Greek mythology

The Oricoli bust of Zeus, King of the Gods, in the collection of the Vatican Museum.

Greek mythology is the body of stories belonging to the ancient Greeks, concerning their gods and heroes, the nature of the world and their own cult and ritual practices. Modern scholars referred to the myths and studied them in an attempt to throw light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece and, in general, on the ancient Greek civilization.

Greek mythology consists in part of a large collection of narratives that explain the origins of the world and detail the lives and adventures of a wide variety of gods, goddesses, heroes, heroines, and other mythological creatures. These accounts were initially fashioned and disseminated in an oral-poetic tradition; the Greek myths are known today primarily from Greek literature. The oldest known literary sources, the epic poems Iliad and Odyssey, focus on events surrounding the Trojan War. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the Homeric hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians of the 5th century B.C.E., in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age and in writers of the time of the Roman Empire, for example, Plutarch and Pausanias.

Monumental evidence at Mycenaean and Minoan sites helped to explain many of the questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological proofs of many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Greek mythology was also depicted in artifacts; Geometric designs on pottery of the 8th century B.C.E. depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear to supplement the existing literary evidence.

Greek mythology has had extensive influence on the culture, the arts and the literature of Western civilization and remains part of western heritage and language. It has been a part of the educational fabric from childhood, while poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in classical mythological themes. Therefore, western literature is diachronically heavy with allusions to the heritage of the ancient Greek myths.

Topics in Greek mythology
Gods Primordial gods and Titans Zeus and the Olympians Pan and the nymphs Apollo and Dionysus Sea-gods and Earth-gods
Heroes Heracles and his Labors Achilles and the Trojan War Odysseus and the Odyssey Jason and the Argonauts Perseus and Medusa/Gorgon Oedipus and Thebes Theseus and the Minotaur Triptolemus and the Eleusinian Mysteries
Related Satyrs, centaurs and dragons Ancient Greek religion

Etymology

See also: logos

While all cultures throughout the world have their own myths, the term mythology is a Greek coinage and had a specialized meaning within Greek culture.

The Greek term mythologia is a compound of two smaller words:

• mythos (μῦθος) — which in Classical Greek means roughly "the oral speech", "words without action" (Aeschylus: "ἔργῳ κοὐκέτι μύθῳ" [from word to deed]) and, by expansion, a "ritualized speech act", as of a chieftain at an assembly, or of a poet or priest, or a narration (Aeschylus: Ἀκούσει μῦθον ἐν βραχεῖ λόγῳ [The whole tale you will hear in brief space of time]).
• logos (λόγος) — which in Classical Greek stands for: a) the (oral or written) expression of thoughts and b) the ability of a person to express his thoughts (inward logos).

Sources of Greek mythology

Prometheus (1868 by Gustave Moreau). The myth of Prometheus was first attested by Hesiodus and then constituted the basis for a tragic trilogy of plays, possibly by Aeschylus, consisting of Prometheus Bound, Prometheus Unbound and Prometheus Pyrphoros

The Roman poet Virgil, here depicted in the 5th century manuscript the Vergilius Romanus, preserved details of Greek mythology in many of his writings.

File:Cratère en calice étrusque2.jpg Achilles killing a Trojan prisoner in front of Charon on a red-figure Etruscan calyx-krater, made towards the end of the 4th century-beginning of the 3rd century B.C.E.

The Greek myths are known today primarily from Greek literature. In addition to the written sources, there are mythical representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period (c. 900-800 B.C.E.) onward.

Literary sources

Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Neverheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus, which attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends.

Among the literary sources first in age are Homer's two epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other poets completed the "epic cycle", but these later and lesser poems are now almost entirely lost. Despite their traditional name, the Homeric Hymns have no connection with Homer. They are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in Theogony (Origin of the Gods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world; the origin of the gods, Titans and Giants; elaborate genealogies and folktales and etiological myths. Hesiod's Works and Days, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora and the Four Ages. The poet gives advice on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world rendered yet more dangerous by its gods.

Lyrical poets sometimes take their subjects from myth, but the treatment becomes gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides, Simonides, and bucolic poets, such as Theocritus and Bion, provide individual mythological incidents. Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides took their plots from the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (i.e. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea etc.) took on their classic form in these tragic plays. For his part, the comic playwright Aristophanes used myths, as in The Birds or The Frogs.

Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled around the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supply numerous local myths, often giving little-known, alternative versions. Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions presented him in and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East.

The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages, which although composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise, nevertheless contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:

1. The Hellenistic poets Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes and Parthenius.
2. The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus and Virgil.
3. The Late Antique Greek poets Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis and Quintus Smyrnaeus.
4. The ancient novels of Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus and Heliodorus.

The Fabulae and Astronomica of the Roman writer styled Pseudo-Hyginus are two important, non-poetical compendiums of myth.

Finally, a number of Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth sourced from lost Greek works, including the lexicons of Hesychius and Suidas, and the treatises of John Tzetzes and Eustathius.

Archaeological sources

The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by German amateur archaeologist, Heinrich Schliemann, in the 19th century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by British archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans, in the 20th century, helped to explain many of the questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological proof of many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myth and ritual at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and Greece) was mainly used to record inventories, though the names of gods and heroes have been doubtfully revealed.

Geometric designs on pottery of the 8th century B.C.E. depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. These visual representations of myth are important for two reasons; on the one hand, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources (of the twelve labors of Heracles, only the Cerberus adventure occurs for the first time in a literary text) and, on the other hand, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry by several centuries. In the Archaic (c. 750–c. 500 B.C.E.), Classical (c. 480–323 B.C.E.), and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear to supplement the existing literary evidence.

Survey of mythic history

The Greeks' construction of mythology changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their own culture. The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who assigned an evil spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human shape and entered the local mythology as gods and goddesses. When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older deities of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance.

After the middle of the Archaic period myths about love relationships between male gods and male heroes become more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (Eros paidikos, παιδικός ἔρως), thought to have been introduced around 630 B.C.E. By the end of the 5th century B.C.E., poets had assigned at least one eromenos to every important god except Ares and to many legendary figures. Previously existing myths, such as that of Achilles and Patroclus, were also cast in a pederastic light. Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often adapted stories of characters in Greek myth in ways that did not reflect earlier actual beliefs. Many of the most popular versions of these myths that we have today were actually from these inventive retellings, which may blur the archaic beliefs.

The achievement of epic poetry was to create cycles of stories and as result to develop a sense of mythical chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds like a phase in the development of the world and of man. While self-contradictions in the stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The mythological history of the world can be divided in 3 or 4 broader periods:

1. The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods"): stories about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.
2. The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.
3. The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic sagas is the stories of the Trojan War and after (regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period).

While the age of gods has often been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes. For example, the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed the divine-focused Theogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the "hero cult" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (=heroes), of the Olympian from the Chthonic. In the Works and Days, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronus, the subsequent races the creation of Zeus. Hesiod intercalates the Age (or Race) of Heroes just after the Bronze Age. The final age was the Iron Age, during which the poet himself lived. The poet regards it as the worst; the presence of evil was explained by Pandora's myth. In Metamorphoses Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages.

Age of gods

Cosmogony and cosmology

File:Michelangelo Caravaggio 003.jpg

Amor omnia vincit (Love Over All), a depiction of the god of love, Eros. By Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, circa 1600.

"Myths of origin" or "creation myths" represent an attempt to render the universe comprehensible in human terms and explain the origin of the universe. The most widely accepted account of beginning of things as reported by Hesiod's Theogony, starts with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Ge or Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Without male assistance Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilised her. From that union were born, first, the Titans: six males and six females (Oceanus, Coeus and Crius and Hyperion and Iapetus, Theia and Rhea, Themis and Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys, and Cronus); then the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handers. Cronus ("the wily, youngest and most terrible of [Gaia's] children")castrated his father and became the ruler of the gods with his sister-wife Rhea as his consort and the other Titans became his court. This motif of father/son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Zeus challenged him to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes,(whom Zeus freed from Tarturus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus.

The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogony to be the prototypical poetic genre — the prototypical mythos (myth) — and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, was also the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' Argonautica, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the first thing he does is sing the birth of the gods. Hesiod's Theogony is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony was also the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the 5th century B.C.E. a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence. This poem attempted to outdo Hesiod's Theogony and the genealogy of the gods was extended back with Nyx (Night) as an ultimate beginning before Uranus, Cronus and Zeus.

The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades, home of the dead.

Greek gods

The Twelve Olympians by Monsiau, circa late 18th century.

After the overthrow of the Titans, a new pantheon of gods and goddesses emerged. Among the principle Greek deities were the Olympians (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea), residing atop Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshiped various gods of the countryside, the goat-god Pan, Nymphs, Naeads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who dwelled in trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In order to honor the ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). Gregory Nagy regards "the larger Homeric Hymns as simplex preludes (compared with Theogony), each of which invokes one god".

In the wide variety of myths and legends that constitute ancient Greek mythology, the deities that were native to the Greek peoples are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that "the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts". Regardless of their underlying forms, the ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins.

File:Leda.jpg

Zeus, disguised as an swan seduces Leda, the Queen of Sparta. A sixteenth century copy of the lost original by Michelangelo.

Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods were called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g. Apollo Musagetes is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses"). Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece.

Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the god of the dead, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. Some deities, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally "hearth") and Helios (literally "sun"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supplemented this of the gods.

Age of gods and men

File:Hans Rottenhammer 001.jpg

The Marriage of Peleus and Thetis, by Hans Rottenhammer

Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and men moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's Metamorphoses and they are often divided in two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment.

Tales of love often involve the incest, seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas. The marriage of Peleus and Thetis, which yielded Achilles, is another such myth.

File:Coupe Brygos 01.JPG

Dionysus with satyrs. Interior of a cup painted by the Brygos painter, Louvre Museum.

The second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects - revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Prometheus' adventures mark "a place between the history of the gods and that of man". An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century B.C.E., vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. In another tragedy, Euripide's The Bacchae, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god.

In another story, based on an old folk-tale motif, and echoeing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make Demophon as a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.

Achilles binds the wound of Patroclus, on a late archaic Kylix by the Sosias painter.

Heroic age

The age in which the heroes lived is known as the heroic age. The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden, "there is even a saga effect: we can follow the fates of some families in successive generations".

After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths, and prayers which are addressed to them. In contrast to the age of gods, during the heroic age the roster of heroes is never given fixed and final form; great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead. Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity.

The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great military events, the Argonautic expedition and the Trojan War as well as the Theban War.

Heracles and the Heracleidae

For more details on this topic, see Heracles and Heracleidae

File:Herakles and Telephos Louvre MR219.jpg

Herakles with his baby Telephos (Louvre Museum, Paris).

Behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Traditionally, however, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. He is portrayed as a sacrificier, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy, while his tragic end provided much material for tragedy — Heracles is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as "a play of great significance in examination of aother Euripidean dramas". In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Tha vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times.

Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation "mehercule" became as familiar to the Romans as "Herakleis" was to the Greeks. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.

Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus — other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule it through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae.

Other members of this earliest generation of heroes, such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic mythological tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon.

Argonauts

File:Hercules with Hylas in Mysia - retouched and colored.jpg

Engraving (Digitally enhanced for visibility) from the Cista Ficoroni, an Etruscan ritual vessel (Galleria Borghese, Rome), picturing two Argonauts before a hunt. The personages have been tentatively identified as Heracles and Hylas.

The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine; and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the Iliad and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and Apollodorus endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts.

Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century B.C.E., the composition of the story of the Argonauts (a highly complex legend) is earlier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets.

House of Atreus and Theban Cycle

Cadmus Sowing the Dragon's teeth, by Maxfield Parrish, 1908

In between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignity. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.

The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of mythological stories that lead to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Seven Against Thebes (it is not known whether the Seven against Thebes figured in early epic) and Epigoni. As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have followed a different pattern (in which he continued to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother and subsequently married a second wife who became the mother of his children) from the one known to us through tragedy and later mythological accounts.

Trojan War and aftermath

In The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Fresco, 300 x 300 cm, Villa Valmarana, Vicenza) Achilles is outraged after the death of Patroclus and draws his sword to kill Agamemnon. The sudden appearance of the goddess Minerva, who, in this fresco, has grabbed Achilles by the hair, prevents the act of violence.

For more details on this topic, see Trojan War and Epic Cycle

Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between the Greeks and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works the chief stories have already taken shape, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War acquired also a great interest for the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, whose from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, is recounted in Virgil's Aeneid (Book II of Virgil's Aeneid contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius.

The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: (Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis). To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus' brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos or Mycenae, but The Trojans refused to return Helen. The Iliad, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' friend Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (Nostoi; lost) and Homer's Odyssey. The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g. Orestes and Telemachus).

File:El Greco 042.jpg

El Greco was inspired in his Laocoon (1608-1614, oil on canvas, 142 x 193 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington) by the famous myth of the Trojan cycle. Laocoon was a Trojan priest who tried to have the Trojan horse destroyed, but was killed by sea-serpents.

The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance for the ancient Greek civilization. The same mythological cyrcle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. 12th century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (Roman de Troie [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (De Bello Troiano [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in Dictys and Dares. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new.

Greek and Roman conceptions of myth

Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in ancient Greece. Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace one's leaders' descent from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist and former Classics professor, and John Heath, associate professor of Classics at Santa Clara University, the profound knowledge of the homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the "education of Greece" (Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις), and his poetry "the Book".

Philosophy and myths

Raphael's Plato in The School of Athens fresco (probably in the likeness of Leonardo da Vinci). The philosopher expelled the study of Homer, of the tragedies and of the related mythological traditions from his utopian Republic.

After the rise of philosophy, and history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century B.C.E. the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythical genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them.

A few radical philosophers like Xenophanes of Colophon were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the 6th century B.C.E.; Xenophanes had complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods "all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another". This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's Republic and Laws. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts and adulteries as immortal, and objected to their central role in literature. Plato's criticism (he called the myths "old wives' chatter") was the first serious challenge to the homeric mythological tradition. For his part Aristotle ctiticized the Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approoach and underscored that "Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us [...] But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them".

Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher:

“

But perhaps someone might say: "Are you then not ashamed, Socrates, of having followed such a pursuit, that you are now in danger of being put to death as a result?" But I should make to him a just reply: "You do not speak well, Sir, if you think a man in whom there is even a little merit ought to consider danger of life or death, and not rather regard this only, when he does things, whether the things he does are right or wrong and the acts of a good or a bad man. For according to your argument all the demigods would be bad who died at Troy, including the son of Thetis, who so despised danger, in comparison with enduring any disgrace, that when his mother (and she was a goddess) said to him, as he was eager to slay Hector, something like this, I believe, My son, if you avenge the death of your friend Patroclus and kill Hector, you yourself shall die; for straightway, after Hector, is death appointed unto you (Hom. Il. 18.96) [...] "

”

Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry, and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture.

More sportingly, the 5th century B.C.E. tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of thses plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides impugns mainly the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic.

Hellenistic and Roman rationalism

Cicero saw himself as the defender of the established order, despite his personal scepticism with regard to myth and his inclination towards more philosophical conceptions of divinity.

During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of élite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Although his original work (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius.

Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Livy, too, is sceptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human inistitution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has not survived, but Augustine's City of God indicate its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents. In wis work he distinguished three kinds of gods:

• The gods of nature: personifications of phenomena like rain and fire.
• The gods of the poets: invented by unscrupulous bards to stir the passions.
• The gods of the city: invented by wise legislators to soothe and enlighten the populace.

Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures, but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. De Natura Deorum is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's this line of thought.

Syncretizing trends

In Roman religion the worship of the Greek god Apollo (early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original, Louvre Museum) was combined with the cult of Sol Invictus. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and of the empire remained the chief imperial cult until it was replaced by Christianity.

During the Roman era appears a popular trend to syncretize multiple Greek and foreign gods in strange, nearly unrecognizable new cults. Syncretization was also due to the fact that the Romans had little mythology of their own, and inherited the Greek mythological tradition; therefore, the major Roman gods were syncretized with those of the Greeks. In addition to this combination of the two mythological tradition, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice.

The surviving 2nd century collection of Orphic Hymns and Macrobius's Saturnalia are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. The stated purpose of the Saturnalia is to transmit the Hellenic culture he has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists.

Modern interpretations

The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against "the traditional attitude of Christian animosity", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a "lie" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere.

Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches

File:Muller.jpg

Max Müller is regarded as one of the founders of comparative mythology. In his Comparative Mythology (1867) Müller analysed the "disturbing" similarity between the mythologies of "savage" races with those of the early European races.

The development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, Sir James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion. Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronislaw Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world.

File:Kerenyi karoly.jpg

For Karl Kerényi mythology is "a body of material contained in tales about gods and god-like beings, heroic battles and journeys to the Underworld — mythologem is the best Greek word for them — tales already well-known but not amenable to further re-shaping".

Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochment between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the "collective unconscious" and the archetypes (inherited "archaic" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. According to Jung, "myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche". Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal concludes that "to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the Odyssey, for example, would show how Odysseus’s life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth". Karl Kerenyi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth.

Origin theories

Jupiter et Thétis by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1811.

There are various modern theories about the origins of Greek mythology. According to the Scriptural Theory, all mythological legends are derived from the narratives of the Scriptures, though the real facts have been disguised and altered. According to the Historical Theory all the persons mentioned in mythology were once real human beings, and the legends relating to them are merely the additions of later times. Thus the story of Aeolus is supposed to have risen from the fact that Aeolus was the ruler of some islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Allegorical Theory supposes that all the ancient myths were allegorical and symbolical. While the the Physical Theory subscribed to the idea that the elements of air, fire, and water were originally the objects of religious adoration, thus the principal deities were personifications of these powers of nature. Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Aryan, Vedic, "original" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that "the most important discovery which has been made duting the nineteenth century with respect to the ancient history of mankind [...] was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus = Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr". In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the comparison between Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna or the Moirae and the Norns.

Aphrodite and Adonis, Attic red-figure aryballos-shaped lekythos by Aison (c. 410 B.C.E., Louvre, Paris).

Archaeology and mythography, on the other hand, has revealed that the Greeks were inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart — more clearly in cult than in myth — of a Near Eastern "dying god". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography springs from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the Enuma Elish. According to Meyer Reinhold, "near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way [...] into Greek mythology". In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenos. Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connencted with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphae who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur etc.) Professor Martin P. Nilsson concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaen centres and were anchored in pehistoric times. Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories.

Motifs in western art and literature

Botticelli's The Birth of Venus (c. 1485-1486, oil on canvas, Uffizi, Florence) — a revived Venus Pudica for a new view of pagan Antiquity— is often said to epitomize for modern viewers the spirit of the Renaissance.

The widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists. From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy.

In Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas. By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiam for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and Americal literature. In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T.S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as the James Joyce and the André Gide.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Greek mythology

Primary sources (Greek and Roman)

• Aeschylus, The Persians. See original text in Perseus program.
• Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound. See original text in Perseus program.
• Apollodorus, Library and Epitome. See original text in Perseus program.
• Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, Book I. See original text in Sacred Texts.
• Cicero, De Divinatione. See original text in the Latin Library.
• Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes. See original text in the Latin Library.
• Herodotus, The Histories, I. See original text in the Sacred Texts.
• Hesiod, Works and Days. Translated in English by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.
• Template:Cite wikisource
• Homer, Iliad. See original text in Perseus program.
• Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Translated in English by Gregory Nagy.
• Homeric Hymn to Demeter. See original text in Perseus project.
• Homeric Hymn to Hermes. See the English translation in the Online Medieval and Classical Library.
• Ovid, Metamorphoses. See original text in the Latin Library.
• Pindar, Pythian Odes, Pythian 4: For Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot Race 462 B.C.E. See original text in the Perseus program.
• Plato, Apology. See original text in Perseus program.
• Plato, Theaetetus. See original text in Perseus program.

Secondary sources

• Ackerman, Robert (1991 - Reprint edition). "Introduction", Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion by Jane Ellen Harrison. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01514-7. 
• Albala Ken G, Johnson Claudia Durst, Johnson Vernon E. (2000). "Origin of Mythology", Understanding the Odyssey. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41107-9. 
• Algra, Keimpe (1999). "The Beginnings of Cosmology", The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44667-8. 
• Allen, Douglas (1978). "Early Methological Approaches", Structure & Creativity in Religion: Hermeneutics in Mircea Eliade's Phenomenology and New Directions. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 90-279-7594-9. 
• "Argonaut". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• Betegh, Gábor (2004). "The Interpretation of the poet", The Derveni Papyrus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80108-7. 
• Bonnefoy, Yves (1992). "Kinship Structures in Greek Heroic Dynasty", Greek and Egyptian Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-06454-9. 
• Bulfinch, Thomas (2003). "Greek Mythology and Homer", Bulfinch's Greek and Roman Mythology. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30881-0. 
• Burkert, Walter (2002). "Prehistory and the Minoan Mycenaen Era", Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical (translated by John Raffan). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. 
• Burn, Lucilla (1990). Greek Myths. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-72748-8. 
• Bushnell, Rebecca W. (2005). "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo", Medieval A Companion to Tragedy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0735-9. 
• Chance, Jane (1994). "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo", Medieval Mythography. University Press of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1256-2. 
• Caldwell, Richard (1990). "The Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Greek Myth", Approaches to Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3864-9. 
• Calimach, Andrew (2002). "The Cultural Background", Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths. Haiduk Press. ISBN 0-9714686-0-5. 
• Cartledge, Paul A. (2002). "Inventing the Past: History v. Myth", The Greeks. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280388-3. 
• Cartledge, Paul A. (2004). The Spartans (translated in Greek). Livanis. ISBN 960-14-0843-6. 
• Cashford, Jules (2003). "Introduction", The Homeric Hymns. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-043782-7. 
• Dowden, Ken (1992). "Myth and Mythology", The Uses of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-06135-0. 
• Dunlop, John (1842). "Romances of Chivalry", The History of Fiction. Carey and Hart. 
• Edmunds, Lowell (1980). "Comparative Approaches", Approaches to Greek Myth. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3864-9. 
• "Euhemerus". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• Foley, John Miles (1999). "Homeric and South Slavic Epic", Homer's Traditional Art. Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01870-4. 
• Gale, Monica R. (1994). "The Cultural Background", Myth and Poetry in Lucretius. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45135-3. 
• "Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• "Greek Religion". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• Griffin, Jasper (1986). "Greek Myth and Hesiod", The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin and Oswyn Murray. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285438-0. 
• Grimal, Pierre (1986). "Argonauts", The Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20102-5. 
• Hacklin, Joseph (1994). "The Mythology of Persia", Asiatic Mythology. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0920-4. 
• Hanson Victor Davis, Heath John (1999). Who Killed Homer (translated in Greek by Rena Karakatsani). Kaktos. ISBN 960-352-545-6. 
• Hard, Robin (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth", The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek mythology". Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-18636-6. 
• "Heracles". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• Jung Carl Gustav, Kerényi Karl (2001 - Reprint edition). "Prolegomena", Essays on a Science of Mythology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01756-5. 
• Jung, C.J. (2002). "Troy in Latin and French Joseph of Exeter's "Ylias" and Benoît de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie"", Science of Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-26742-0. 
• Kelly, Douglas (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth", An Outline of Greek and Roman Mythology. Douglas Kelly. ISBN 0-415-18636-6. 
• Kelsey, Francis W. (1889). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Allyn and Bacon. 
• Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1973). "The Thematic Simplicity of the Myths", Myth. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02389-7. 
• Klatt J. Mary, Brazouski Antoinette (1994). "Preface", Children's Books on Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28973-5. 
• Miles, Geoffrey (1999). "The Myth-kitty", Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-415-14754-9. 
• Morris, Ian (2000). Archaeology As Cultural History. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-19602-1. 
• "myth". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• Nagy, Gregory (1992). "The Hellenization of the Indo-European Poetics", Greek Mythology and Poetics. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8048-5. 
• Nilsson, Martin P. (1940). "The Religion of Eleusis", Greek Popular Religion. Columbia University Press. 
• North John A., Beard Mary, Price Simon R.F. (1998). "The Religions of Imperial Rome", Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31682-0. 
• Papadopoulou, Thalia (2005). "Introduction", Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85126-2. 
• Percy, William Armostrong III (1999). "The Institutionalization of Pederasty", Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-252-06740-1. 
• Poleman, Horace I. (March 1943). Review of "Ouranos-Varuna. Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europeenne by Georges Dumezil". "Journal of the American Oriental Society" 63 (No.1): 78-79.
• Reinhold, Meyer (October 20, 1970). The Generation Gap in Antiquity. "Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society" 114 (No.5): 347-365.
• Rose, Herbert Jennings (1991). A Handbook of Greek Mythology. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-04601-7. 
• Segal, Robert A. (1991). "A Greek Eternal Child", Myth and the Polis edited by Dora Carlisky Pozzi, John Moore Wickersham. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2473-9. 
• Segal, Robert A. (April 4 1990). The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell. "Christian Century".
• Segal, Robert A. (1999). "Jung on Mythology", Theorizing about Myth. Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1-55849-191-0. 
• Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (translated by R. B. Paul) (1852). Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks. Francis and John Rivington. 
• Trobe, Kala (2001). "Dionysus", Invoke the Gods. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 0-7387-0096-7. 
• "Trojan War". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
• "Troy". Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2002).
• "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology". Encyclopaedia The Helios. (1952).
• Walsh, Patrick Gerald (1998). "Liberating Appearance in Mythic Content", The Nature of the Gods. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-282511-9. 
• Weaver, John B. (1998). "Introduction", The Plots of Epiphany. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-018266-1. 
• Winterbourne, Anthony (2004). "Spinning and Weaving Fate", When the Norns Have Spoken. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. ISBN 0-8386-4048-6. 
• Wood, Michael (1998). "The Coming of the Greeks", In Search of the Trojan War. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21599-0. 

Further reading

• Graves, Robert (1955 - Cmb/Rep edition 1993). The Greek Myths. Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 0-14-017199-1. 
• Hamilton, Edith (1942 - New edition 1998). Mythology. Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-34151-7. 
• Kerenyi, Karl (1951 - Reissue edition 1980). The Gods of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27048-1. 
• Kerenyi, Karl (1959 - Reissue edition 1978). The Heroes of the Greeks. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27049-X. 
• Morford M.P.O., Lenardon L.J. (2006). Classical Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530805-0. 
• Ruck Carl, Staples Blaise Daniel (1994). The World of Classical Myth. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 0-89089-575-9. 
• Smith, William (1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.
• Veyne, Paul (1988). Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on Constitutive Imagination (translated by Paula Wissing). University of Chicago. ISBN 0-226-85434-5. 

External links

• Theoi Project, Guide to Greek Mythology contains stories of gods and monsters with quotes from original sources and images from classical art
• Timeless Myths: Classical Mythology provides information and tales from classical literature.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Greek mythology  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Greek mythology"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.