Book of Ezekiel
- For other uses of the term, see Ezekiel (disambiguation).
| Books of the |
| Tanakh Torah | Nevi'im | Ketuvim Books of Nevi'im |
| First Prophets |
|---|
| 1. Joshua |
| 2. Judges |
| 3. Samuel |
| 4. Kings |
| Later Prophets |
| 5. Isaiah |
| 6. Jeremiah |
| 7. Ezekiel |
| 8. 12 minor prophets |
The Book of Ezekiel is a book of the Hebrew Bible (of the Books of the Bible) named after the prophet Ezekiel.
Historical background
The Book of Ezekiel was written for the Israelites living in exile in Babylon. The xile raised important theological questions. How could the Israelites worship their God when they were now in a distant land, where the Temple of Jerusalem, so central to their religious system, was no longer available? Was their God still available to them? Would they be punished for the sins of the their ancestors? What attitude should they take to the destruction of the Temple, which occurred during the period of Ezekiel's ministry? The Book of Ezekiel speaks to these problems.
Ezekiel first explains that the exile is indeed a punishment for disobedience but he also offers hope to the exiles, suggesting that the exile will be reversed once the Israelites return to God. Moreover, he emphasized (chapter 8) that the sins of the fathers will not be visited on the children and that each person will be judged by God on the basis of his or her own righteousness or sin.
The prophet Jeremiah had told the exiles that they should become part of the Babylonian culture and even pray for King Nebuchadnezzar, who had conquered them. The Babylonians allowed the Israelites to settle in small groups. Ezekiel encouraged this, but emphasized that that they must keep their national and religious identity, rather than becoming assimilated into Babylonian culture. In his ministry that marks the transition from the "Israelite" identity to that of the Jewish people, bound together more by their religious culture than by their ties to the land of Israel per se.
This growing comfort of the Jews in Babylon helps to explain why so many of them decided not to return to their land after this became possible. This large group of people who decided to stay are known to be the oldest of the Jewish diaspora communities, along with the Jews of Persia.
Biography
The Book of Ezekiel gives few details about Ezekiel's life, but it nevertheless reveals much about him. Ezekiel states that he is a priest, the son of Buzi, and his name means "God will strengthen." He was one of the Israelite exiles, who settled at a place called Tel-aviv, on the banks of the River Chebar, "in the land of the Chaldeans." The modern city Tel Aviv is named after this place. He was probably carried away captive with King Jehoiachin (1:2; 2 Kings 24:14-16) about 597 B.C.E..
As a prophet, he gave spiritual encouragement to the exiles by assuring them that the sins of their immediate ancestors would not be held against them (Ezek. 18). He participated viscerally in his prophetic pronouncements through fasts and other mortifications of the flesh. Ezekiel walked a conscious course of personal denial for the sake God and his people. He states that God asked him to "bear the sin of the house of Israel." (Ezek. 4:5) Even his beloved wife—the "delight of my eyes"—was suddenly taken by God. God commanded Ezekiel not to mourn for her, just as the Jews must not mourn destruction of Temple of Jerusalem.
The exiled elders of Judah often consulted Ezekiel for guidance, although it is debatable whether his prophecies had much immediate impact on the exilic community. Nevertheless, his writings certainly became very important in later Jewish life. His marvelous visions of angelic beings (and their vehicles), found in Ezek. 1, 10, later became important elements in the mystical tradition of the Kabbala, as well as both Jewish and Christian apocalypticism. Finally, his famous vision of the Valley of Dry Bones (Ezek. 37), although originally referring to the revival of Israel as a nation, became an important basis for the belief in the resurrection of the dead, both in Jewish and Christian traditions.
Content
Summary
The first chapter of the Book of Ezekiel is a description of Ezekiel's visionary encounter with the Lord who appears to him upon a magnificent chariot, composed of four living creatures each having four faces and the feet of a calf. This vehicle moves by means of unusual beryl-colored wheels which are also described in considerable detail. Following this visionary introduction, the Book of Ezekiel contains three distinct sections.
- Judgment on Israel - Ezekiel makes a series of denunciations against his fellow Judeans (3:22-24), warning them of the certain destruction of Jerusalem, in opposition to the words of the false prophets (4:1-3) who promise the hope the hope of deliverance and urge resistance to the Babylonian power. Ezekiel engages in various symbolic acts of self-denial, demonstrating the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in Chapters 4 and 5. These chapters also show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See, for example, Exodus 22:30; Deuteronomy 14:21; Leviticus 5:2; 7:18,24; 17:15; 19:7; 22:8)
- Prophecies against various neighboring nations: against the Ammonites (Ezek. 25:1-7), the Moabites (25:8-11), the Edomites (25:12-14), the Philistines (25:15-17), Tyre and Sidon (26-28), and against Egypt (29-32).
- Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple by Nebuchadnezzar II: the triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth (Ezek. 33-39); Messianic times, and the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God (40-48).
Teachings
Like all the Hebrew prophets, Ezekiel's main concern was to bring God's people back into alignment with the principles of monotheism and the commandments of the Torah. He was particularly concerned with this countrymen's lapses into idolatry, which he equated with the sin of fornication. He decried their moral and sexual corruption, their defilement of the Sabbath day, their oppression of the weak, bribery and usury, and the practice of infant sacrifice (Ezek. 20-22).
The Book of Ezekiel's imagery, used to depict the sin of Israel and Judah, is sometimes shocking:
- She became more and more promiscuous as she recalled the days of her youth, when she was a prostitute in Egypt. There she lusted after her lovers, whose genitals were like those of donkeys and whose emission was like that of horses. (Ezek. 23:19-20)
The description of God's attitude toward Israel's sins is no less dramatic:
"I handed her over to her lovers, the Assyrians, for whom she lusted. They stripped her naked, took away her sons and daughters, and killed her with the sword." (Ezek. 23:9-10)
Ultimately, however, Ezekiel's God is not the above-describe a male chauvinist husband who turns his wife over to a bloodthirsty mob, but a father who chastises his people as a matter of loving discipline:
- I will now bring Jacob back from captivity and will have compassion on all the people of Israel... They will forget their shame and all the unfaithfulness they showed toward me... Then they will know that I am the Lord their God, for though I sent them into exile among the nations, I will gather them to their own land, not leaving any behind. I will no longer hide my face from them... (Ezek. 39:25-29)
The Book of Ezekiel follows the line of the prophet Jeremiah in presenting Babylon not as an enemy to be resisted, but as the instrument of God's wrath against Judah on account of her sins. God's people must not attempt to break the yoke of their captivity, but to submit, knowing that only repentance and obedience to God's laws would win their redemption. The book speaks of redemption as involving Israel's liberation from captivity, the rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem, and the coming of the Davidic Messiah, who is described in very clear terms:
- "I will set up one shepherd over them, and he shall feed them, even my servant David; he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd. And I the Lord will be their God, and my servant David a prince among them; I the Lord have spoken it." (Ezek 34:23-24)
When these prophecies were composed, it must be recalled, the Davidic line of kings had only very recently been dethroned by the Babylonian power. Indeed, a Davidic king—Zedekiah—still reigned in Jerusalem during the period described by the early prophecies in the Book of Ezekiel. For Ezekiel and his contemporaries, the idea of a revived Davidic monarchy was not, by any means, a supernatural one.
Even though the nation of Judah is held collectively responsible for its sin, the book strongly emphasizes the idea of individual responsibility and rejects the idea of ancestral sin. It directly refutes the Deuteronomic teaching that God holds the sons responsible for the sins of their fathers for several generations (Deut. 5:9), while upholding the teaching that "children shall not be put to death for their fathers; each is to die for his own sin." (Deut. 24:16)
- The son will not share the guilt of the father, nor will the father share the guilt of the son. The righteousness of the righteous man will be credited to him, and the wickedness of the wicked will be charged against him. (Ezek 18:19-21)
The book also preserves numerous vehement prophecies against the non-Israelite peoples, such as the inhabitants of Ammon, Edom, Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt (Ezek. 25-32, etc.). It also deals with priestly tradition, which Ezekiel had inherited, but could not practice in exile. Several of the book's prophecies deal with priestly concerns, especially the rebuilding of the Temple, which is described in minute architectural detail. It envisions the liberation of Israel from its Babylonian captivity and the redemption of her people to holy lives under the guidance of priestly teachers (Ezek. 40-47) It concludes with instructions for the division of the land of Israel after the exiles return (Ezek. 48).
Scholars debate exactly which of Ezekiel's prophecies are truly his own and which are the product of later writers that were attributed to Ezekiel. However, it is nearly universally acknowledged that a great number of the prophecies in the "Book of Ezekiel" are indeed his.
Visions and Acts
The Book of Ezekiel is notable for its vivid descriptions of the prophet's visions and symbolic acts. Indeed, it contians probably the first known examples of apocalyptic literature. The revelation described in the book's first chapter is remarkable in that it describes not only the appearance of majestic angelic beings but even of God Himself:
- "I saw that from what appeared to be his waist up he looked like glowing metal, as if full of fire, and that from there down he looked like fire; and brilliant light surrounded him. Like the appearance of a rainbow in the clouds on a rainy day, so was the radiance around him. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the Lord." (Ezek. 1:27-28)
Chapter 4 describes God as commanding the prophet to build a scale model of the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem and to lie on his side before it for 390 days, to "bear the sin of the house of Israel." (Ezek. 4:5) God commands Ezekiel to eat a scanty diet of bread cooked over a fire fueled with human dung. The prophet here contradicts his Lord, saying that to do so would violate his commitment to ritual purity. God relents, saying, "Very well. I will let you bake your bread over cow manure instead of human excrement." (4:15)
Another vision involves an experience of being spiritually transported to Jerusalem, where Ezekiel witnesses idolatry and pagan worship being practiced in the Temple (Ezek 9-10). This revelation also includes Ezekiel's famous vision of the supernatural vehicle with its awe-inspiring angelic riders:
- I looked, and I saw beside the cherubim four wheels, one beside each of the cherubim; the wheels sparkled like chrysolite. As for their appearance, the four of them looked alike; each was like a wheel intersecting a wheel... Their entire bodies, including their backs, their hands and their wings, were completely full of eyes, as were their four wheels... Each of the cherubim had four faces: One face was that of a cherub, the second the face of a man, the third the face of a lion, and the fourth the face of an eagle (Ezek. 10:9-14).
Later, God instructs Ezekiel to pack his things, blindfold himself, and dig through the wall of his house as a sign pertaining to the future captivity of the remaining citizens of Jerusalem and their king, who would later be blinded and brought in chains to Babylon (Ezek 12).
The book shockingly reports God caused the sudden death of the prophet's wife.
- "The word of the Lord came to me: 'Son of man, with one blow I am about to take away from you the delight of your eyes. Yet do not lament or weep or shed any tears. Groan quietly; do not mourn for the dead...' So I spoke to the people in the morning, and in the evening my wife died (Ezek. 24:16-18).
The reason for God's seemingly cruel treatment of his prophet, is that Ezekiel is to act as a sign for God's people. As Ezekiel is to refrain from mourning for his wife, so the people are to refrain from mourning for the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem. In both cases it is "the sovereign Lord" who brings the destruction—in the Temple's case on account of the nation's sin, and in the case of Ezekiel's wife to become a symbol. The proper posture in both cases is thus not mourning, but humility and obedience.
The most famous vision preserved in the Book of Ezekiel is that of the Valley of Dry Bones. Here the prophet envisions an entire valley of bones reassembling and coming back to life. God explains the vision as being both symbolic and actual:
- "These bones are the whole house of Israel. They say, 'Our bones are dried up and our hope is gone; we are cut off.' ...I am going to open your graves and bring you up from them; I will bring you back to the land of Israel." (Ezek. 37:11-12)
Chapters 38 and 39 predict an invasion that will occur after the Jews return to their land, called the Battle of Gog and Magog, in which God directly intervenes to protect Israel from its enemies.
Ezekiel's final vision is a long prophecy concerning the rebuilding of the Temple. It includes a detailed description, including architectural plans, dimensions, building materials, rooms for priests, ritual practices, festivals, priestly traditions, holy days, and the division of the land among the Israelites tribes (Ezek. 40-48).
Connections with other books in the Bible
It is generally agreed that the closing visions of the Book of Ezekiel are referred to in the book of Revelation.
(Ezek. 38 = Rev. 20:8; Ezek. 47:1-8 = Rev. 22:1,2). Other references to this book are also found in the New Testament. (Compare Epistle to the Romans 2:24 with Ezek. 36:22; Rom. 10:5, Galatians 3:12 with Ezek. 20:11; 2 Peter 3:4 with Ezek. 12:22.)
It is also generally agreed that the Book of Ezekiel refers to the Pentateuch (e.g., Ezek. 27; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11, 34; 47:13, etc.) quite often, and shows on a number of occasions that its author is familiar with the writings of Hosea (Ezek. 37:22), Isaiah (Ezek. 8:12; 29:6), and especially with those of Jeremiah, (Jeremiah 24:7, 9; 48:37).
According to traditionalists, Ezekiel 14:14 refers to the Daniel described in the Biblical Book of Daniel, fourteen years after Daniel's deportation from Jerusalem, and Ezekiel 28:3 mentions this Daniel again as being 'pre-eminent in wisdom'. In support of this interpretation, traditionalists note that the name Daniel appears in the Book of Ezekiel immediately after the names of Noah and Job, two other major Biblical characters.
Some non-traditionalist commentators disagree, noting that a "Daniel" also appears in ancient Ugaritic texts, that Daniel isn't specifically described as a contemporary (indeed, the phrase "Noah, Daniel and Job" implies otherwise), and that the Book of Daniel is widely regarded by modern scholars as having been written centuries later.
Important dates
The Book of Ezekiel can be dated based on the links it records between the rule of King Jehoiachin (King of Jerusalem) and the other events that the book describes.
According to this system, Ezekiel was originally written in the 22 year period between 593 to 571 B.C.E. The following table lists events in Ezekiel with their dates.
| Event | Verse Reference | Date |
|---|---|---|
| Chariot Vision (Merkabah) | 1:1-3 | June 6, 593 B.C.E. |
| Call to be a Watchman | 3:16 | June 13, 593 |
| Temple Vision | 8:1 | August 23, 592 |
| Discourse with Elders | 20:1 | July 19, 591 |
| Second Siege of Jerusalem | 24:1 | December 22, 589 |
| Judgment on Tyre | 26:1 | March 30, 587 |
| Judgment on Egypt | 29:1 | December 13, 588 |
| Judgment on Egypt | 29:17 | March 3, 571 |
| Judgment on Egypt | 30:20 | April 5, 587 |
| Judgment on Egypt | 31:1 | May 28, 587 |
| Lament over Pharaoh | 32:1 | February 18, 586 |
| Lament over Egypt | 32:17 | April 2, 586 |
| Fall of Jerusalem | 33:21 | December 13, 586 |
| New Temple Vision | 40:1 | September 26, 573 |
On the fifth day of the fourth month in the fifth year of his exile (5 Tammuz, 593 B.C.E.), he said he beheld on the banks of the Chebar the glory of God, who consecrated him as a prophet. The latest date in his book is the first day of the first month in the twenty-seventh year of his exile (1 Nisan, 571 B.C.E.); consequently, his prophecies extended over twenty-two years.
The elders of the exiles repeatedly visited him to obtain a divine oracle (chapters 8, 14, 20). He exerted no permanent influence upon his contemporaries, however, whom he repeatedly calls the "rebellious house" (2:5, 6, 8; 3:9, 26, 27; and elsewhere), complaining that although they flock in great numbers to hear him they regard his discourse as a sort of aesthetic amusement, and fail to act in accordance with his words (33:30-33). If the enigmatical date, "the thirtieth year" (1:1), be understood to apply to the age of the prophet, Ezekiel was born exactly at the time of the reform in the ritual introduced by Josiah. Concerning his death nothing is known.
He had a house in the place of his exile, Tel-Abib, where he lost his wife, in the ninth year of his exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke (Ezek. 8:1; 24:18).
His ministry extended over twenty-six years 597 - 571 B.C.E. (29:17), during part of which he was contemporary with Jeremiah, and probably also with Obadiah. According to tradition, he would also have been contemporary with Daniel (however, Daniel is regarded by some as being written much later, with Ezekiel's references to "Daniel" being seen as references to an ancient Ugaritic hero of that name, not a contemporary). The time and manner of his death are unknown. His reputed tomb is pointed out in the neighbourhood of Hilla or ancient Babylon, at a place called Al Kifl. http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=7827
After being led away by the Babylonians on May 29, 597, Ezekiel, along with the other Israelites, was resettled in Babylon. Ezekiel himself lived in his own home in exile at Tel-abib near Chebar canal, which was near Nippur in Babylonia.
Critical views
In 1924, Gustav Hoelscher questioned the authorship of Ezekiel, challenging the conventional wisdom that the book was written by one person and expresses one train of thought and style. He argued instead that over a thousand of the verses in Ezekiel were added at a later date.[1]
Since then, the academic community has been split into a number of different camps over the authorship of the book. One theory is that Ezekiel's original message was influenced by a later school that added a deeper understanding to the prophecies.
One theory holds that the writing contained in the Book of Ezekiel often has a three-part form, consisting of an oracle, a continuation, and a closing oracle. The first two are related in their writing style and are both attributed to Ezekiel himself. The third is seen by some commentators as being different from the first two, and as such is attributed to others who were interested in preserving and updating his work.
Nevertheless, many scholars, both of the critical a literalist camps, see the majority of the work of the book done by Ezekiel himself, while admitting that some later additions and redactions may also be present.
See also
- Gog and Magog in Ezekiel
- Dhul-Kifl, The Islamic name of Ezekiel.
Notes
- ↑ Gustav Hoelscher, "Hesekiel: Der Dicter und das Buch," BZAW 39 (1924).
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
- LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
- Allen, Leslie C. Word Biblical Commentary Volume 28: Ezekiel 1-20. Word Books Publisher: Dallas TX, 1990.
- Allen, Leslie C. Word Biblical Commentary Volume 29: Ezekiel 20-48. Word Books Publisher: Dallas TX, 1990.
- George R. Berry, "The Authorship of Ezekiel 40-48, Journal of Biblical Literature 341/4 (1915), pp. 17-40.
- Block, Daniel. NICOT Commentary: The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24. Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 1997.
- _____________. NICOT Commentary: The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 25-48. Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 1998.
- Greenberg, Moshe. Ezekiel 1-20: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible, Vol 22. New York: Doubleday, 1983.
- ________________. Ezekiel 21-37: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Anchor Bible, Vol 22A. New York: Doubleday, 1997.
- Zimmerli, Walther. Ezekiel 1: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 1-24. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979.
- _________________. Ezekiel 2: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel, Chapters 25-48. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983.
External links
- http://www.apfn.org/THEWINDS/library/khazars.html
- Jewish Encyclopedia: Book of Ezekiel
- Shamati a book by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag
- Douglas E. Cox "Ezekiel's firmament" 1996
- 'Meditations on Ezekiel': a complete commentary by Stephen Barkley
- Bible.org: Introduction to Ezekiel, based on Hill and Walton
- List of names referring to El.
- The Prophecy That Is Shaping History: New Research on Ezekiel's Vision of the End, 2003 [1] (PDF, 4.5MB, 184 pages)
- Biblaridion magazine: Ezekiel: A diachronic approach to Ezekiel 37
On-line translations
- Jewish translations:
- Yechezkiel - Ezekiel from Chabad.org
- Christian translations:
- Online Bible at GospelHall.org
- Ezekiel at BibleGateway.com (Various translations)
| Preceded by: Jeremiah |
Hebrew Bible | Followed by The Twelve Prophets |
| Preceded by: Lamentations |
Protestant Old Testament | Followed by Daniel |
| Preceded by: Letter of Jeremiah |
Roman Catholic Old Testament | |
| Eastern Old Testament |
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