China

Map of China drawn by the ROC and PRC.

China Traditional Chinese: 中國; Simplified Chinese: 中国; Hanyu Pinyin: ; Tongyong Pinyin: Jhongguó is a cultural region, ancient civilization, and nation in East Asia. It is one of the world's oldest civilizations, consisting of states and cultures dating back more than six millennia. The stalemate of the last Chinese Civil War has resulted in two political entities using the name China: the People's Republic of China (PRC), administering mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau; and the Republic of China (ROC), administering Taiwan and its surrounding islands. See Political status of Taiwan.

China is one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. It has the world's longest continuously used written language system, and is said to be the source of some of the world's great inventions, including the Four Great Inventions of ancient China: paper, the compass, gunpowder, and printing.

Modern-day China, with over 1.3 billion people, has the world's fastest-growing economy and is poised to exercise much greater influence in Asia and the world, in counterbalance to the global influence of the United States.

Etymology

China is most commonly called Zhongguo in Mandarin Chinese. The first character zhōng (中) means "middle" or "central," while guó (国 or 國) means "country" or "state." Missionaries first translated the term as "Middle Kingdom." In ancient times the name referred to the "Central States" along the Yellow River valley and was not associated with any single political entity. The nomenclature gradually evolved to mean the lands under direct imperial rule.

English and many other languages use various forms of the name "China" and the prefix "Sino-" or "Sin-." These forms are thought to derive from the name of the Qin Dynasty that first unified the country (221-206 B.C.E.). "Qin" is pronounced as "Chin" which is considered the possible root of the word "China." The Qin Dynasty unified the written language in China and gave the supreme ruler of China the title of "Emperor" instead of "King." Therefore, the subsequent Silk Road traders might have identified themselves by that name.

History

Ancient China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing independently, the others being Mesopotamia, Ancient India (Indus Valley Civilization), Maya Civilization, Ancient Greece (Minoan Civilization), and Ancient Egypt.

Prehistory

Part of the Han dynasty "silk comet atlas"

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest humans in China date to 2.24 million to 250,000 years ago. A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 550,000 years.

In the southwest of Beijing in Zhoukoudian were discovered the remains of the Sinanthropus pekinensis who lived in the Pleistocene era -400 000, -250 000, then the remains of the Homo sapiens going back to -18 000, -11 000. The site allows a study of human societies at a very early age and the understanding of evolution. The fossils of the Sinanthropus pekinensis were discovered by Davidson Black between 1923 and 1927 and the Jesuit Teilhard de Chardin worked on the site and helped define the Sinanthropus pekinensis as a homo faber able to use stone and fire.

The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from Liujiang County, Guangxi, where a cranium has been found and dated to approximately 67,000 years ago. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains, a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in Okinawa, Japan has been dated to 18,250 ± 650 to 16,600 ± 300 years ago, so modern humans must have reached China before that time.

Dynastic rule

Life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 3rd century B.C.E.

Usually historians of China like Jacques Gernet start the archaic monarchies by the Shang or Yin dynasty from the 17th century to 1122 B.C.E. Historical dates are fully confirmed from 841 B.C.E. However the Chinese referred to semi-legendary figures who counted much for them as models. At first we find the Three Augusts: Suiren Shi who invented fire, Fuxi who invented writing and dealt with the Yijing, and Shennong who invented the plough. Then the Five Emperors: Huangdi or the Yellow Emperor related to the beginning of Chinese medicine, Zhi, son of Huangdi, Yao (2357-2258), Shun (2251-2208) and Yu the great (2207-1766) who is also considered as the founder of the Xia dynasty. Confucius loved particularly Yao and Shun as it is mentioned in his Analects.

Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early bronze-age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province. Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.

Early 17th century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships.

The second dynasty, the loosely feudal Shang, definitely settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 18th to the 12th century B.C.E. The Shang capital was Yin.[1] The Shang started the divination on tortoise shells called jiaguwen 甲骨文. People of that dynasty had a sense of almost monotheism and worshiped a divine being called Shangdi 上帝. The Shang had already developed important techniques such as writing, transportation means, architecture and impressive bronze vessels with sometimes mysterious decorations.

The Shang rulers sacrificed to the spirits of their ancestors and these sacrifices were a source of legitimacy. It was a matriarchal and religious oriented type of society. People believed in ghosts, spirits and mythical monsters. But human sacrifices were practiced. Rulers and nobles made themselves buried with some followers and servants and with objects that they used in life. There was no clear distinction between politics and religion. Offering sacrifices and making divination were important for governing the country.

When the Shang rulers became extremely cruel and corrupt they were overthrown by the Zhou. The change from the Shang dynasty to the Zhou dynasty is of great significance although debates still continue about the Mandate of Heaven that the Zhou rulers declared to have obtained in order to overthrow the Shang.[2] [3]

The Zhou dynasty went through two periods (Western 1121-771, Eastern 770-256 B.C.E.) and its capital moved several times from the West, Hao, then Anyang, to the East Luoyang. All these places are famous archaeological sites. The two first kings were King Wen and King Wu most celebrated by the Chinese for their wisdom. King Wen is supposed to have written some commentaries of the hexagrams in the Book of Changes. As King Wu died early his son king Cheng who was very young grew under the protection of the duke of Zhou who instead of taking the power for himself helped the young king with a sacrificial attitude. The duke of Zhou therefore became a model of state man and was admired by Confucius.

Among the significant changes that happened under the Zhou it is worth mentioning the decline of human sacrifices, the change from pure military power to an enrichment of culture. This cultural flourishing in fact was not just literary or artistic but a wisdom developing with a spiritual and humanistic dimension. It became the fountainhead, the source of inspiration for the whole Chinese history and many great thinkers.

In the religious field the reference to shangdi was overcome by the reference to Heaven dian 天 mentioned in the Analects and which became so central in Chinese Thought. It is this concept that the Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century related to the Christian God. The Zhou rulers from the beginning did not try to control all the land but delegated their power to subordinates like lords to vassals. That is why the political system of the Zhou has been compared to the feudal organization of Medieval Europe.

Warring States

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Pagodas at lake Shanhu, Guilin.

As the Zhou dynasty weakened some powerful leaders in the territories on the periphery established states that were becoming more independent and, despite complex alliances between states, the aim of these leaders was to gain an hegemony. For example Qi in the north, or Chu in the south dominated smaller states such as the state of Lu where Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) was living. Progressively China entered an era of chaos and wars, where individual figures centered power to achieve their goals of hegemony. For a long period of time no state was able to overthrow completely the Zhou or to control China until Shi Huangdi did unify China through numerous battles and a lot of bloodshed.

The first unified Chinese state was established by the Qin Dynasty in 221 B.C.E., when the office of the Emperor was set up and the Chinese language and measures were forcibly standardized. This state did not last long, as its legalist policies soon led to widespread rebellion. Unfortunately in this short period the emperor ruthlessly ordered in 213 B.C.E. the burning of the Classics and the burying alive of several hundred Confucian scholars. These events caused enormous disturbances in the transmission of Chinese culture.

The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 B.C.E. and 220 C.E., and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that would last to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded China's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. The Han played an important role in restoring and protecting the Classics, engraving them even on stone or metal. But debates were going to last on the differences of transmission.

After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period also opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 C.E., China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598-614) weakened it.

A 10th or 11th century Longquan stoneware vase from Zhejiang province, during the Song Dynasty.

Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, along with the production of abundant food surpluses. Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period in China for the arts, philosophy, and social life. Landscape art and portrait paintings were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity since the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and make trades of precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi, 1130-1200 reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentaries, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasis on new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism.

In 1271, Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. While Chu Hsi (Zhu Xi) was not so much recognized in his life time, the new Mongol leaders saw the potential of his thinking as a base for the nation. They were clever enough to develop good relations with great Confucian scholars and progressively the preparation of state examinations to become a civil servant required the study of the Classics with the commentary of Zhu Xi. This was going to last until the 19th century.

A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty. Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure. China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing during the early Ming Dynasty. The Ming fell to the Manchus in 1644, who then established the Qing Dynasty.

Boxer

The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia itself. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, in particular the West. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control.

One result was the Taiping Civil War which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by a misinterpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least twenty million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War), with some estimates up to two-hundred million. In addition, more costly rebellions in terms of human lives and economics followed the Taiping Rebellion such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855-1867), Nien Rebellion (1851-1868), Muslim Rebellion (1862-1877), Panthay Rebellion (1856-1873) and the Miao Rebellion (1854-1873). These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives for each rebellion and in disastrous results for the economy and the countryside. The flow of British opium led to more decline.

While China was torn by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military with its sights on Korea and Manchuria. Maneuvered by Japan, Korea declared independence from Qing China's suzerainty in 1894, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in China's humiliating secession of both Korea and Taiwan to Japan. Following these series of defeats, a reform plan for Qing China to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'état. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38 year old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on November 14, 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, her two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor, the last Chinese emperor. Guangxu's consort, who became the Empress Dowager Longyu, signed the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.

Republic of China (1912-1949)

On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established, heralding the end of the Qing Dynasty. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to the revolutionary cause, soon usurped the presidency by forcing Sun to step aside. Yuan then attempted to have himself emperor of a new dynasty, but died of natural causes before securing power over all of the Chinese empire.

After Yuan Shikai's death, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally-recognized, but virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing. Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanjing (Nanking) and implementing "political tutelage," an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945 (part of World War II) forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Communists as well as around 10 million Chinese civilian deaths. With the surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented on the mainland.

The People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (1949-Present)

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Marines of the People's Liberation Army

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong, controlled most of Mainland China. On October 1, 1949, they established the People's Republic of China, laying claim as the successor state of the ROC. The central government of the ROC was forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but both sides are technically still at war.

Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under its control (Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung and some offshore islands of Fujian province). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual unification with China vs. formal independence.

Post-1978 reforms on the mainland have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the Chinese government still has absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate threats to the stability of the country. Examples include the fight against terrorism, jailing of political opponents and journalists, custody regulation of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the student protests at Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997 Hong Kong was returned to the PRC by the United Kingdom and in 1999 Macau was returned by Portugal.

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Mao and Stalin

Today, the Republic of China continues to exist on Taiwan, while the People's Republic of China controls the Chinese mainland. The PRC continues to be dominated by the Communist Party, but the ROC has moved towards democracy. Both states are still officially claiming to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of "China." The ROC had more international support immediately after 1949, but most international diplomatic recognitions have shifted to the PRC. The ROC representative to the United Nations was replaced by the PRC representative in 1971.

The ROC has not formally renounced its claim to all of China, or changed its official maps on which its territories include the mainland and Mongolia, but it has moved away from this identity and increasingly identifies itself as "Taiwan." Presently, the ROC does not pursue any of its claims. The PRC claims to have succeeded the ROC as the legitimate governing authority of all of China including Taiwan. The PRC has used diplomatic and economic pressure to prevent official recognition of the ROC by world organizations such as the World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee. Today, there are 24 U.N. member states that maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC and majority of U.N. member states that maintain official diplomatic relations with the PRC.

Territory

Historical political divisions

Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships.

Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also expanded into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into China. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo. Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang. Historic Tibet occupies all of the Tibetan Plateau. China is traditionally divided into the boundary being the Huai River and Qinling Mountains.

Geography and climate

Main geographic features and regions of China.

Composite satellite photo

China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (Yellow river, north-central), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.

In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River. Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers; they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the Himalayas, containing Earth's highest point, Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.

The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.

The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai) has a temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate with very hot summers and mild winters.

Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. Dust has blown to southern China, Taiwan and Korea, and has even reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.

Society

Culture

Wang Yangming, a highly influential Neo-Confucian

Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and the mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism. A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed that Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".

With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.

Arts, scholarship, and literature

Chinese calligraphy by Mifu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 C.E.

Bamboo book of Sun Tzu's The Art of War

Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from Oracle bones to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that calligraphy was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were handwritten by ink brush. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.

Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 B.C.E. A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's Analects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also the Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the Historian. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays.

For centuries, economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to a meritocracy, although it was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.

Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets were highly respected, and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.

The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng (zither with movable bridges), qin (bridgeless zither), sheng (free reed mouth organ), and xiao (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which have later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

Demography

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Uyghur children at sunday market

Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the Han. This group is diverse in itself and can be divided into smaller ethnic groups that share some traits.

Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been Sinicized into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete and vestiges of indigenous language and culture often are still retained in different regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu. The term Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu) is usually used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

Languages

Most languages in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major dialects within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken dialects are Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu (Shanghainese), Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.

Classical Chinese was the written standard used for thousands of years in China before the 20th century and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Vernacular Chinese or baihua is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming dynasty novels and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.

Religion

Ancient Taoist Scriptures

The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the last dynasty is a pantheism system, centering on the worship of "Heaven" as an omnipotent force. This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism or the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has features of a monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form.

It must be noted that there was an important religious shift in Chinese antiquity from the Shang or Yin dynasty (1765-1122 B.C.E.)to the Zhou dynasty (Western Zhou 1121-771 and Eastern zhou 770-256 B.C.E.). Under the Shang the Chinese, particularly the king and higher people were making offerings to Shangdi 上帝, literally Sovereign above, whom they considered as a supreme being taking care of people. This supreme deity controlled the forces of nature and human destiny. The Shang rulers offered sacrifices to higher spirits and to the spirits of their ancestors as a source of legitimacy. Furthermore the rulers and nobles practiced human sacrifices, ordering people to be buried alive with them at their death with the belief to travel together to the other world. Sites have been discovered proving such practices. The French historian Henri Maspero mentioned in his "Ancient China" that in 678 B.C.E. 66 people were still buried alive with the prince, time very close to Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.). Ordinary people who did not have access to higher religion and offering rituals were often believing in all kinds of ghosts, spirits and mythical monsters.

Under the Zhou an other religious concept became predominant, the concept of Dian/Tian 天, Heaven. However, although Dian became predominant it kept a certain relation with Shangdi. The Shang dynasty may have been very religious but it was plagued by certain aspects of barbarism like human sacrifices, cruel tortures and strange beliefs. During the Zhou an evolution took place according to which there were less and less human sacrifices, and human responsibility was put forward. This evolution led to the emergence of philosophy and suspicion of strange religious practices. Confucius used mainly the concept of Heaven with a close personal relation, he initiated the possibility of each person to develop virtue and not only the ruler, saying for example: "Heaven gives birth to virtue in me." (Analects, 7.22) Therefore more proper rites and rituals were elaborated and a Chinese humanism emerged that was to become the backbond of the Chinese civilization and culture.

In popular beliefs, the Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Altar of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include weather and natural disasters. Although it gradually diminished in popular belief after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among others, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of China.

A Chinese Tang Dynasty sculpture of the Buddha seated in meditation.

Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and is traditionally traced to the composition of Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include Feng Shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and acupuncture.

Buddhism was introduced from South and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. The progress of Buddhism in China can be studied according to two trends: First a trend related to the textual schools from the 4th century to the 8th century with famous schools such as Consciousness Only school, T’ien T’ai school and the Hua Yen (Hwaom) school. The second trend saw the rejection of texts and the emphasis on spiritual experience from the 7th century that initiated a revolution in Chinese Buddhism reacting against the complexity of study of the sutras and putting emphasis on meditation. This trend called chan in Chinese is known as zen according too the Japanese word.

During the period of disunity that lasted until the dynasty of Sui in 580 C.E. Buddhism penetrated deeply in the different states. It was very active in Northern Wei that is remembered for its art contribution such as the great sculptures found at Longmen near Luoyang. The Wei artists were able to give a personal expression to this art which influenced later the Korean and the Japanese artists. Buddhism seems to have touch ordinary people who were looking for salvation and did not pay much attention to culture but educated Confucians opposed that development. Unfortunately some persecutions arose early against Buddhism. They became very severe from 446 to 452 and again in in 845 C.E.

In Southern Wei Buddhism spread among the aristocracy. The elite was attracted to engage in talks about metaphysical subjects. The emperor Wu of Liang (502-549) supported Buddhism and practiced it himself. However it was not without opponents who criticized the influence of Buddhism on society and also the Buddhist doctrine. Some argued about the immortality of the soul.

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Monks of Wenshu Yuan Buddhist Temple in Chengdu, China.

Despite the opposition Buddhism played a role in the reunification of China and flourished under the Tang. Early Tang emperors used Buddhism but also Confucianism and Taoism to consolidate their power. It is difficult not to mention Xuanzang (602-664)the famous Buddhist monk who traveled during the Tang to India from 627 to 643 to bring back important texts. He met many important Indian spiritual leaders and wrote records of Western regions. On his return he was welcomed by the emperor and contributed with other scholars to the translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese.

Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land (Amidism) and Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.

Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The Chinese generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.

Judaism, Islam and Christianity first arrived in China after the 7th century AD during the Tang Dynasty. Islam was later spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved along the Silk Road, while Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through Jesuit and later protestant missionaries. In the first half of the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods of economic expansion and also sought refuge from the Holocaust in Europe. Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world then to accept them without an entry visa.

Sports and recreation

Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.

Many historians believe that football (soccer) originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 C.E. Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in crowded urban centers. In Taiwan, baseball is more popular due to American and Japanese influences.

There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing occurs during the Duan Wu festival. In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.

China has become a sports power, especially in Asia. It has finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982, and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992. The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing. This ensures that China will be building new structures and perfect their crowd management skills to help with the crowds and space needed to control the Olympic following.

Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice Tai Chi Chuan and qigong in parks.

Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions.

Science and technology

Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld crossbow, 2nd century B.C.E.

Among the scientific accomplishments of ancient China were paper (not papyrus), printing, the early loadstone and magnetic compass, gunpowder, early seismological detectors, matches, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the escapement mechanism for clocks, the water-powered armillary sphere, the chain drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow and the cannon. Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the history of mathematics.

China's science and technology fell behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the high level equilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.

External links

• U.S. Department of State, Background Note on China. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
• Interactive China map with province and city guides.. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
• China Digital Times: Online China news portal, run by the Graduate School of Journalism of University of California at Berkeley. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
• China Worker. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
• NY Inquirer: China's 21st Century. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
• The Chinese Superpower-Historical Background: Dr Rivka Shpak-Lissak.Retrieved September 18, 2007.

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