts can be seen as the basic message of the Book of Acts itself: "I want you to know that God's salvation has been sent to the Gentiles, and they will listen!" (28:28)

The Holy Spirit

As in the Gospel of Luke, there are numerous references to the Holy Spirit throughout Acts. The book uniquely features the "baptism in the Holy Spirit" on Pentecost and the subsequent spirit-inspired speaking in tongues (1:5, 8; 2:1-4; 11:15-16). The Holy Spirit is shown guiding the decisions and actions of Christian leaders (15:28; 16:6-7; 19:21; 20:22-23) and the Holy Spirit is said to "fill" the apostles, especially when they preach (1:8; 2:4; 4:8, 31; 11:24; 13:9, 52).

Concern for the oppressed

The Gospel of Luke and Acts both devote a great deal of attention to the oppressed and downtrodden. In Luke's Gospel, the impoverished are generally praised (Luke 4:18; 6:20–21) while the wealthy are criticized. Luke alone tells the parable of the Good Samaritan, while in Acts a large number of Samaritans join the church (Acts 8:4-25) after the Jerusalem authorities launch a campaign to persecute those who believe in Jesus. In Acts, attention is given to the suffering of the early Christians, as in the case of Stephen's martyrdom, Peter's imprisonments, and Paul's many sufferings for his preaching of Christianity.

Prayer and speeches

Prayer, too, is a major motif in both the Gospel of Luke and Acts. Both books have a more prominent attention to prayer than is found in the other gospels.

Acts is also noted for a number of extended speeches and sermons from Peter, Paul, and others. There are at least 24 such speeches in Acts, comprising about 30 percent of the total verses.[17]

The "Acts" genre

The word "Acts" (Greek praxeis) denotes a recognized genre in the ancient world, "characterizing books that described great deeds of people or of cities."[18] Many ancient works also tell marvelous tales of travels to foreign places, and Acts fits with this type as well, complete with stories of shipwrecks, escapes from prison, miraculous healings and slayings, interventions by angelic beings, descriptions of famous foreign buildings, and dramatic close encounters with both mobs and legal authorities.

There are several such books in the New Testament apocrypha, including the Acts of Thomas, the Acts of Paul (and Thecla), the Acts of Andrew, and the Acts of John.

Authorship

While the precise identity of the author is debated, the consensus of scholarship holds that the author was an educated Greek Gentile man writing for an audience of Gentile Christians. There is also substantial evidence to indicate that the author of the Book of Acts also wrote the Gospel of Luke. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book, both of which are addressed to Theophilus, probably the author's patron. Furthermore, the preface of Acts explicitly references "my former book" about the life of Jesus—almost certainly the work we know as the Gospel of Luke.

There are also clear linguistic and theological similarities between the Luke and Acts. Because of their common authorship, the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles are often jointly referred to as Luke-Acts.

Luke the physician

Portrait of Luke, as conceived by Andrea Mantegna, c. 1453-1454

The traditional view is that the Book of Acts was written by the physician Luke, a companion of Paul. This Luke is mentioned in Paul's Epistle to Philemon (v.24), and in two other epistles which are traditionally ascribed to Paul (Colossians 4:14 and 2 Timothy 4:11).

The view that Luke-Acts was written by the physician Luke was nearly unanimous among the early Church Fathers who commented on these works. The text of Luke-Acts provides important hints that its author was either himself a companion of Paul, or that he used sources from one of Paul's companions. The so-called "'we passages" are often cited as evidence of this. Although the bulk of Acts is written in the third person, several brief sections are written from a first-person plural perspective.[19] For example: "After Paul had seen the vision, we got ready at once to leave for Macedonia… we put out to sea and sailed straight for Samothrace." (16:10-11) It has also been argued that the level of detail used in the narrative describing Paul's travels suggests an eyewitness source. Some claim that the vocabulary used in Luke-Acts suggests its author may have had medical training.

Others believe that Acts was written by an anonymous Christian author who may not have been an eyewitness to any of the events recorded within the text. In the preface to Luke, the author refers to having eyewitness testimony "handed down to us" and to having undertaken a "careful investigation," but the author does not claim to be an eyewitness to any of the events. Except for the "we" passages in Acts, the narrative of Luke-Acts is written in the third person, and the author never refers to himself as "I" or "me." The "we passages" are thus regarded as fragments of a source document which was later incorporated into Acts by the author.

Scholars also point to a number of apparent theological and factual discrepancies between Luke-Acts and Paul's letters. For example, Acts and the Pauline letters appear to disagree about the number and timings of Paul's visits to Jerusalem, and Paul's own account of his conversion is different from the account given in Acts. Similarly, some believe the theology of Luke-Acts is also different from the theology espoused by Paul in his letters. Acts moderates Paul's opposition to circumcision and the kosher dietary laws, and it downplays bitter disagreements between Paul and Peter, and Paul and Barnabas. To some, this suggests that the author of Luke-Acts did not have significant contact with Paul, but instead relied on other sources for his portrayal of Paul.

Sources

Acts 15:22–24 from the seventh-century Codex laudianus in the Bodleian Library, written in parallel columns of Latin and Greek.

The author of Acts likely relied upon written sources, as well as oral tradition, in constructing his account of the early church and Paul's ministry. Evidence of this is found in the prologue to the Gospel of Luke, where the author alluded to his sources by writing, "Many have undertaken to draw up an account of the things that have been fulfilled among us, just as they were handed down to us by those who from the first were eyewitnesses and servants of the word."

It is generally believed that the author of Acts did not have access to a collection of Paul's letters. One piece of evidence suggesting this is, that although half of Acts centers on Paul, Acts never directly quotes from the epistles nor does it even mention Paul writing letters. Additionally, the epistles and Acts disagree about the chronology of Paul's career.

Date

Conservative Christian scholars often date the Book of Acts quite early. For example, Norman Geisler believes it was written between 60-62 C.E.[20] Others have suggested that Acts was written as a defense of Paul for his upcoming trial in Rome.[21]. Arguing for an early date is the fact that Paul has not yet died when the book ends, nor is there any reference to Jewish rebellion against Rome and the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, which took place in 70 C.E.

However, Acts 20:25 suggests that the author knows of Paul's death: "I know that none of you.. will ever see me again." Moreover many scholars believe that Luke did have knowledge of the Temple's destruction (Luke 19:44; 21:20), and that his Gospel was written during the reign of Emperor Domitian (81-96). One of Luke's purposes in writing to Theophilus, possibly a Roman official whom he addresses as "excellency," may have been to demonstrate that the Christians were loyal to Rome, unlike many Jews. The fact that Acts shows no awareness of Paul's letters means that Luke probably wrote before Paul's epistles were collected and distributed. Thus, liberal scholarship tends to put the date of Acts at somewhere between 85 and 100 C.E.[22]

The place of composition is still an open question. For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favor, but some believe internal evidence points to the Roman province of Asia, particularly the neighborhood of Ephesus.

Historicity

The question of authorship of Acts is largely bound up with that of the historicity of its contents. Conservative scholars view the book as being basically accurate while skeptics view it as historically unreliable, its purpose being basically propagandistic and faith-driven.

Beyond these basic differences in attitude, faithful Christians as well as secular scholars have devoted much effort to discussing the accuracy of Acts. It is one of the few Christian documents that can be checked in many details against other known contemporary sources, namely the letters of Paul, one of Acts' own main characters.

Acts. vs. Paul's epistles

Attention has been drawn particularly to the account given by Paul of his visits to Jerusalem in Galatians as compared with Acts, to the account of Paul's conversion, his attitude toward the Jewish Law, and to the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts.

Some of the differences as to Paul's visits to Jerusalem have been explained in terms of the two authors varying interests and emphasis. The apparent discrepancy between Galatians 1-2 and Acts 15, however, is particularly problematic and is much debated.

As for Paul, character and attitude toward the Jewish Law as depicted in Acts, Paul claims in his letters that he was appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to "the circumcision." He also contends that circumcision and the observance of the Mosaic Law are of no importance to salvation. His words on these points in his letters are strong and decided. But in Acts, it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles. It is also Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the intolerable burden of the Law as a means of salvation (15:10f.; cf. 1). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal 2:11ff.). In Acts, Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the Gentiles. Instead, he seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish Christians to himself by personally observing the law of Moses. He personally circumcises Timothy, whose mother is Jewish; and he willingly participates in a public vow at the the Temple. He is particularly careful in his speeches to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this, the letters of Paul are very different from Acts.

Speeches

The speeches in Acts deserve special notice, because they constitute a large portion of the book. Given the nature of the times, lack of recording devices, and space limitations, many ancient historians did not reproduce verbatim reports of speeches. Condensing and using one's own style was often unavoidable. There is little doubt that the speeches of Acts are summaries or condensations largely in the style and vocabulary of its author.

However, there are indications that the author of Acts relied on source material for his speeches, and did not always treat them as mere vehicles for expressing his own theology. The author's apparent use of speech material in the Gospel of Luke, itself obtained either from the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document or the Gospel of Matthew, suggests that he relied on other sources for his narrative and was relatively faithful in using them. Additionally, many scholars have viewed Acts' presentation of Stephen's speech, Peter's speeches in Jerusalem and, most obviously, Paul's speech in Miletus as relying on source material or of expressing views not typical of the Acts' author.

Outline

  • Dedication to Theophilus (1:1-2)
  • Resurrection appearances (1:3)
  • Great Commission (1:4-8)
  • Ascension (1:9)
  • Second Coming Prophecy (1:10-11)
  • Matthias replaces Judas (1:12-26)
  • Holy Spirit at Pentecost (2)
  • Peter heals a crippled beggar (3)
  • Peter and John before the Sanhedrin (4:1-22)
  • Everything is shared (4:32-37)
  • Ananias and Sapphira (5:1-11)
  • Signs and Wonders (5:12-16)
  • Apostles before the Sanhedrin (5:17-42)
  • Seven Greek Jews appointed as deacons (6:1-7)
  • Saint Stephen before the Sanhedrin (6:8-7:60)
  • Saul persecutes the church (8:1-3)
  • Philip the Evangelist and Simon Magus (8:9-24)
  • Conversion of Saul (9:1-31, 22:1-22, 26:9-24)
  • Peter raises Tabitha from the dead (9:32-43)
  • Conversion of Cornelius (10:1-8, 24-48)
  • Peter's vision (10:9-23, 11:1-18)
  • Church of Antioch founded (11:19-30)
  • Peter and Herod Agrippa I (12:3-25)
  • Mission of Barnabas and Saul (13-14)
  • Council of Jerusalem (15:1-35)
  • Paul separates from Barnabas (15:36-41)
  • 2nd and 3rd missions (16-20)
  • Paul in Jerusalem (21)
  • Paul before the Sanhedrin (22-23)
  • Paul in Caesaria (24-26)
  • Trip to Rome an conclusion (27-28)

Notes

  1. ↑ Some believe this refers to his second coming on the clouds, while others hold that, since the disciples are told not to look to the sky for his return, the second coming will not occur on the clouds.
  2. ↑ Catholic tradition, which affirms Mary's perpetual virginity, denies that these "brothers" are Mary's sons, interpreting them to be either cousins or Joseph's sons by a previous marriage.
  3. ↑ Hellenistic Jews, here, were apparently those whose origins were in the diaspora and were less connected to the Jerusalem tradition of the early believers in Jesus
  4. ↑ This is not the apostle, since they have stayed in Jerusalem. Later he is identified as one of the "seven," a deacon, like Stephen.
  5. ↑ In later tradition, Simon is thought to be the first of the Gnostic heretics. The term "simony"—the buying of ecclesiastical office—is derived from his name.
  6. ↑ Although he is a Gentile, Cornelius is already a believer in the God of the Jews. These "God-fearers" would become a primary audience of Christian preaching, which promised them salvation without having to be circumcised or following all of the Mosaic laws.
  7. ↑ The fact that these men are baptized into the faith without first being circumcised is significant in showing that not only Paul, but Peter, too, practiced this tradition.
  8. ↑ Many scholars believe these chapters are related to the incident in Galatians 3, in which Paul criticizes Peter for refusing to eat with Gentiles. Some hold that the incidents of chapter ten are misplaced in the narrative, while others believe them to be fictional.
  9. ↑ As a Levite, Barnabas would be particularly knowledgeable about Jewish tradition. He is thus an interesting choice as Jerusalem's representative to the first Christian community composed largely of Gentiles.
  10. ↑ "Kings" such as Agrippa ruled by the consent of Rome and were often perceived as Roman agents by local populations such as the Jews.
  11. ↑ One reason for this persecution is that Paul often addresses the "Gentiles who worship God" in the synagogues, offering them complete membership in the new faith without circumcision or having to adhere to the entire Mosaic Law. In the synagogues, such "God-fearers" (and their financial support) were welcome, but they could not attain full membership without circumcision.
  12. ↑ However, the account differs significantly from Acts, and some argue Gal. 2 is a different meeting.
  13. ↑ Paul's own letters call into question whether he would have agreed with these stipulations, for he often argues that obedience to dietary laws is not necessary at all for Gentiles. He also says in 1 Corinthians 8 that idols are not really gods, so only those with weak consciences are harmed by this action; but it is still good practice to refrain from eating such meat publicly, because those who think idols are indeed gods should not be led to think that Christians are honoring this false gods. This policy leaves the true believer free to eat such meats in private, and since much meat was ritually slaughtered by pagan butchers, this would likely be a frequent practice.
  14. ↑ Some believe that the true nature of Paul's split with Barnabas was over the question of table fellowship with Gentiles, mentioned in Galatians 3. Others add that Paul may have believed Mark to be a spy whose loyalties were with the conservative elements of the Jerusalem church.
  15. ↑ Considering Paul's views on circumcision in his letter to the Galatians, such an act constitutes a major concession by Paul. Some scholars consider the episode a fiction.
  16. ↑ The theme of Paul's uneasy relations with Jerusalem runs just beneath the surface of Acts, leading many to believe his donation is, in effect, an attempt to show both his good will and his value, despite his controversial teachings.
  17. ↑ Fictitious Speeches in Acts. www.geocities.com. Retrieved August 6, 2007.
  18. ↑ D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 181.
  19. ↑ Acts 16:10–17, 20:5–15, 21:1–18, and 27:1–28:16
  20. ↑ Dating of the New Testament, Dr. Norman Geisler www.bethinking.org. Retrieved August 6, 2007.
  21. ↑ John L. Mauch. Paul On Trial: The Book Of Acts As A Defense Of Christianity. (Thomas Nelson, 2001)
  22. ↑ See for example William Baird, "Acts of the Apostles," in the Interpreters Bible, 1971.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Borgman, Paul Carlton. The Way According to Luke: Hearing the Whole Story of Luke-Acts. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2006. ISBN 978-0802829368
  • Carson, D. A., Moo, Douglas J. and Morris, Leon. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005. ISBN 978-0310238591
  • Gallagher, Robert L., ed. Mission in Acts: Ancient Narratives in Contemporary Context. Orbis Books, 2004. ISBN 978-1570754937
  • Laymon, Charles M. The Interpreter’s One-Volume Commentary on the Bible. Abingdon Press, 1971. ISBN 0687192994
  • Mauch, John L. Paul On Trial: The Book Of Acts As A Defense Of Christianity. Thomas Nelson, 2001. ISBN 978-0785245988
  • Porter, Stanley E. Paul in Acts. Hendrickson Publishers, 2001. ISBN 978-1565636132
  • Spell, David. Peter and Paul in Acts. Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-1597527842
  • Wagner, Peter. Acts of the Holy Spirit. Gospel Light Publications, 2000. ISBN 978-0830720415

External links

All links retrieved November 17, 2023.

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