Difference between revisions of "Judaism" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Judaism''' is the [[religious]] [[culture]] of the [[Jew]]ish people. It is one of the first recorded [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faiths and one of the oldest religious [[traditions]] still practiced today. The tenets and history of Judaism are the major part of the foundation of other [[Abrahamic religion]]s, including [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].
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{{Judaism}}
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'''Judaism''' is the [[religion|religious]] [[culture]] of the [[Jew]]ish people. While far from monolithic in practice and having no centralized authority or binding [[dogma]], Judaism has remained strongly united around several [[Jewish principles of faith|religious principles]], the most important of which is the belief in a single, omniscient, transcendent [[God]] that created the universe.
  
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While Judaism is far from monolithic in practice and has no centralized authority or binding [[dogma]], it has remained strongly united around several [[Jewish principles of faith|religious principles]], the most important of which is the belief in a single, omniscient, transcendent [[God]] that created the universe, and continues to be involved in its governance. According to Jewish thought, this God established a covenant with the Jewish people, then known as the [[Israelites]], and revealed his laws and commandments to them in the form of the [[Torah]]. Jewish practice is devoted to the study and observance of these laws and commandments, as they are interpreted according to various ancient and modern authorities.
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According to Jewish thought, God established a covenant with the Jewish people, then known as the [[Israelites]], and revealed his laws and commandments to them in the form of the [[Torah]]. Jewish practice is devoted to the study and observance of these laws and commandments, as they are interpreted according to various ancient and modern authorities.
  
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Judaism does not easily fit into common [[Western culture|western]] categories, such as [[religion]], [[ethnicity]], or [[culture]]. Politically, Jews have experienced [[slavery]], [[anarchism|anarchic]] self-government, [[theocracy|theocratic]] self-government, conquest, occupation, and exile. They have been in contact with and were influenced by [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]], [[Babylon]]ian, [[Persian Empire|Persian]], [[Ancient Greece|Hellenic]], Christian, and Islamic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and the rise of [[Nationalism|nationalism]]. Thus, Daniel Boyarin has argued that "Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not [[Genealogy|genealogical]], not religious, but all of these, in [[dialectic]]al tension."
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Judaism does not easily fit into common [[Western culture|western]] categories, such as [[religion]], [[ethnicity]], or [[culture]]. In religious terms Judaism today is comprised of three main denominations: [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] (including several varieties), [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], and [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], plus a large body of secular Jews who belong to no organized religious institution.
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Judaism is one of the first recorded [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faiths and one of the oldest religious traditions still practiced today. The tenets and history of Judaism form a major part of the foundation of other [[Abrahamic religion]]s, including [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].  
  
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{{Jew}}
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==Religious view of Judaism's development==
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Much of the [[Hebrew Bible]] is an account of the [[Israelites]]' relationship with [[God]] as reflected in their history from the time of [[Abraham]] until the building of the [[Second Temple]] (c. 350 B.C.E.). Abraham is generally seen as the first [[Jew]], although he was also the progenitor of several non-Jewish tribes. [[Rabbinical literature]] holds that he was the first person to reject [[idolatry]] and preach [[monotheism]]. As a result, God promised he would have many children: "Look now toward heaven and count the stars. So shall be your progeny" (''[[Genesis]]'' 15:5).
  
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== Introduction ==
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Abraham's first child was [[Ishmael]] and his second son was [[Isaac]], whom God said would continue Abraham's work and whose descendants would inherit the [[Land of Israel]] (then called [[Canaan]]), after having been exiled and redeemed. God sent Abraham's grandson, the [[patriarch]] [[Jacob]] and his children to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], where they later became enslaved. As Jacob was also known as "Israel," his tribe became known as the [[Israelites]].
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[[Image:Menorah7a.png|100px|right|framed|The seven-branched [[Menorah]] is an ancient symbol of Judaism. It was used in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple in ancient Jerusalem]].]]
 
  
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According to both traditional Jews and critical historical scholars, a number of qualities distinguish Judaism from the other religions that existed when it first emerged, including [[monotheism]] and the [[613 mitzvot|laws]] to be followed in daily worship beyond the [[temple]] [[sacrifice]]s typical of religious cultures of that time.
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[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 079.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Moses]] with the [[Ten Commandments]], by [[Rembrandt]]]]
  
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===Monotheism===
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God sent [[Moses]] to redeem the [[Israelite]]s from slavery. After [[the Exodus]] from Egypt, God led the Jews to [[Mount Sinai]] and gave them the [[Torah]], eventually bringing them to the land of [[Canaan]], which they conquered at God's command. God designated the descendants of [[Aaron]], Moses' brother, to be a [[Kohen|priestly class]] within the Israelite community. They first officiated in the [[Tabernacle]] (a portable house of worship), and later their descendants were in charge of worship in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].
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The notion of [[monotheism]] is derived directly from the [[Torah]] (the [[Hebrew Bible]]), where [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] incorporates it into the [[Ten Commandments#Exodus 20/Deuteronomy 5|Ten Commandments]]: "...I am the Lord your God. Do not have any other gods before Me. Do not represent [such] gods by any carved statue or picture of anything in the heaven above, on the earth below, or in the water below the land. Do not bow down to [such gods] or worship them. I am God your Lord, a God who demands exclusive worship".
 
  
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Thus the belief in the existence of God, that God exists for all time, that God is the sole creator of all that exists, that God determines the course of events in this world, is the foundation of Judaism:  "I am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt..." To turn from these beliefs is to deny God and the essence of Judaism, according to the [[Ten Commandments#Jewish understanding|Jewish understanding]] of the Ten Commandments. Furthermore,  
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Once the Israelites had settled in Canaan, the Tabernacle was established in the city of [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]] for over 300 years. During his time, God provided great leaders known as the [[book of Judges|judges]] to rally the nation against attacking enemies sent by God as a punishment for the sins of the people, who failed to separate themselves from the Canaanites and joined in worshiping the Canaanite gods.
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one is required to believe in God and God alone. This prohibits belief in or worship of any additional deities, gods, [[spirits]] or incarnations.  The idea of God as a [[dualism|duality]] or [[trinity]] is heretical for Jews to hold; it is considered akin to [[polytheism]].
 
  
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To deny the uniqueness of God, is to deny all that is written in the [[Torah]]:  "You shall have no other gods besides Me...Do not make a sculpted image or any likeness of what is in the heavens above."  It is also a prohibition against making or possessing objects that one or other may [[idolatry|bow down to or serve]], such as [[crucifix]]es or [[icons]], and any forms of paintings or artistic representations of God. One must not bow down to or serve any being or object but God. (See [[Ten_Commandments#Jewish_interpretation]])
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The people of Israel then told the prophet [[Samuel]], the last and greatest of the judges, that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, as were other nations. God acceded to this request and had Samuel appoint [[Saul the King|Saul]] to be their first monarch. However, when Saul disunited with Samuel and proved to lack zeal in destroying Israel's enemies, God instructed Samuel to appoint [[David]] in his stead.
  
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The significance of the idea is that an omniscient and omnipotent God created humankind as recorded in the [[Book of Genesis]], in the [[Creation according to Genesis]] starting with the very first verse of [[Genesis 1:1]]: "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth," a marked contrast with [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] religions in which the gods are limited by their preoccupation with personal desires irrelevant to humankind, by their limited powers, or by the interference of other powers.  In Judaism, God is unlimited, fully capable, and fully available to care for Creation.
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David and Saul struggled with each other for many years, but once David's kingship was established, he told the prophet [[Nathan]] that he would like to build a permanent temple for [[Yahweh|the Lord]]. God promised the king that he would allow his son to build the temple and that the throne would never depart from his children. It was thus David's son, [[Solomon]], who built the [[Solomon's Temple|first permanent temple]] in [[Jerusalem]], as described in the [[Books of Kings]].  
  
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===Practical worship and the laws===
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However, Solomon sinned by erecting altars for his foreign wives on [[high place|hilltops]] near Jerusalem. Thus, after death, his kingdom was split into the two kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. After several hundred years, because of rampant [[idolatry]], God allowed [[Assyria]] to conquer Israel and exile its people. The southern Kingdom of Judah remained under the rulership of the [[Davidic line|House of David]]. However, as in the north, idolatry increased to the point that God allowed [[Babylonia]] to conquer the kingdom, destroy the Temple, and exile the people of Judah to [[Babylon]]ia, with the promise that they would be redeemed after 70 years.
  
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Second, the [[Torah]] (i.e., The [[Hebrew Bible]]) specifies a number of laws, known as the [[613 mitzvot]], to be followed by the [[Children of Israel]]. Other religions at the time were characterized by [[temples]] in which priests would worship their gods through sacrifice. The Children of Israel similarly had a [[Temple in Jerusalem]], a [[caste]] of [[Kohen|priests]], and made [[Korban|sacrifices]] — but these were not the sole means of worshiping God. 
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[[Image:Western wall jerusalem night.jpg|thumb|400px|The [[Western Wall]] in [[Jerusalem]] is all that is known to remain of the [[Second Temple]]. The [[Temple Mount]] is the holiest site in Judaism.]]  
  
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As a matter of practical worship (in comparison to other religions) Judaism seeks to elevate everyday life to the level of the ancient Temples' worship by worshipping God through the spectrum of daily activites and actions. It has traditionally maintained that this is how the individual would merit rewards in the afterlife, called ''gan eden'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: "[[Garden of Eden]]") or ''[[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|olam haba]]'' ("World to Come"), though Judaism does not have a single concept of the afterlife, nor is the afterlife the focus of Jewish practice.
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King [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus of Persia]] allowed the Jews to return, and, under the leadership of [[Ezra]] and [[Nehemiah]] the Temple was rebuilt. The [[Second Temple]] stood for 420 years, after which it was destroyed by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general (later [[Roman Emperor|emperor]]) [[Titus]] in reaction to a Jewish rebellion in 70 C.E. Since then, Judaism has focused on God's law, and no longer has an active priesthood, nor can it practice the rituals of sacrifice and other rites formerly practiced in the Temple. Only when the [[Messiah]], a descendant of King David, arises to restore the glory of Israel will the Temple in Jerusalem be rebuilt and the sacrificial tradition be renewed.  
  
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==Religious view of the development of Judaism==
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The Torah given on Mount Sinai was summarized in the five [[Pentateuch|books of Moses]]. Together with the books of the [[prophets]] it is called the ''Written Torah''. The details and interpretation of the law, which are called the [[Oral law in Judaism|''Oral Torah,'']] were originally unwritten. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, [[rabbinic]] tradition holds that these oral laws were recorded in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], as well as other holy books. The Talmud (including the Mishnah) now serves as a central text of Judaism along with the Hebrew Bible.
  
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Much of the [[Hebrew Bible]] is an account of the [[Israelites]]' relationship with [[God]] as reflected in their history from the time of [[Abraham]] until the building of the [[Second Temple]] (ca. 350 B.C.E.).
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===Critical view===
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In contrast to the Orthodox religious view of the Hebrew Bible, modern scholars suggest that the [[Torah]] consists of a variety of inconsistent texts that were edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts (see [[Documentary hypothesis]]). Thus, although monotheism is fundamental to [[Rabbinic Judaism]], the [[Hebrew Bible]] also speaks of other gods as really existing, the Hebrew deity [[Yahweh]] being the national god of the [[Israelites]]. Many of the Israelites worshiped Yahweh, but they often honored other deities such [[Baal]] and [[Ashera]] together with him. Biblical writers of the seventh century B.C.E. and later took a more firmly monotheistic view. They urged complete separation from Canaanite culture, insisted that [[Jerusalem]] was the only authorized place of sacrifice to Yahweh, and wrote the history of Judah and Israel in such as way that made it appear as if their priestly ideology had always been known to the Israelites, who sinned against God by failing to adhere to it.
  
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[[Abraham]] is generally seen as the first [[Jew]], although strictly speaking he was also the progenitor of several non-Jewish tribes as well. [[Rabbinic literature]] records that he was the first to reject [[idolatry]] and preach [[monotheism]]. As a result, God promised he would have many children: "Look now toward heaven and count the stars. So shall be your progeny." (''[[Genesis]]'' 15:5) Abraham's first child was [[Ishmael]] and his second son was [[Isaac]], whom God said would continue Abraham's work and inherit the [[Land of Israel]] (then called [[Canaan]]), after having been exiled and redeemed. God sent Abraham's grandson, the [[patriarch]] [[Jacob]] and his children to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], where they later became enslaved. As Jacob was also known as "Israel," his tribe became known as the [[Israelites]]. God sent [[Moses]] to redeem the [[Israelite]]s from slavery. After [[the Exodus]] from Egypt, God led the Jews to [[Mount Sinai]] and gave them the [[Torah]], eventually bringing them to the land of [[Canaan]], which they conquered at God's command.
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It was thus only after the [[Babylonian exile]] that this priestly religion known today as Judaism became predominant. The religion of the Israelites, therefore, is far from identical with the biblical religion of Judaism.
  
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God designated the descendants of [[Aaron]], Moses' brother, to be a [[Kohen|priestly class]] within the Israelite community. They first officiated in the [[Tabernacle]] (a portable house of worship), and later their descendants were in charge of worship in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].
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==Jewish denominations==
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Over the past two centuries the Jewish community has divided into a number of [[Jewish denominations]]. Each of these has a different understanding of what principles of belief a Jew should hold, and how one should live as a Jew.
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[[File:HorowitzBrothers.JPG|400px|thumb|right|[[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] are one part of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community, the most theologically conservative form of Judaism.]]
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[[Image:ReformJewishService.jpg||400px|thumb|right|In [[Reform Judaism]], prayer is often conducted in the vernacular and men and women have equal roles in religious observance.]]
  
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Once the Jews had settled in the land of Israel, the tabernacle was established in the city of [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]] for over 300 years, during which time God provided great men, and occasionally women, to rally the nation against attacking enemies sent by God as a punishment for the sins of the people, who failed to separate themselves from the Canaanites and joined in worshiping the Canaanite gods. This is described in the [[Book of Joshua]] and the [[Book of Judges]].
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*[[Orthodox Judaism]] holds that the Torah was written by [[God]] and dictated to [[Moses]], and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Judaism consists of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Haredi Judaism]]. [[Hasidic Judaism]] is a sub-set of Haredi Judaism. Most Jews affirm a form of Jewish theology based on [[Maimonides]]' 13 principles of Jewish faith.  
  
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The people of Israel then told [[Samuel]] the [[prophet]], who was also the last of the judges, that they had reached the point where they needed to be governed by a permanent king, as were other nations. God  acceded to this request and had Samuel appoint [[Saul the King|Saul]] to be their King. When Saul and disunited with Samuel and  proved to lack zeal in destroying Israel's enemies, God instructed Samuel to appoint [[David]] in his stead.
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*[[Reform Judaism]] originally formed in [[Germany]] in response to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. It holds most of the commandments of the Torah are no longer binding and rejects many Jewish customs, emphasizing instead the moral and ethical teachings of the [[prophets]]. Reform prayer services are often in the vernacular rather than Hebrew, and Reform rabbis are allowed to perform interfaith marriages.
  
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David and Saul struggled with each other for many years, but once David's kingship was established, he told the prophet [[Nathan]] that he would like to build a permanent temple. God promised the king that he would allow his son to build the temple and that the throne would never depart from his children. As a result, it was David's son [[Solomon]] who built the [[Solomon's Temple|first permanent temple]] in [[Jerusalem]], as described in the [[Books of Kings]].
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*[[Conservative Judaism]]. Conservative Judaism formed in the United States in the late 1800s through the fusion of two distinct groups: former Reform Jews who were alienated by that movement's emphatic rejection of [[halakha|Jewish law]], and former Orthodox Jews who had come to question traditional beliefs and favored the critical study of sacred Jewish texts. Conservative Jews generally hold that Jewish laws should be retained unless there is good reason to reject them.  
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[[Image:Western wall jerusalem night.jpg|thumb|The [[Western Wall]] in [[Jerusalem]] is all that is known to remain of the [[Second Temple]]. The [[Temple Mount]] is the holiest site in Judaism.]]
 
  
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However, Solomon sinned by erecting altars for his foreign wives on [[high place|hilltops]] near Jerusalem, and after death, his kingdom was split into the two kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. After several hundred years, because of rampant [[idolatry]], God allowed [[Assyria]] to conquer Israel and exile its people. The southern Kingdom of Judah, whose capital was Jerusalem, remained under the rulership of the [[Davidic line|House of David]]. However, as in the north, idolatry increased to the point that God allowed [[Babylonia]] to conquer the kingdom, destroy the Temple which had stood for 410 years, and exile the people of Judah to [[Babylon]]ia, with the promise that they would be redeemed after 70 years.
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*[[Reconstructionist Judaism]] started as a stream of philosophy within Conservative Judaism, and later became an independent movement emphasizing reinterpreting Judaism for modern times.
  
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King Cyrus of Persian allowed the Jews to return, and,  under the leadership of [[Ezra]], and the Temple was rebuilt, as recorded in the [[Book of Ezra]] and the [[Book of Nehemiah]]. The [[Second Temple]] stood for 420 years, after which it was destroyed by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general (later [[Roman Emperor|emperor]]) [[Titus]]. The Jewish temple is to remain in ruins until the Messiah, a descendant of David, arises to restore the glory of Israel and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.
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*[[Secular Judaism]]. Though not a formal denomination, secular Judaism, also known as cultural Judaism, forms perhaps the largest group of Jews today. Secular Jews do not adhere to any Jewish sect, rarely attend synagogue, and are not observant of most Jewish customs. While the majority of secular Jews believe in God, some are [[agnosticism|agnostics]] or [[atheism|atheists]], while continuing to identify themselves as ethnic and cultural Jews.
  
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The Torah given on Mount Sinai was summarized in the five books of Moses. Together with the books of the prophets it is called the ''Written Torah''. The details and interpretation of the law, which are called the ''Oral Torah'' or ''[[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|oral law]]'' were originally unwritten. However as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, [[rabbinic]] tradition holds that these oral laws were recorded in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]], as well as other holy books.
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* [[Humanistic Judaism]] is a small, non-theistic movement that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the source of Jewish identity. Founded by Rabbi [[Sherwin Wine]], it is centered in North America but has adherents in Europe, Latin America, and Israel.
  
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==Critical historical view of the development of Judaism==
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===Karaism and Samaritanism===
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In contrast to the Orthodox religious view of the Hebrew Bible, modern scholars suggest that the [[Torah]] consists of a variety of inconsistent texts that were edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts (see [[Documentary hypothesis]]).
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Unlike other non-Othodox Jewish groups, [[Karaite_Judaism|Karaite Judaism]] did not begin as a modern Jewish movement. The [[Karaites]] accept only the [[Hebrew Bible]] and do not accept non-biblical writings such as the [[Talmud]] as authoritative. Historically, the Karaites can be traced to controversies in the Babylonian Jewish communities during the eighth and ninth centuries, although some Karaites trace their spiritual roots to back to pre-Talmudic times.
  
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Although monotheism is fundamental to [[Rabbinic Judaism]], the [[Hebrew Bible]] also speaks of other gods as really existing, the Hebrew deity Yahweh being the national god of the Israelites. However, Yahweh was worshiped in many placed, not just Jerusalem, and other gods, such as [[Baal]] and [[Ashera]], were often honored together with him. Biblical writers of the seventh century B.C.E. and later took a more firmly monotheistic view, urged complete separation from Canaanite culture, insisted that Jerusalem was the only authorized place of sacrifice to Yahweh, and wrote the history of Judah and Israel in such as way that made it appear as if the priestly ideology had always been known to the Israelites, who sinned against God by failing to adhere to it. It was only after the Babylonian exile that this priest religion became predominant. Moreover, it was primarily the tribe of Judah that constituted the people who came to be known as Jews. The religion of the Israelites, therefore, is far from identical with the biblical religion of Judaism.
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The [[Samaritans]], strictly speaking, are not Jews but [[Israelites]], who believe they hold the true tradition of the [[Torah]] given by God to [[Moses]]. Jews see them as mixed race Israelites who sinned by refusing to worship in [[Jerusalem]], while the Samaritans believe it is the Jews who sinned by failing to worship at the true authorized Temple of [[Yahweh]] on [[Mount Gerizim]]. A substantial and prosperous nation during the [[Second Temple]] period, only a few hundred Samaritans survive today, living mostly near Mount Gerizim in [[Palestine]] and outside of [[Tel Aviv]] in Israel.
  
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==Religious doctrine and ''Principles of Faith''==
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==Principles of Jewish faith==
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While Judaism has always affirmed a number of [[Jewish principles of faith]], no creed, dogma, or fully-binding "[[catechism]]," is recognized, an approach to Jewish religious doctrine that dates back at least 2,000 years and that makes generalizations about [[Jewish theology]] somewhat difficult.
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While Judaism has always affirmed a number of [[Jewish principles of faith]], no creed, dogma, or fully-binding "[[catechism]]," is recognized. It has an approach to Jewish religious doctrine that dates back at least 2,000 years which makes generalizations about [[Jewish theology]] somewhat difficult.
  
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Nevertheless the centuries, a number of clear formulations of Jewish principles of faith have appeared, many with common elements, though they differ in certain details. Of these formulations, the one most widely considered authoritative by Orthodox Jews is [[Maimonides]]' 13 principles of faith:
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Nevertheless, in [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] tradition, a number of clear formulations of Jewish principles of faith have appeared, many with common elements, though they differ in certain details. Of these formulations, the one most widely considered authoritative by Orthodox Jews is [[Maimonides]]' 13 principles of faith:
  
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* God is one. This represents a strict [[unitarianism|unitarian]] [[monotheism]], in which the eternal creator of the universe is the source of morality.
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[[Image:Maimonides-2.jpg|thumb|300px|Artist's conception of [[Maimonides]]]]
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* God is all-powerful, as well as all-knowing, and the different [[[[Names of God in Judaism|names of God]] are ways to express different aspects of God's presence in the world.
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* God is non-physical, non-corporeal, and eternal. All statements in the [[Hebrew Bible]] and in [[rabbinic literature]] which use [[anthropomorphism]] are held to be metaphors.
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* God is one. This represents a strict [[unitarianism|unitarian]] [[monotheism]].
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* One may offer prayer to God alone. Any belief in an intermediary between man and God, either necessary or optional, has traditionally been considered heretical.
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* God is all-powerful, as well as all-knowing.
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* God is non-physical, non-corporeal, and eternal.
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* One may offer prayer only to God.  
 
* The [[Hebrew Bible]], together with the teachings of the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]], are held to be the product of divine [[revelation]].
 
* The [[Hebrew Bible]], together with the teachings of the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]], are held to be the product of divine [[revelation]].
 
* The words of the [[prophet]]s are true.
 
* The words of the [[prophet]]s are true.
 
* [[Moses]] was the chief of all prophets.
 
* [[Moses]] was the chief of all prophets.
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* The [[Torah]] (five books of Moses) is the primary text of Judaism.
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* The [[Torah]] (the five books of Moses) is the primary text of Judaism.
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* God will reward those who observe [[613 mitzvot|His commandments]], and punish those who violate them.
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* God will reward those who observe [[613 mitzvot|his commandments]], and punish those who violate them.
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* God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique [[covenant]] with Him.
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* God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique and eternal [[covenant]] with him.
 
* There will be a Jewish [[Messiah]], or perhaps a messianic era.
 
* There will be a Jewish [[Messiah]], or perhaps a messianic era.
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* The [[soul]] is pure at birth, and human beings have [[free will]], with an innate ''yetzer ha'tov'' (a tendency to do good), and a ''yetzer ha'ra'' (a tendency to do evil).
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* The [[soul]] is pure at birth, and human beings have [[free will]], with an innate ''[[yetzer ha'tov]]'' (a tendency to do good), and a ''[[yetzer ha'ra]]'' (a tendency to do evil).
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* People can atone for sins through words and deeds, without intermediaries, through [[prayer]], [[repentance]], and ''tzedakah'' (dutiful giving of charity).
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* People can atone for [[sin]]s through words and deeds, without intermediaries, through [[prayer]], [[repentance]], and ''tzedakah'' (dutiful giving of charity).
  
 
==The traditional Jewish bookshelf==
 
==The traditional Jewish bookshelf==
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[[Image:241530 7953 torah.jpg|thumb|A [[Torah]] scroll, the Torah contains the five books of Moses, or the [[Hebrew Bible]].]]
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[[Image:Torah.jpg|thumb|300px|A Torah scroll]]
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[[Image:Talmud Babli bokhylle.jpg|thumb|300px|An edition of the Babylonian [[Talmud]]]]
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[[Image:Sapirstein Rashi.jpg|thumb|400px|Rashi's five-volume midrash (commentary) on the Hebrew Bible]]
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[[Image:Mishna tora44.jpg|thumb|300px|Maimonides' ''Mishneh Torah'', a compendium of halakhic commentary]]
 
Jews are often called the "People of the Book," and Judaism has an age-old intellectual tradition focusing on text-based [[Torah]] and [[Talmud]] study. The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought.  
 
Jews are often called the "People of the Book," and Judaism has an age-old intellectual tradition focusing on text-based [[Torah]] and [[Talmud]] study. The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought.  
  
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*The [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]])
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*The [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]), consisting of
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**The [[Torah]], or five books of [[Moses]]
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**The ''Nevi'im,'' or [[Prophets]]
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**The ''Ketuvim,'' or [[Writings]]
 
*Works of the [[Talmud]]ic Era (classic rabbinic literature):
 
*Works of the [[Talmud]]ic Era (classic rabbinic literature):
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**The [[Mishnah]] and its commentaries.
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**The [[Mishnah]] and its commentaries
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**The [[Tosefta]] and the [[minor tractates]].
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**The [[Tosefta]] (sermons) and the [[minor tractates]] not included in the Mishnah
 
**The [[Talmud]]
 
**The [[Talmud]]
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[[Image:Duraeuropa.gif|thumb|300px|Scenes from the [[Book of Esther]], part of the [[Ketuvim]] portion of the [[Tanakh]], decorate the [[Dura-Europos synagogue]] dating from 244 C.E.]]
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*Non-''halakhic'' [[Midrash|midrashic literature]], also known as [[Aggada]]  
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*[[Midrash|Midrashic Literature]]
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*[[Halakah|Halakhic literature]]  
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*[[Halakah|Halakhic literature]]
 
 
**The Major Codes of [[Halakha|Jewish Law and Custom]]
 
**The Major Codes of [[Halakha|Jewish Law and Custom]]
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***The [[Mishneh Torah]] and its commentaries.
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***The [[Mishneh Torah]] and its commentaries
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***The [[Arba'ah Turim|Tur]] and its commentaries.
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***The [[Arba'ah Turim|Tur]] and its commentaries
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***The [[Shulhan Arukh]] and its commentaries.
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***The [[Shulhan Arukh]] and its commentaries
 
**Other books on Jewish Law and Custom
 
**Other books on Jewish Law and Custom
 
**The [[Responsa]] literature of rabbinic rulings
 
**The [[Responsa]] literature of rabbinic rulings
Line 96: Line 108:
 
**[[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] works
 
**[[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] works
 
**[[Jewish ethics]] and the [[Mussar Movement]]
 
**[[Jewish ethics]] and the [[Mussar Movement]]
−
*The [[Siddur]] and [[Jewish liturgy]]
+
*The [[Siddur]] (prayer book) and [[Jewish liturgy]]
−
*''[[Piyyut]]'' (Classical Jewish poetry)
+
*''[[Piyyut]],'' or classical Jewish poetry
−
*[[Torah database]]s (electronic versions of the Traditional Jewish Bookshelf)
+
 
−
*[[List of Jewish Prayers and Blessings]]
+
Non-Orthodox Jews include many other Jewish works of contemporary [[philosophy]], [[theology]], [[Biblical Criticism]], and [[psychology]].
  
 
==Jewish Law and interpretation==
 
==Jewish Law and interpretation==
 
{{main|Halakha}}
 
{{main|Halakha}}
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The basis of Jewish law is the [[Torah]] (the five books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition there are [[613 mitzvot|613]] commandments in the Torah. Many laws were only applicable when the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] existed, and fewer than 300 of these commandments are still applicable today.
+
The basis of Jewish law is the [[Torah]] (the five books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition there are [[613 mitzvot|613]] commandments in the Torah, although many laws were only applicable when the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] existed, and fewer than 300 of these commandments are still applicable today.
  
−
In addition to these written laws, most Jews have traditionally believed in what they call the [[Oral Law]] as well. This law was conveyed together with the Written Law to Moses and Sinai and handed down orally through the prophets and sages, eventually transmitted though the [[Pharisee]] sect of ancient Judaism and later recorded in written form.
+
In addition to these written laws, Judaism affirms a belief in the [[Oral Law]] as well. This law was conveyed together with the Written Law to [[Moses]] at Sinai and handed down orally through the [[prophet]]s and sages, eventually transmitted though the [[Pharisee]] sect of ancient Judaism, and later recorded in written form by the rabbis. In the time of Rabbi [[Judah Ha-Nasi]] during the late second century C.E., much of this material was edited together into the [[Mishnah]]. Over the next four centuries this law underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities Palestine and Babylonia. The commentaries on the Mishnah from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the two [[Talmud|Talmuds]], the Palestinian and the Babylonian, the latter being the more authoritative. These in turn have been expounded by commentaries of various Talmudic scholars during the ages.
−
 
 
−
In the time of Rabbi [[Judah Ha-Nasi]] ([[200]] CE), much of this material was edited together into the [[Mishnah]]. Over the next four centuries this law underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities Palestine and Babylonia. The commentaries on the [[Mishnah]] from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the two [[Talmud|Talmuds]], the Palestinian and the Babylonia, the latter being the more authoritative today. These in turn have been expounded by commentaries of various Talmudic scholars during the ages.
 
  
 
[[Halakha]] is thus based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition, including the [[Mishnah]], the halakhic [[Midrash]], the [[Talmud]], and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as [[responsa]]. Over time, as practices developed, codes of Jewish law were written based on the responsa. The most important code, the [[Shulkhan Arukh]], largely determines Orthodox Jewish religious practice up to today.
 
[[Halakha]] is thus based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition, including the [[Mishnah]], the halakhic [[Midrash]], the [[Talmud]], and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as [[responsa]]. Over time, as practices developed, codes of Jewish law were written based on the responsa. The most important code, the [[Shulkhan Arukh]], largely determines Orthodox Jewish religious practice up to today.
−
 
−
===What makes a person Jewish?===
 
−
According to Jewish law, someone is considered to be a Jew if he or she was born of a Jewish mother or converted in accord with Jewish Law. (Recently, the American [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] movements have included those born of Jewish fathers and gentile mothers, if the children are raised practicing Judaism only.) All mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts. 
 
−
 
−
A Jew who ceases to practice Judaism is still considered a Jew, as is a Jew who does not accept [[Jewish principles of faith]] and becomes an [[agnostic]] or an [[atheist]]; so too with a Jew who converts to another religion. However, in the latter case, the person loses standing as a member of the Jewish community and becomes known as an apostate. In the past, family and friends were said to often formally mourn for the person, though this is rarely done today. 
 
−
 
−
The question of what determines Jewish identity was given new impetus when, in the [[1950s]], [[David ben Gurion]] requested opinions on ''mihu Yehudi'' ("who is a Jew") from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide. The question is far from settled and occasionally resurfaces in [[Politics of Israel|Israeli politics]].
 
  
 
===Jewish philosophy===
 
===Jewish philosophy===
 
{{main|Jewish philosophy}}
 
{{main|Jewish philosophy}}
 +
Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Early Jewish philosophy was influenced by the philosophy of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], and [[Islamic philosophy]]. The key classical Jewish philosophers include [[Solomon ibn Gabirol]], [[Saadia Gaon]], [[Maimonides]], and [[Gersonides]].
  
−
Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Early Jewish philosophy was influenced by the philosophy of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], and [[Islamic philosophy]]. Major Jewish philosophers include [[Solomon ibn Gabirol]], [[Saadia Gaon]], [[Maimonides]], and [[Gersonides]]. Major changes occurred in response to [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] (late [[1700s]] to early [[1800s]]) leading to the post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers, and then modern Jewish philosophers such as [[Martin Buber]], [[Franz Rosenzweig]], [[Mordecai Kaplan]], [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]], [[Will Herberg]], [[Emmanuel Levinas]], [[Richard Rubenstein]], [[Emil Fackenheim]], and [[Joseph Soloveitchik]].
+
Major changes occurred in response to [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]], leading to the post-Enlightenment and modern Jewish philosophers such as [[Martin Buber]], [[Franz Rosenzweig]], [[Mordecai Kaplan]], [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]], [[Will Herberg]], [[Emmanuel Levinas]], [[Richard Rubenstein]], [[Emil Fackenheim]], and [[Joseph Soloveitchik]].
  
−
==Jewish denominations==
+
[[Image:Gottlieb-Head of a Jewish Bride 1876.jpg|thumb|300px|A Jewish bride c. 1876]]
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{{main|Jewish denominations}}
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==Who is a Jew?==
 +
According to traditional [[halakah|Jewish law]], someone is considered to be a Jew if he or she was born of a Jewish mother or converted in accord with Jewish Law. Recently, however, the American [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] movements have included those born of Jewish fathers and [[Gentile]] mothers, if the children are raised as Jews.
  
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Over the past two centuries the Jewish community has divided into a number of [[Jewish denominations]]; each has a different understanding of what principles of belief a Jew should hold, and how one should live as a Jew.  Unlike Christian denominations, these [[doctrinal]] differences have not fundamentally [[schisms among the Jews|split]] Jewish denominations, which continue to overlap on many issues. It would not be unusual for a Conservative Jew to attend either an Orthodox or Reform synagogue, for example.
+
Even in Orthodox tradition, a Jew who ceases to practice Judaism is still considered a Jew, as is a Jew who does not accept [[Jewish principles of faith]] and becomes an [[agnostic]] or an [[atheist]]; so too with a Jew who converts to another religion. However, in the latter case, the person loses standing as a member of the Jewish community and may become known as an [[apostasy|apostate]].
−
 
 
−
*[[Orthodox Judaism]] holds that the Torah was written by [[God]] and dictated to [[Moses]], and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Jews generally consider a [[16th century]] CE law code, the [[Shulkhan Arukh]], to be the definitive codification of Jewish law, and assert a continuity between pre-Enlightenment Judaism and modern-day Orthodox Judaism. Orthodox Judaism consists of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Haredi Judaism]]. [[Hasidic Judaism]] is a sub-set of Haredi Judaism. Most of Orthodox Judaism holds to one particular form of Jewish theology, based on Maimonides' 13 principles of Jewish faith.
 
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[[Image:Hasidim.jpg||230px|thumb|right|[[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] are one part of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] community, the most theologically conservative form of Judaism.]]
 
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−
*[[Reform Judaism]] (outside of the [[United States|US]] also known as Progressive Judaism, and in the UK as [[Liberal Judaism]]) originally formed in [[Germany]] in response to the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. Reform Judaism initially defined Judaism as a religion, rather than as a race or culture; rejected the ritual prescriptions and proscriptions of the [[Torah]]; and emphasized the ethical call of the [[Neviim|Prophets]]. Reform Judaism developed a prayer service in the vernacular, and emphasized personal connection to Jewish tradition over specific forms of observance. Today, many Reform congregations have returned to Hebrew prayers and encourage some degree of legal observance.
 
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[[Image:ReformJewishService.jpg||230px|thumb|right|In [[Reform Judaism]], prayer is often conducted in the vernacular and men and women have equal roles in religious observance.]]
 
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*[[Conservative Judaism]]. Outside of the [[United States|US]] it is known as Masorti ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for "Traditional") Judaism. "Masorti" is its official title in the [[State of Israel]] as well, although most Israelis use the word in a more general sense (see below). Conservative Judaism formed in the United States in the late 1800s through the fusion of two distinct groups: former Reform Jews who were alienated by that movement's emphatic rejection of Jewish law, and former Orthodox Jews who had rejected belief in the "oral law" (which claims continuity between God's revelation at Sinai and Jewish law as codified in the ''Shulkhan Arukh'') in favor of the critical study of Jewish texts and history. Conservative Jews emphasize that Jews constitute a nation as well as a religion. Conservative scholars emphasize their identification with the [[Amoraim]], the sages of the [[Talmud]], who embraced open debates over interpretations (and reinterpretations) of Jewish law.
 
−
 
 
−
*[[Reconstructionist Judaism]] started as a stream of philosophy by a rabbi within Conservative Judaism, and later became an independent movement emphasizing reinterpreting Judaism for modern times.
 
−
 
 
−
* [[Humanistic Judaism]]. A small nontheistic movement that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity.  Founded by Rabbi [[Sherwin Wine]], it is centered in North America but has adherents Europe, Latin America, and Israel.
 
−
 
 
−
Many religious Jews do not look at one's denomination as a valid way of designating Jews; instead they view Jews by the level of their religious observance. According to most Orthodox Jews, Jewish people who do not keep the laws of [[Shabbat]] and [[Yom Tov]] (the holidays), [[Kashrut]], and [[family purity]] are considered non-religious. Any Jew who keeps at least those laws would be considered observant and religious.
 
−
 
 
−
===Jewish denominations in Israel===
 
−
Even though all of these denominations exist in Israel, Israelis tend to classify Jewish identity in ways that are different than [[diaspora]] Jewry. Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "secular" (''hiloni''), "traditional" (''masorti''), "religious" (''dati'') or ''Haredi''. The term "secular" is more popular as a self-description among Israeli families of western (European) origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organized religious life, be it of the official Israeli rabbinate (Orthodox) or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism (Reform, Conservative).
 
−
 
 
−
The term "traditional" (''masorti'') is most common as a self-description among Israeli families of "eastern" origin (i.e., the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa). This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the official [[Masorti]] (Conservative) movement.
 
−
 
 
−
There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways "secular" and "traditional" are used in Israel. They often overlap, and they cover an extremely wide range in terms of ideology and religious observance.
 
−
 
 
−
The term "Orthodox" (''Ortodoxi'') is unpopular in Israeli discourse (among both "secular" and "religious" alike). Nevertheless, the spectrum covered by "Orthodox" in the diaspora exists in Israel, again with some important variations. The "Orthodox" spectrum in Israel is a far greater percentage of the Jewish population in Israel than in the diaspora, though ''how much'' greater is hotly debated. Various ways of measuring this percentage, each with its pros and cons, include the proportion of religiously observant [[Knesset]] members, the proportion of Jewish children enrolled in religious schools, and statistical studies on "identity".
 
−
 
 
−
What would be called "Orthodox" in the diaspora includes what is commonly called ''dati'' (religious) or ''[[haredi]]'' (ultra-Orthodox) in Israel. The former term includes what is called "Religious Zionism" or the "National Religious" community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as ''haredi-leumi'' ([[nationalist]] ''haredi''), or "Hardal," which combines a largely ''haredi'' lifestyle with nationalist ideology.
 
−
 
 
−
''Haredi'' applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups along both ethnic and ideological lines: (1) "Lithuanian" (non-hasidic) ''haredim'' of Ashkenazic origin; (2) Hasidic ''haredim'' of Ashkenazic origin; and (3) Sephardic ''haredim''. The third group is the largest, and has been the most politically active since the early [[1990s]].
 
−
 
 
−
===Karaism===
 
−
Unlike the above denominations, which were ideological reactions that resulted from the exposure of traditional rabbinic Judaism to the radical changes of modern times, [[Karaite_Judaism|Karaite Judaism]] did not begin as a modern Jewish movement. The followers of [[Karaism]] believe they are the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the [[Second Temple period]], such as the [[Saducees]], though others contend they are a sect started in the 8th and 9th centuries. The [[Karaites]], or "Scripturalists," accept only the Hebrew Bible and what they view as the Peshat: "Plain or Simple Meaning"; and do not accept non-biblical writings as authoritative. Some European Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community, while most do. It is interesting to note that the Nazis often did not associate Karaites with Jews, and therefore several Karaite communities were spared in WWII and exist to this day even in places such as [[Lithuania]] where Jewish communities were completely devastated.  In other areas, such as [[Greece]], the Nazis deemed Karaites as belonging to a greater Jewish tradition and abused them accordingly.
 
−
 
 
−
The ''main article'' [[Jewish views of religious pluralism]] describes how Judaism views other religions; it also describes how members of each of the Jewish religious denominations view the other denominations.
 
  
 
==Jewish prayer and practice==
 
==Jewish prayer and practice==
 
===Prayers===
 
===Prayers===
−
{{main|Jewish services}}
+
[[Image:YemeniJew1914.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A Yemeni Jew wearing a [[Yarmulke|kippah]] skullcap prays with a [[tallit]] shawl. The prayer boxes strapped to his forehead and arm are [[tefillin]].]]
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[[Image:YemeniJew1914.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|A Yemeni Jew wearing a [[Yarmulke|kippah]] skullcap prays with a [[tallit]] shawl. The prayer box strapped to his forehead and arm are [[tefillin]]. His uncut sidecurls are [[payot]].]]
+
In [[Orthodox Judaism]], there are three main daily prayer services for Jewish men. All three include a number of benedictions (18 on the Sabbath and 19 on weekdays) called the ''[[Amidah]]''. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the ''[[Shema]]''. There are also prayers and benedictions recited throughout the day, such as those before eating or drinking. Women play a prominent role in the prayers of [[Shabbat]], celebrated in the home.
−
There are three main daily prayer services, named ''Shacharit'', ''Mincha'' (literally: "flour-offering") and ''Maariv'' or ''Arvit''. All services include a number of benedictions called the ''[[Amidah]]'' or the ''Shemonah Esrei'' ("eighteen"), which on weekdays consists of nineteen blessings (one was added in the time of the ''Mishna'', but the name remains). Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the ''[[Shema]]'' which is recited at ''shacharit'' and ''maariv''.  Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be said in solitary prayer, but ''Kaddish'' and ''Kedusha'' require a group of ten adult men (or men and women in some branches of Judaism) called a [[minyan]] (prayer quorum). There are also prayers and benedictions recited throughout the day, such as those before eating or drinking.
 
  
−
There are a number of common Jewish religious objects used in prayer. The [[tallit]] is a Jewish prayer shawl. A [[kippah]] or [[yarmulke]] (skullcap) is a head covering worn during prayer by most Jews, and at all times by more orthodox Jews — especially [[Ashkenazi]]m. [[Phylacteries]] or [[tefillin]], boxes containing the portions of the [[Torah]] mandating them, are also worn by religious Jews during weekday morning services.
+
Several religious objects are commonly used in prayer. The [[tallit]] is a Jewish prayer shawl. A [[kippah]] or [[yarmulke]] (skullcap) is a head covering worn during prayer by most Jews, and at all times by more orthodox Jews. [[Phylacteries]] or [[tefillin]], boxes containing the portions of the [[Torah]] mandating them, are strapped to the forehead and forearm by religious Jews during weekday morning services.
  
−
The Jewish approach to prayer differs among the various branches of Judaism. While all use the same set of prayers and texts, the frequency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, and whether one prays in a particular liturgical language or the vernacular differs from denomination to denomination, with Conservative and Orthodox congregations using more traditional services, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues more likely to incorporate translations, contemporary writings, and abbreviated services.
+
The approach to prayer differs among the various branches of Judaism. Conservative and Orthodox congregations follow a more traditional liturgy, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations, contemporary writings, abbreviated services, and a greater role for women, who may even serve as [[rabbi]]s.
  
 
===Shabbat===
 
===Shabbat===
 
{{main|Shabbat}}
 
{{main|Shabbat}}
  
−
''[[Shabbat]]'', the weekly day of rest lasting from Friday night to Saturday night, celebrates God's creation as a day of rest that commemorates God's day of rest upon the completion of creation. It plays an important role in Jewish practice and is the subject of a large body of religious law. Some consider it the most important Jewish holiday.
+
''[[Shabbat]]'' (Sabbath) is the weekly, sacred day of rest lasting from Friday night sundown to Saturday night sundown, commemorating God's day of rest upon the completion of creation. It plays an important role in Jewish practice and is the subject of a large body of [[halakha|religious law]].
 +
 
 +
===Torah readings===
 +
The core of festival and Sabbath prayer services is the public reading of the [[Torah]], along with connected readings from the other books of the Jewish Bible, called [[Haftarah]]. During the course of a year, the full Torah is read, and the cycle begins again every autumn during [[Simhat Torah]] (“rejoicing in the Torah”).
  
 
===Jewish holidays===
 
===Jewish holidays===
 
{{main|Jewish holidays}}
 
{{main|Jewish holidays}}
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[[Image:Gottlieb-Jews Praying in the Synagogue on Yom Kippur.jpg|thumb|On Yom Kippur, the most important Jewish holy day, Jews fast and pray in atonement for their sins, communal as well as individual, from an 1878 painting.]]
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[[Image:Sedertable.jpg|thumb|300px|Table setting at a [[Passover]] [[Seder]]]]
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The Jewish holy days celebrate central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as [[creation]], [[revelation]], and [[redemption]]. Some holidays are also linked to the [[agricultural cycle]].
+
The Jewish holy days celebrate central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as [[creation]], [[revelation]], and [[redemption]]. Some holidays are also linked to the [[agricultural cycle]].
  
−
Three holidays celebrate revelation by commemorating different events in the passage of the Children of Israel out of slavery in Egypt to their return to the land of Canaan. They are also timed to coincide with important agricultural seasons. They are also pilgramage holidays, for which the Children of Israel would journey to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices to God in His Temple.
+
*[[Pesach]] or [[Passover]] celebrates the [[Exodus]] from Egypt, and coincides with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on a formal religious service held in the home, called the [[Seder]].
  
−
*[[Pesach]] or [[Passover]] celebrates the [[Exodus]] from Egypt, and coincides with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on home-service, the [[Seder]]. Pesach occurs on the 15th of [[Nisan]]; Nisan is the first month of the Jewish calendar, because it was in this month that the Children of Israel left Egypt.
+
*[[Shavuot]] or [[Pentacost]] (the [[Feast of Weeks]]) celebrates Moses' giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] to the Israelites, and marks the transition from the barley harvest to the wheat harvest.
  
−
*[[Shavuot]] or [[Pentacost]] or [[Feast of Weeks]] celebrates Moses' giving of the [[Ten Commandments]] to the Israelites, and marks the transition from the barley harvest to the wheat harvest.
+
*[[Sukkot]], or "The Festival of Booths" is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths that represent the shelters of the people of Israel during their wandering in the wilderness. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle.  
  
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*[[Sukkot]], or "The Festival of Booths" commemorates the wandering of the Children of Israel through the desert. It is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths that represent the temporary shelters of the Children of Israel during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest, and marks the end of the agricultural cycle.  
+
*[[Rosh Hashanah]] is the Jewish [[New Year]], celebrating the day that the world was created and marking the advance of the Jewish calendar from one year to the next. It is also marks the beginning of the period of [[atonement]] that ends ten days later with Yom Kippur.  
  
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*[[Rosh Hashanah]], also ''Yom Ha-Zikkaron'' (The Day of Remembrance) or ''Yom Teruah'' (The Day of the Sounding of the [[Shofar]]).  Called the Jewish New Year because it celebrates the day that the world was created, and marks the advance in the calendar from one year to the next, although it occurs in the seventh month, [[Tishri]]. It is also a holiday of redemption, as it marks the beginning of the atonement period that ends ten days later with Yom Kippur.  
+
*[[Yom Kippur]], or [[The Day of Atonement]], involves fasting and solemn prayers for the redemption of sins committed during the previous year, both individual and collective. Many consider this the most important Jewish holiday.  
  
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*[[Yom Kippur]], or [[The Day of Atonement]], also called "the Sabbath of Sabbaths," is a holiday centered on redemption; a day of atonement and fasting for sins committed during the previous year. Many consider this the most important Jewish holiday.
+
There are many minor holidays as well, including [[Purim]], which celebrates the events told in the biblical book of [[Esther]], and [[Hanukkah]], which celebrates the successful rebellion by the [[Maccabees]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]]. Hanukkah has become increasingly important in recent centuries, especially among secular and Reform Jews, as a means for Jewish families to share in the joys of the winter holiday season marked in Christian tradition by [[Christmas]].
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There are many minor holidays as well, including [[Purim]], which celebrates the events told in the Biblical book of [[Esther]], and [[Chanukkah]], which is not established in the Bible but which celebrates the successful rebellion by the [[Maccabees]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]].
 
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−
===Torah readings===
 
−
The core of festival and Sabbath prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Jewish Bible, called [[Haftarah]]. During the course of a year, the full Torah is read, and the cycle begins again every autumn during [[Simhat Torah]] (“rejoicing in the Torah”).
 
  
 
===Synagogues and Jewish buildings===
 
===Synagogues and Jewish buildings===
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[[Image:SPAmster.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Interior of the Esnoga synagogue in Amsterdam. The tebáh (reader’s platform) in the foreground, and the ''Hekhál'' (Ark) is in the background.]]
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[[Image:SPAmster.JPG|thumb|400px|Interior of the Esnoga synagogue in Amsterdam. The reader’s platform in the foreground, and the ark is in the background.]]
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[[Synagogues]] are a Jewish houses of prayer and study, they usually contain separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly, so a synagogue may contain any (or none) of these features:  
+
[[Synagogues]] are a Jewish house of prayer and study, usually containing separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. A synagogue may contain any (or none) of these features:  
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*an ark (called ''aron ha-kodesh'' by [[Ashkenazi]]m and ''hekhal'' by [[Sephardim]]) where the [[Torah]] scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain (''parokhet'') outside or inside the ark doors);
+
*An ark where the [[Torah]] scrolls are kept  
−
*a large elevated reader's platform (called ''bimah'' by Ashkenazim and ''tebah'' by Sephardim), where the Torah is read (and from where the services are conducted in Sephardi synagogues);
+
*An elevated reader's platform where the Torah is read
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*an Eternal Light (''ner tamid''), a continually-lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit [[menorah]] of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]; and,
+
*An "Eternal Light" ''(ner tamid)'', a continually-lit lamp as a reminder of the [[menorah]] of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]  
−
*(mainly in Ashkenazi synagogues) a [[pulpit]] facing the congregation to preach from and a pulpit or ''amud'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for "post" or "column") facing the Ark for the [[Hazzan]] (reader) to lead the prayers from.
+
*A [[pulpit]] facing the congregation for preaching and/or a small platform facing the ark from which prayers may be led
  
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In addition to synagogues, other buildings of signficance in Judaism include [[yeshiva]]s, or institutions of Jewish learning, and [[mikvah]]s, which are ritual baths.
+
In addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include religious schools known as [[yeshiva]]s and ritual baths call [[mikva]]s necessary for carrying various purification rituals. Jewish community centers also represent an important center of Jewish life, attracting non-observant as well as religious Jews.
  
 
===Dietary laws: ''Kashrut''===
 
===Dietary laws: ''Kashrut''===
 
{{main|Kashrut}}
 
{{main|Kashrut}}
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The laws of [[kashrut]] ("keeping kosher") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food, in accord with Jewish law, is termed kosher, while other food is termed ''treifah'' or ''treif''. Orthodox Jews and some Conservative Jews keep kosher, to varying degrees of strictness, while Reform, Reconstructionist, and secular Jews generally do not.
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The laws of [[kashrut]] ("keeping kosher") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with Jewish law is termed kosher, and food not in accord with Jewish law is termed ''treifah'' or ''treif''. From the context of the laws in the book of [[Leviticus]], the purpose of ''kashrut'' is related to ritual purity and holiness. Orthodox Jews and some Conservative Jews do keep kosher, to varying degrees of strictness, while Reform and Reconstructionist Jews generally do not.
 
  
 
===Family purity===
 
===Family purity===
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{{main|Niddah}}
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The ''[[niddah]]'' ("menstruant," often referred to euphemistically as "family purity") laws and various other laws (such as dress codes) regulating the interaction between men and women are perceived by Orthodox Jews as vital factors in Jewish life, though they are rarely followed by Reform or Conservative Jews. The laws of ''niddah'' dictate that [[sexual intercourse]] cannot take place while the woman is having a [[menstrual]] flow, and the wife must count seven "clean" days and immerse in a ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual bath) before resuming marital relations.
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The laws of ''[[niddah]]'' ("menstruant", often referred to euphemistically as "family purity") and various other laws regulating the interaction between men and women (e.g., ''[[tzeniut]]'', modesty in dress) are perceived, especially by Orthodox Jews, as vital factors in Jewish life, though they are rarely followed by Reform or Conservative Jews. The laws of ''niddah'' dictate that [[sexual intercourse]] cannot take place while the woman is having a [[menstrual]] flow, and she has to count seven "clean" days and immerse in a ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual bath) following menstruation.
 
  
 
=== Life-cycle events ===
 
=== Life-cycle events ===
 
Life-cycle events occur throughout a Jew's life that bind him/her to the entire community.
 
Life-cycle events occur throughout a Jew's life that bind him/her to the entire community.
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*[[Brit milah]] - Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of [[circumcision]].
+
*[[Brit milah]]—Welcoming male babies into the [[Abraham]]ic covenant through the rite of [[circumcision]]
−
*[[Bar mitzvah]] and [[Bat mitzvah]] - Celebrating a child's reaching the age of majority, becoming responsible from now on for themselves as an adult for living a Jewish life and following [[halakha]].
+
*[[Bar mitzvah]] and [[Bat mitzvah]]—Celebrating a child's reaching the age of religious majority.
 
*[[Jewish view of marriage|Marriage]]
 
*[[Jewish view of marriage|Marriage]]
−
*[[Jewish bereavement|Death and Mourning]]<!--[[Shiv'ah]] (mourning) - Judaism has a multi-staged [[mourning]] practice. The first stage is called the Shiv'ah (literally "seven", observed for one week) during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the ''shloshim'' (observed for one month) and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, ''avelut yud bet chodesh'', which is observed for eleven months.—><!--XXXXX Has good information for the Jewish bereavement page . . . planning to come back later to fix. ~~Jndrline 21-SEP-05 XXXXX—>
+
*[[Shiv'ah]] (mourning)—A multi-staged [[mourning]] practice.
  
 
==Community leadership==
 
==Community leadership==
−
===Classical priesthood===
+
===Priesthood===
−
Judaism does not have a [[clergy]], in the sense of full-time specialists required for religious services. Technically, the last time Judaism had a clergy was prior to the destruction of the Second Temple in [[70]] CE, when priests attended to the [[Temple]] and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have clerical duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities.
+
Prior to the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in 70 C.E., priests were crucial to Jewish worship, since it was they who attended to the required [[Temple]] and sacrifices. Since the priesthood is an inherited position, in many Orthodox Jewish communities priests are treated with honor, even though they may not perform their duties. The priestly orders include the [[Kohen]], a priest descended from [[Aaron]] and the [[Levite]], descended of [[Levi]], the son of [[Jacob]].  
−
*[[Kohen]] (priest) - patrilineal descendant of [[Aaron]], brother of [[Moses]]. In the [[Temple]], the ''kohanim'' were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the priestly blessing, as well as complying with other unique laws.
 
−
*[[Levi]] (Levite) - Patrilineal descendant of [[Levi]] the son of [[Jacob]]. Today, a Levite is called up second to the reading of the Torah.  
 
  
 
===Prayer leaders===
 
===Prayer leaders===
−
From the times of the [[Mishna]] and [[Talmud]] to the present, Judaism has required specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. A Jew can fulfil most requirements for prayer by himself. Some activities — reading the [[Torah]] and ''haftarah'' (a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings); the prayer for mourners; the blessings for bridegroom and bride; the complete grace after meals — require a ''minyan'', the presence of ten adults (Orthodox Jews and some Conservative Jews require ten adult men; some Conservative Jews and Reform Jews include women in the minyan).
+
[[Image:Buchbinder-Rabbi Praying.jpg|thumb|300px|''Rabbi Praying,'' by Szymon Buchbinder]]
−
 
 
 
The most common professional clergy in a [[synagogue]] are:
 
The most common professional clergy in a [[synagogue]] are:
 +
*[[Rabbi]] of a congregation—A Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation and/or acting as is pastor.
 +
*''[[Hazzan]]'' (cantor)—A trained vocalist who leads in the recitation of prayers, chants, or songs.
  
−
*[[Rabbi]] of a congregation - Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation. Orthodox Judaism requires ''[[semicha]]'' (Rabbinical ordination). A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi. Some congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as ''shatz'' or ''baal koreh'' (see below).
+
The following roles may be filled by a rabbi and/or cantor, or by specialists:
−
**Hassidic ''[[Rebbe]]'' - rabbi who is the head of a [[Hassidic]] dynasty.
 
−
*''[[Hazzan]]'' (cantor) - a trained vocalist who acts as ''shatz''. Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.
 
  
−
Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi and/or hazzan in many congregations:
+
*[[Shaliach tzibur]] or ''Shatz,'' the congregation's prayer leader.
−
 
+
*[[Baal koreh]], the "master of the reading," who reads the weekly [[Torah]] portion.
−
*[[Shaliach tzibur]] or ''Shatz'' (leader — literally "agent" or "representative" — of the congregation) leads those assembled in prayer, and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a ''shatz'' recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is ''not'' acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying ''amen'' at their conclusion; it is with this act that the ''shatz's'' prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Any adult capable of speaking Hebrew clearly may act as ''shatz'' (Orthodox Jews and some Conservative Jews allow only men to act as ''shatz''; some Conservative Jews and Reform Jews allow women to act as ''shatz'' as well).
+
*Gabbai (sexton), summons people to read the Torah, appoints the ''shatz'' for the week if this position is not permanent, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.
−
 
 
−
*[[Baal koreh]] (master of the reading) reads the weekly [[Torah]] portion.  The requirements for acting as ''baal koreh'' are the same as those for the ''shatz''.
 
−
 
 
−
Note that these roles are not mutually exclusive. The same person is often qualified to fill more than one role, and often does.
 
−
 
 
−
Many congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a:
 
−
*Gabbai (sexton) - Calls people up to the Torah, appoints the ''shatz'' for each prayer session if there is no standard ''shatz'', and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.
 
−
 
 
−
The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. Since the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and hazzans to act as ''shatz'' and ''baal koreh'', and this is still typically the case in most Conservative and Reform congregations. However, in most Orthodox synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople.
 
  
 
===Specialized religious roles===
 
===Specialized religious roles===
−
*''[[Dayan]]'' (judge) - expert in Jewish law who sits on a ''[[beth din]]'' (rabbinical court) for either monetary matters or for overseeing the giving of a bill of divorce (''[[get]]''). A ''dayan'' always requires ''[[semicha]]''.
+
Other religious specialists include the following, some of which require rabbinical degrees:
−
*[[Mohel]] - performs the ''[[brit milah]]'' (circumcision). An expert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a qualified ''mohel''.
+
*''[[Dayan]]'' (judge)—An expert in Jewish law who sits on a ''[[beth din]]'' (rabbinical court) for civil suits and divorce cases.
−
*[[Shochet]] (ritual slaughterer) - slaughters all kosher meat. In order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a ''shochet'' who is expert in the laws and has received training from another ''shochet'', as well as having regular contact with a rabbi and revising the relevant guidelines on a regular basis.
+
*[[Mohel]]—The man who performs the ''[[brit milah]]'' (rite of circumcision).
−
*[[Sofer]] (scribe) - [[Torah]] scrolls, ''[[tefillin]]'' (phylacteries), ''[[mezuzah]]s'' (scrolls put on doorposts), and ''[[get|gittin]]'' (bills of divorce) must be written by a ''sofer'' who is an expert in the laws of writing.
+
*[[Shochet]]—A butcher trained in the slaughter of kosher meat.
−
*[[Rosh yeshivah]] - head of a ''[[yeshiva]]''. Somebody who is an expert in delving into the depths of the [[Talmud]], and lectures the highest class in a [[yeshiva]].
+
*[[Sofer]]—A scribe responsible for copying [[Torah]] scrolls and other religious documents.
−
*Mashgiach of a yeshiva - expert in ''[[mussar Movement|mussar]]'' (ethics). Oversees the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students in a ''yeshiva'', and gives lectures on ''mussar''.
+
*[[Rosh yeshivah]]—The head and chief lecturer of a ''[[yeshiva]]''.
−
*Mashgiach over ''[[kosher]]'' products - supervises merchants and manufacturers of kosher food to ensure that the food is kosher. Either an expert in the laws of [[kashrut]], or (generally) under the supervision of a rabbi who is expert in those laws.
+
*Mashgiach of a yeshiva—An expert in ''[[mussar Movement|mussar]]'' (ethics) who oversees the spiritual welfare of the students in a ''yeshiva''.
−
 
+
*Mashgiach over ''[[kosher]]'' products—An overseer of merchants and manufacturers of kosher food.
−
== Jewish religious history ==
 
−
{{main|Jewish history}}
 
−
 
 
−
Jewish history is an extensive topic; this section will cover the elements of Jewish history of most importance to the Jewish religion and the development of Jewish denominations.
 
−
 
 
−
===Ancient Jewish religious history===
 
−
Jews trace their religious lineage to the [[Bible|biblical]] patriarch [[Abraham]] through [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]]. After the [[Exodus]] from Egypt, the Jews came to Canaan, and settled the land. A [[monarchy|kingdom]] was established under [[Saul the King|Saul]] and continued under [[King David]] and [[Solomon]] with its capital in [[Jerusalem]]. After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, the [[Kingdom of Israel]] (in the north) and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] (in the south). The [[Kingdom of Israel]] was conquered by the [[Assyria]]n ruler [[Shalmaneser V]] in the [[8th century B.C.E.|8th century B.C.E.]] and spread all over the Assyrian empire, where they were assimilated into other cultures and become known as the [[Ten Lost Tribes]]. The [[Kingdom of Judah]] continued as an independent state until it was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early [[6th century B.C.E.|6th century B.C.E.]], destroying the [[First Temple]] that was at the centre of ancient Jewish worship. The Judean elite was exiled to [[Babylonia]], but later at least a part of them returned to their homeland after the subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] seventy years later, a period known as the [[Babylonian Captivity]]. A new [[Second Temple]] was constructed, and old religious practices were resumed.
 
−
 
 
−
After a Jewish revolt against Roman rule in [[66]] CE, the Romans all but destroyed [[Jerusalem]]; only a single "[[Western Wall]]" of the [[Second Temple]] remained. Following a second revolt, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem and most Jewish worship was forbidden by Rome. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organized around the Temple, and instead was rebuilt around rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities (see [[Jewish diaspora]]). No new books were added to the Jewish Bible after the Roman period, instead major efforts went into interpreting and developing Jewish law.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Historical Jewish groupings (to [[1700]]) ===
 
−
Around the [[1st century|first century CE]] there were several small Jewish sects: the [[Pharisees]], [[Sadducees]], [[Zealots]], [[Essenes]], and [[Christian]]s. After the destruction of the Second Temple in [[70]] CE, these sects vanished. [[Christianity]] survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion; the [[Pharisees]] survived but in the form of Rabbinic Judaism (today, known simply as "Judaism").
 
−
 
 
−
Some Jews in the 8th and 9th centuries adopted the [[Sadducees]]' rejection of the [[oral law]] of the Pharisees/rabbis recorded in the [[Mishnah]] (and developed by later rabbis in the two [[Talmud]]s), intending to rely only upon the [[Tanakh]]. These included the [[Isunians]], the [[Yudganites]], the [[Malikites]], and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the [[Karaism|Karaite]] sect. Karaites exist in small numbers today, mostly living in Israel. Rabbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous.
 
−
 
 
−
Over time Jews developed into distinct ethnic groups &#8212; amongst others, the ''[[Ashkenazi]] Jews'' (of Central and Eastern [[Europe]] with [[Russia]]); the ''[[Sephardi]] Jews'' (of [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and [[North Africa]]) and the ''[[Yemenite Jews]]'', from the southern tip of the [[Arab]]ian peninsula. This split is cultural, and is not based on any doctrinal dispute, although the distance did result in minor differences in practice and prayers.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Hasidism ===
 
−
{{main|Hasidic Judaism}}
 
−
 
 
−
Hasidic Judaism was founded by [[Israel ben Eliezer]] ([[1700]]-[[1760]]), also known as the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' (or ''Besht''). His disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across [[Europe]]. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Europe. Waves of Jewish immigration in the [[1880s]] carried it to the [[United States]].
 
−
 
 
−
Early on, there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbed by the Hasidim as [[mitnagdim]], (lit. "opponents"). Some of the reasons for the rejection of Hasidic Judaism were the overwhelming exuberance of Hasidic worship; their untraditional ascriptions of infallibility and alleged miracle-working to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. Since then all the sects of Hasidic Judaism have been subsumed into mainstream Orthodox Judaism, particularly [[Haredi Judaism]].
 
−
 
 
−
=== The Enlightenment and Reform Judaism ===
 
−
{{main|Haskalah}}
 
−
 
 
−
In the late [[18th century]] CE [[Europe]] was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as [[the Enlightenment]]. The Enlightenment led to reductions in the European laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and experience. A parallel Jewish movement, [[Haskalah]] or the "Jewish Enlightenment," began, especially in [[Central Europe]], in response to both the Enlightenment and these new freedoms. It placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of non-religious knowledge. The thrust and counter-thrust between supporters of Haskalah and more traditional Jewish concepts eventually led to the formation of a number of different branches of Judaism: Haskalah supporters founded [[Reform Judaism]] and [[Liberal Judaism]], while traditionalists founded many forms of [[Orthodox Judaism]], and Jews seeking a balance between the two sides founded [[Conservative Judaism]]. A  number of smaller groups came into being as well.
 
−
 
 
−
=== The Holocaust ===
 
−
While [[the Holocaust]] did not immediately affect Jewish denominations, its great loss of life caused a radical [[demographic]] shift, ultimately affecting the makeup of organized Judaism the way it is today. A Jewish day of mourning, [[Yom HaShoah]], was inserted into the Jewish calendar, commemorating the Holocaust.
 
−
 
 
−
=== The present situation ===
 
−
In most Western nations, such as the [[United States of America]], [[Israel]], [[Canada]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[South Africa]], a wide variety of Jewish practices exist, along with a growing plurality of [[secular]] and non-practicing Jews. For example, in the world's largest Jewish community, the United States, according to the [http://www.ujc.org/content_display.html?ArticleID=83784 2001 National Jewish Population Survey], 4.3 million out of 5.1 million Jews had some sort of connection to the religion. Of that population of connected Jews, 80% participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only 48% belonged to a synagogue.
 
−
 
 
−
Religious (and secular) Jewish movements in the USA and Canada perceive this as a crisis situation, and have grave concern over rising rates of [[intermarriage]] and [[assimilation]] in the Jewish community. Since American Jews are marrying at a later time in their life than they used to, and are having fewer children than they used, the birth rate for American Jews has dropped from over 2.0 down to 1.7 (the replacement rate is 2.1). (''This is My Beloved, This is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter on Intimate relations'', p. 27, [[Elliot N. Dorff]], The [[Rabbinical Assembly]], 1996). Intermarriage rates range from 40-50% in the US, and only about a third of children of intermarried couples are raised Jewish. Due to intermarriage and low birth rates, the Jewish population in the US shrank from 5.5 million in [[1990]] to 5.1 million in [[2001]]. This is indicative of the general population trends among the Jewish community in the [[Diaspora]], but a focus on population masks the diversity of current Jewish religious practice, as well as growth trends among some communities, like ''[[Haredi Judaism|haredi]]'' Jews.
 
−
 
 
−
In the last 50 years there has been a general increase in interest in religion among many segments of the Jewish population.  All of the major Jewish denominations have experienced a resurgence in popularity, with increasing numbers of younger Jews participating in Jewish education, joining synagogues, and becoming (to varying degrees) more observant. Complementing the increased popularity of the major denominations has been a number of new approaches to Jewish worship, including [[feminist]] approaches to Judaism and Jewish renewal movements.  There is a separate article on the [[Baal teshuva]] movement, the movement of Jews returning to observant Judaism. Though this gain has not offset the general demographic loss due to intermarriage and [[acculturation]], many Jewish communities and movements are growing.
 
  
 
==Judaism and other religions==
 
==Judaism and other religions==
 
=== Christianity and Judaism ===
 
=== Christianity and Judaism ===
−
There are a number of articles on the relationship between Judaism and [[Christianity]]. These articles include:
+
Although [[Christians]] believe in God and accepted the [[Hebrew Bible]] as their [[Old Testament]], Jews have endured a stormy relationship with Christians throughout history. One issue causing difficulty was the development of the Christian doctrine of the [[Trinity]], seen by Jews as a violation of the strict principle of [[monotheism]]. Another key issue in this dynamic is the supposed Jewish responsibility for the death of [[Jesus]], which resulted in a long-standing tradition of [[Christian anti-Judaism]].
−
*[[Comparing and contrasting Judaism and Christianity]]
 
−
*[[Judeo-Christian]]
 
−
*[[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
 
−
*[[Jewish view of Jesus]]
 
−
*[[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]]
 
−
 
 
−
Since [[the Holocaust]], there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jewish people; the article on [[Christian-Jewish reconciliation]] studies this issue.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Messianic Judaism]] (sometimes Hebrew Christianity) is the common designation for a number of Christian groups which include varying degrees of Jewish practice. These groups have attracted tens (and perhaps hundreds) of thousands of Jews and Christians to their ranks; members identify themselves as Jews. These groups are viewed highly negatively by all Jewish denominations, which typically see them as covert and deceptive attempts to convert Jews to Christianity, a view Messianic-Jewish groups strongly contest.
 
−
 
 
−
==== Mormonism and Judaism ====
 
−
{{main|Mormonism and Judaism}}
 
−
 
 
−
If a member of the [[Latter Day Saints]] church has an established Jewish heritage and lineage, then they are considered by the Mormons to be of the Tribe of Judah, and as such, considered both Mormon and Jewish by Mormon authorities, though not in Jewish practice.
 
  
 +
From a Jewish viewpoint the [[the Holocaust]] represented the culmination of Christian civilization's animosity toward the Jews. Since the end of [[World War II]], [[Christian-Jewish reconciliation]] has made important strides, as some denominations have officially rejected the doctrine of Jewish collective responsibility for killing Jesus, and the [[Catholic Church]] has gone so far as to apologize to the Jews for its history of [[antisemitism]].
 +
 
=== Islam and Judaism ===
 
=== Islam and Judaism ===
−
{{main|Islam and Judaism}}
+
Like Christianity, [[Islam]] recognized the Jewish scriptures as valid, and also stuck to a firm tradition of monotheism. During the last 1500 years, Judaism underwent significant developments under Islamic rule, leading to an interplay between the two religions which has been both positive and negative at times. Jewish communities flourished under Islamic governments in [[Babylonia]], and the later period around 900 to 1200 C.E. in [[Moorish]] [[Spain]], and came to be known as the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]]. Indeed, for much of its history, Judaism fared much better under Muslim regimes than Christian ones. The twentieth century animosity of Muslim leaders towards [[Zionism]] and the establishment of the state of [[Israel]] have led to a serious crisis in Jewish-Islamic relations, involving occasional violence between Muslims and Jews, especially in Israel and [[Palestine]].
−
 
 
−
Under [[Islam|Islamic]] rule, Judaism has been practiced for almost 1500 years and this has led to an interplay between the two religions which has been positive as well as negative at times. The period around [[900]] to [[1200]] in [[Moorish]] [[Spain]] came to be known as the [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]].
 
−
 
 
−
The [[20th century]] animosity of Muslim leaders towards [[Zionism]], the political movement of Jewish [[self-determination]], has led to a renewed interest in the relationship between Judaism and Islam.
 
−
 
 
−
Other relevant material:
 
−
*[[Muslim Jew]]
 
−
*[[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]
 
−
*[[Islam and anti-Semitism]]
 
  
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
−
{{commons|Category:Judaism}}
 
−
===Jews and Judaism===
 
−
*[[Jew]] for information on Jews from a national, ethnic, and cultural perspective.
 
−
*[[Jewish history]]
 
−
*[[Jewish population]]
 
−
**[[Judaism by country]]
 
 
*[[Anti-Semitism]]
 
*[[Anti-Semitism]]
−
*[[Israel]]
 
−
*[[Secular Jewish culture]]
 
−
**[[Jewish humour]]
 
−
*[[List of converts to Judaism]]
 
 
*[[Zionism]]
 
*[[Zionism]]
−
 
+
*[[Halakha]]
−
===Jewish law and religion===
 
−
*[[Halakha]] (religious law)
 
−
**[[Who is a Jew?]]
 
−
**[[Jewish ethics]]
 
−
**[[Jewish views of homosexuality]]
 
−
**[[Jewish ethics]] and [[Mussar Movement]] concern the ethical teachings of Judaism.
 
−
**[[Holocaust theology]]
 
 
*[[Torah]]
 
*[[Torah]]
−
*[[Rabbinic literature]], including the Talmud
+
*[[Rabbi]]
−
*[[Jewish services]]
 
−
*[[List of Jewish prayers and blessings]]
 
−
*[[Jewish eschatology]], Jewish views of the [[Messiah]] and the [[afterlife]].
 
−
*[[Role of women in Judaism]]
 
−
 
 
−
===Comparative===
 
 
*[[Abrahamic religions]]
 
*[[Abrahamic religions]]
−
*[[Jewish views of religious pluralism]]
+
*[[Conservative Judaism]]
−
*[[List of religions]]
+
*[[Orthodox Judaism]]
 +
*[[Reform Judaism]]
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*''[[Ancient Judaism (book)|Ancient Judaism]]'', [[Max Weber]], Free Press, 1967, ISBN 0029341302
+
* Elazar, Daniel Judah, and Rela M. Geffen. ''The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities''. SUNY series in American Jewish society in the 1990s. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000. ISBN 9780791446898.
−
*''Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition and Practice'' Wayne Dosick.
+
* Freundel, Barry. ''Contemporary Orthodox Judaism's Response to Modernity''. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Pub. House, 2004. ISBN 9780881257786.
−
* ''Conservative Judaism: The New Century'', Neil Gillman, Behrman House.
+
* Gotzmann, Andreas, and Christian Wiese. ''Modern Judaism and Historical Consciousness: Identities, Encounters, Perspectives''. Leiden: Brill, 2007. ISBN 9789004152892.
−
*''American Jewish Orthodoxy in Historical Perspective'' Jeffrey S. Gurock, 1996, Ktav.
+
* Gurock, Jeffrey S. ''From Fluidity to Rigidity: The Religious Worlds of Conservative and Orthodox Jews in Twentieth Century America''. David W. Belin lecture in American Jewish affairs, 7. Ann Arbor: Jean and Samuel Frankel Center for Judaic Studies, the University of Michigan, 1998. ISBN 9781881759065.
−
*''Philosophies of Judaism'' Julius Guttmann, trans. by David Silverman, JPS. 1964
+
* Hirsch, Ammiel, and Yaakov Yosef Reinman. ''One People, Two Worlds: An Orthodox Rabbi and a Reform Rabbi Explore the Issues That Divide Them''. New York: Schocken Books, 2002. ISBN 9780805211405.
−
*''Back to the Sources: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts'' Ed. Barry W. Holtz, Summit Books
+
* Levy, Richard N. ''A Vision of Holiness: The Future of Reform Judaism''. New York: URJ Press, 2005. ISBN 9780807409411.
−
*''A History of the Jews'' Paul Johnson, HarperCollins, 1988
 
−
*''A People Divided: Judaism in Contemporary America'', Jack Wertheimer. Brandeis Univ. Press, 1997.
 
−
*''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing, CD-ROM edition, 1997
 
−
*''The American Jewish Identity Survey'', article by Egon Mayer, Barry Kosmin and Ariela Keysar; a sub-set of <u>The American Religious Identity Survey</u>, City University of New York Graduate Center. An article on this survey is printed in ''The New York Jewish Week'', November 2, 2001.
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
===General===
+
All links retrieved October 4, 2022.
−
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/ Judaism 101], an extensive FAQ written by a librarian.
+
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/ Welcome to Judaism 101!] ''Judaism 101''
−
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556154/Judaism.html ''Microsoft Encarta'' article on Judaism]
+
*[https://www.learnreligions.com/what-is-jewish-2076773 What Does It Really Mean to Be 'Jewish?'] ''Learn Religions''
−
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=666&letter=J&search=Judaism Judaism article from the 1901-1906 ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']
+
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/concepts.html Jewish Concepts]. ''Jewish Virtual Library''
−
*[http://www.shamash.org/links/ Extensive Collection of Links], from Shamash.org
+
*[http://www.chabad.org/ Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidism] ''chabad.org''
−
*[http://judaism.about.com/library/weekly/mpreviss_judaism_intro.htm Introduction to Judaism] from About.com.
+
*[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/background-and-overview-of-conservative-judaism Conservative Judaism: Background & Overview] ''Jewish Virtual Library''
−
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/index.htm Judaism] from ReligionFacts.com.
+
*[https://www.reconstructingjudaism.org/ Reconstructing Judaism]. ''reconstructingjudaism.org''
−
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/concepts.html Jewish Concepts] from the Jewish Virtual Library.
+
*[http://www.shj.org/ Society for Humanistic Judaism] ''shj.org''
−
 
+
*[http://www.karaite-korner.org Karaite Judaism] ''The Karaite Korner''
−
===Orthodox/Modern Orthodox/Hasidic===
+
*[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/who-is-a-jew Who is a Jew?] by Rebecca Weiner ''Jewish Virtual Library''
−
*[http://www.ou.org/ Orthodox Judaism - The Orthodox Union: Official website]
 
−
*[http://www.chabad.org/ Chabad-Lubavitch: Official website]
 
−
*[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/02-04.html What is Orthodox Judaism? Frequently Asked Questions and Answers]
 
−
*[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/08_Orthodoxy.html The Various Types of Orthodox Judaism]
 
−
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/orthostate.html The State of Orthodox Judaism Today]
 
−
 
 
−
===Conservative===
 
−
*[http://www.uscj.org/index1.html The United Synagogues of Conservative Judaism: Official website]
 
−
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/conservatives.html Introduction to Conservative Judaism]
 
−
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/conservstate.html The State of Conservative Judaism Today]
 
−
 
 
−
===Reform===
 
−
*[http://www.reformjudaism.org.uk/ Reform Judaism (UK): Official website]
 
−
*[http://www.rj.org/ Reform Judaism (USA): Official website]
 
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*[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Origins_of_Reform_Judaism.html The Origin of Reform Judaism]
 
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*[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/02-05.html What is Reform Judaism? Frequently Asked Questions and Answers]
 
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*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ref.html Jewish Virtual Library articles on Reform Judaism]
 
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===Reconstructionist===
 
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*[http://www.jrf.org/ Jewish Reconstructionist Federation: Official website]
 
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===Humanistic===
 
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*[http://www.shj.org/ Society for Humanistic Judaism: Official website]
 
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===Karaite===
 
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*[http://www.karaite-korner.org World Movement for Karaite Judaism]
 
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===Jewish religious literature and texts===
 
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*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/Pentateuch Wikisource Pentateuch] (in Hebrew).
 
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*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t0.htm Complete Tanakh] (in Hebrew, with vowels).
 
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*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/jps/index.htm English Tanakh] from the 1917 Jewish Publication Society version.
 
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*[http://www.torah.org/ Torah.org - The Judaism Site]. (also known as ''Project Genesis'') Contains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes.
 
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*[http://www.e-daf.com/ The complete formatted Talmud online].  Interpretative videos for each page from a Orthodox viewpoint are provided in French, English, Yiddish and Hebrew.
 
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*[http://www.shamash.org/tanach/dvar.shtml Links to many sources of Divrei Torah].  Interpretations and discussions of portions of the Tanach from many different viewpoints.
 
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===Wikimedia [[Torah study]] projects===
 
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Text study projects at [[:s:Wikisource|Wikisource]]. In many instances, the Hebrew versions of these projects are more fully developed than the English.
 
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*[[Mikraot Gedolot]] (Rabbinic Bible) in [[:s:he:מקראות גדולות|Hebrew]] [[:s:he:מ"ג איכה א א|(sample)]] and [[:s:Mikraot Gedolot|English]] [[:s:MG Numbers 1:1|(sample)]].
 
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*[[Cantillation]] at the "Vayavinu Bamikra" Project in [[:s:he:ויבינו במקרא|Hebrew]] (lists nearly 200 recordings) and [[:s:Vayavinu Bamikra|English]].
 
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*[[Mishnah]] in [[:s:he:משנה|Hebrew]] [[:s:he:ברכות פרק א משנה א|(sample)]] and [[:s:Mishnah|English]] [[:s:Mishnah Berakhot 1:1|(sample)]].
 
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*[[Shulchan Aruch]] in [[:s:he:שולחן ערוך|Hebrew]] and [[:s:Shulchan Aruch|English]] (Hebrew text with English translation).
 
  
 
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Latest revision as of 20:55, 4 October 2022

Part of a series on
Judaism
Judaism
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Tur · Shulchan Aruch · Mishnah Berurah
Ḥumash · Siddur · Piyutim · Zohar · Tanya
Holy cities
Jerusalem · Safed · Hebron · Tiberias
Important figures
Abraham · Isaac · Jacob/Israel
Sarah · Rebecca · Rachel · Leah
Moses · Deborah · Ruth · David · Solomon
Elijah · Hillel · Shammai · Judah the Prince
Saadia Gaon · Rashi · Rif · Ibn Ezra · Tosafists
Rambam · Ramban · Gersonides
Yosef Albo · Yosef Karo · Rabbeinu Asher
Baal Shem Tov · Alter Rebbe · Vilna Gaon
Ovadia Yosef · Moshe Feinstein · Elazar Shach
Lubavitcher Rebbe
Jewish life cycle
Brit · B'nai mitzvah · Shidduch · Marriage
Niddah · Naming · Pidyon HaBen · Bereavement
Religious roles
Rabbi · Rebbe · Hazzan
Kohen/Priest · Mashgiach · Gabbai · Maggid
Mohel · Beth din · Rosh yeshiva
Religious buildings
Synagogue · Mikvah · Holy Temple / Tabernacle
Religious articles
Tallit · Tefillin · Kipa · Sefer Torah
Tzitzit · Mezuzah · Menorah · Shofar
4 Species · Kittel · Gartel · Yad
Jewish prayers
Jewish services · Shema · Amidah · Aleinu
Kol Nidre · Kaddish · Hallel · Ma Tovu · Havdalah
Judaism & other religions
Christianity · Islam · Catholicism · Christian-Jewish reconciliation
Abrahamic religions · Judeo-Paganism · Pluralism
Mormonism · "Judeo-Christian" · Alternative Judaism
Related topics
Criticism of Judaism · Anti-Judaism
Antisemitism · Philo-Semitism · Yeshiva

Judaism is the religious culture of the Jewish people. While far from monolithic in practice and having no centralized authority or binding dogma, Judaism has remained strongly united around several religious principles, the most important of which is the belief in a single, omniscient, transcendent God that created the universe.

According to Jewish thought, God established a covenant with the Jewish people, then known as the Israelites, and revealed his laws and commandments to them in the form of the Torah. Jewish practice is devoted to the study and observance of these laws and commandments, as they are interpreted according to various ancient and modern authorities.

Judaism does not easily fit into common western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. In religious terms Judaism today is comprised of three main denominations: Orthodox (including several varieties), Conservative, and Reform, plus a large body of secular Jews who belong to no organized religious institution.

Judaism is one of the first recorded monotheistic faiths and one of the oldest religious traditions still practiced today. The tenets and history of Judaism form a major part of the foundation of other Abrahamic religions, including Christianity and Islam.

Religious view of Judaism's development

Much of the Hebrew Bible is an account of the Israelites' relationship with God as reflected in their history from the time of Abraham until the building of the Second Temple (c. 350 B.C.E.). Abraham is generally seen as the first Jew, although he was also the progenitor of several non-Jewish tribes. Rabbinical literature holds that he was the first person to reject idolatry and preach monotheism. As a result, God promised he would have many children: "Look now toward heaven and count the stars. So shall be your progeny" (Genesis 15:5).

Abraham's first child was Ishmael and his second son was Isaac, whom God said would continue Abraham's work and whose descendants would inherit the Land of Israel (then called Canaan), after having been exiled and redeemed. God sent Abraham's grandson, the patriarch Jacob and his children to Egypt, where they later became enslaved. As Jacob was also known as "Israel," his tribe became known as the Israelites.

Moses with the Ten Commandments, by Rembrandt

God sent Moses to redeem the Israelites from slavery. After the Exodus from Egypt, God led the Jews to Mount Sinai and gave them the Torah, eventually bringing them to the land of Canaan, which they conquered at God's command. God designated the descendants of Aaron, Moses' brother, to be a priestly class within the Israelite community. They first officiated in the Tabernacle (a portable house of worship), and later their descendants were in charge of worship in the Temple in Jerusalem.

Once the Israelites had settled in Canaan, the Tabernacle was established in the city of Shiloh for over 300 years. During his time, God provided great leaders known as the judges to rally the nation against attacking enemies sent by God as a punishment for the sins of the people, who failed to separate themselves from the Canaanites and joined in worshiping the Canaanite gods.

The people of Israel then told the prophet Samuel, the last and greatest of the judges, that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, as were other nations. God acceded to this request and had Samuel appoint Saul to be their first monarch. However, when Saul disunited with Samuel and proved to lack zeal in destroying Israel's enemies, God instructed Samuel to appoint David in his stead.

David and Saul struggled with each other for many years, but once David's kingship was established, he told the prophet Nathan that he would like to build a permanent temple for the Lord. God promised the king that he would allow his son to build the temple and that the throne would never depart from his children. It was thus David's son, Solomon, who built the first permanent temple in Jerusalem, as described in the Books of Kings.

However, Solomon sinned by erecting altars for his foreign wives on hilltops near Jerusalem. Thus, after death, his kingdom was split into the two kingdoms of Israel and Judah. After several hundred years, because of rampant idolatry, God allowed Assyria to conquer Israel and exile its people. The southern Kingdom of Judah remained under the rulership of the House of David. However, as in the north, idolatry increased to the point that God allowed Babylonia to conquer the kingdom, destroy the Temple, and exile the people of Judah to Babylonia, with the promise that they would be redeemed after 70 years.

The Western Wall in Jerusalem is all that is known to remain of the Second Temple. The Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism.

King Cyrus of Persia allowed the Jews to return, and, under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah the Temple was rebuilt. The Second Temple stood for 420 years, after which it was destroyed by the Roman general (later emperor) Titus in reaction to a Jewish rebellion in 70 C.E. Since then, Judaism has focused on God's law, and no longer has an active priesthood, nor can it practice the rituals of sacrifice and other rites formerly practiced in the Temple. Only when the Messiah, a descendant of King David, arises to restore the glory of Israel will the Temple in Jerusalem be rebuilt and the sacrificial tradition be renewed.

The Torah given on Mount Sinai was summarized in the five books of Moses. Together with the books of the prophets it is called the Written Torah. The details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Oral Torah, were originally unwritten. However, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, rabbinic tradition holds that these oral laws were recorded in the Mishnah and the Talmud, as well as other holy books. The Talmud (including the Mishnah) now serves as a central text of Judaism along with the Hebrew Bible.

Critical view

In contrast to the Orthodox religious view of the Hebrew Bible, modern scholars suggest that the Torah consists of a variety of inconsistent texts that were edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts (see Documentary hypothesis). Thus, although monotheism is fundamental to Rabbinic Judaism, the Hebrew Bible also speaks of other gods as really existing, the Hebrew deity Yahweh being the national god of the Israelites. Many of the Israelites worshiped Yahweh, but they often honored other deities such Baal and Ashera together with him. Biblical writers of the seventh century B.C.E. and later took a more firmly monotheistic view. They urged complete separation from Canaanite culture, insisted that Jerusalem was the only authorized place of sacrifice to Yahweh, and wrote the history of Judah and Israel in such as way that made it appear as if their priestly ideology had always been known to the Israelites, who sinned against God by failing to adhere to it.

It was thus only after the Babylonian exile that this priestly religion known today as Judaism became predominant. The religion of the Israelites, therefore, is far from identical with the biblical religion of Judaism.

Jewish denominations

Over the past two centuries the Jewish community has divided into a number of Jewish denominations. Each of these has a different understanding of what principles of belief a Jew should hold, and how one should live as a Jew.

Hasidic Jews are one part of the Haredi community, the most theologically conservative form of Judaism.
In Reform Judaism, prayer is often conducted in the vernacular and men and women have equal roles in religious observance.
  • Orthodox Judaism holds that the Torah was written by God and dictated to Moses, and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Orthodox Judaism consists of Modern Orthodox Judaism and Haredi Judaism. Hasidic Judaism is a sub-set of Haredi Judaism. Most Jews affirm a form of Jewish theology based on Maimonides' 13 principles of Jewish faith.
  • Reform Judaism originally formed in Germany in response to the Enlightenment. It holds most of the commandments of the Torah are no longer binding and rejects many Jewish customs, emphasizing instead the moral and ethical teachings of the prophets. Reform prayer services are often in the vernacular rather than Hebrew, and Reform rabbis are allowed to perform interfaith marriages.
  • Conservative Judaism. Conservative Judaism formed in the United States in the late 1800s through the fusion of two distinct groups: former Reform Jews who were alienated by that movement's emphatic rejection of Jewish law, and former Orthodox Jews who had come to question traditional beliefs and favored the critical study of sacred Jewish texts. Conservative Jews generally hold that Jewish laws should be retained unless there is good reason to reject them.
  • Reconstructionist Judaism started as a stream of philosophy within Conservative Judaism, and later became an independent movement emphasizing reinterpreting Judaism for modern times.
  • Secular Judaism. Though not a formal denomination, secular Judaism, also known as cultural Judaism, forms perhaps the largest group of Jews today. Secular Jews do not adhere to any Jewish sect, rarely attend synagogue, and are not observant of most Jewish customs. While the majority of secular Jews believe in God, some are agnostics or atheists, while continuing to identify themselves as ethnic and cultural Jews.
  • Humanistic Judaism is a small, non-theistic movement that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the source of Jewish identity. Founded by Rabbi Sherwin Wine, it is centered in North America but has adherents in Europe, Latin America, and Israel.

Karaism and Samaritanism

Unlike other non-Othodox Jewish groups, Karaite Judaism did not begin as a modern Jewish movement. The Karaites accept only the Hebrew Bible and do not accept non-biblical writings such as the Talmud as authoritative. Historically, the Karaites can be traced to controversies in the Babylonian Jewish communities during the eighth and ninth centuries, although some Karaites trace their spiritual roots to back to pre-Talmudic times.

The Samaritans, strictly speaking, are not Jews but Israelites, who believe they hold the true tradition of the Torah given by God to Moses. Jews see them as mixed race Israelites who sinned by refusing to worship in Jerusalem, while the Samaritans believe it is the Jews who sinned by failing to worship at the true authorized Temple of Yahweh on Mount Gerizim. A substantial and prosperous nation during the Second Temple period, only a few hundred Samaritans survive today, living mostly near Mount Gerizim in Palestine and outside of Tel Aviv in Israel.

Principles of Jewish faith

While Judaism has always affirmed a number of Jewish principles of faith, no creed, dogma, or fully-binding "catechism," is recognized. It has an approach to Jewish religious doctrine that dates back at least 2,000 years which makes generalizations about Jewish theology somewhat difficult.

Nevertheless, in Orthodox tradition, a number of clear formulations of Jewish principles of faith have appeared, many with common elements, though they differ in certain details. Of these formulations, the one most widely considered authoritative by Orthodox Jews is Maimonides' 13 principles of faith:

Artist's conception of Maimonides
  • God is one. This represents a strict unitarian monotheism.
  • God is all-powerful, as well as all-knowing.
  • God is non-physical, non-corporeal, and eternal.
  • One may offer prayer only to God.
  • The Hebrew Bible, together with the teachings of the Mishnah and Talmud, are held to be the product of divine revelation.
  • The words of the prophets are true.
  • Moses was the chief of all prophets.
  • The Torah (the five books of Moses) is the primary text of Judaism.
  • God will reward those who observe his commandments, and punish those who violate them.
  • God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique and eternal covenant with him.
  • There will be a Jewish Messiah, or perhaps a messianic era.
  • The soul is pure at birth, and human beings have free will, with an innate yetzer ha'tov (a tendency to do good), and a yetzer ha'ra (a tendency to do evil).
  • People can atone for sins through words and deeds, without intermediaries, through prayer, repentance, and tzedakah (dutiful giving of charity).

The traditional Jewish bookshelf

A Torah scroll
An edition of the Babylonian Talmud
Rashi's five-volume midrash (commentary) on the Hebrew Bible
Maimonides' Mishneh Torah, a compendium of halakhic commentary

Jews are often called the "People of the Book," and Judaism has an age-old intellectual tradition focusing on text-based Torah and Talmud study. The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought.

  • The Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), consisting of
  • Works of the Talmudic Era (classic rabbinic literature):
    • The Mishnah and its commentaries
    • The Tosefta (sermons) and the minor tractates not included in the Mishnah
    • The Talmud
  • Non-halakhic midrashic literature, also known as Aggada
  • Halakhic literature
    • The Major Codes of Jewish Law and Custom
      • The Mishneh Torah and its commentaries
      • The Tur and its commentaries
      • The Shulhan Arukh and its commentaries
    • Other books on Jewish Law and Custom
    • The Responsa literature of rabbinic rulings
  • Jewish Thought and Ethics
  • The Siddur (prayer book) and Jewish liturgy
  • Piyyut, or classical Jewish poetry

Non-Orthodox Jews include many other Jewish works of contemporary philosophy, theology, Biblical Criticism, and psychology.

Jewish Law and interpretation

Main article: Halakha

The basis of Jewish law is the Torah (the five books of Moses). According to rabbinic tradition there are 613 commandments in the Torah, although many laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem existed, and fewer than 300 of these commandments are still applicable today.

In addition to these written laws, Judaism affirms a belief in the Oral Law as well. This law was conveyed together with the Written Law to Moses at Sinai and handed down orally through the prophets and sages, eventually transmitted though the Pharisee sect of ancient Judaism, and later recorded in written form by the rabbis. In the time of Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi during the late second century C.E., much of this material was edited together into the Mishnah. Over the next four centuries this law underwent discussion and debate in both of the world's major Jewish communities Palestine and Babylonia. The commentaries on the Mishnah from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the two Talmuds, the Palestinian and the Babylonian, the latter being the more authoritative. These in turn have been expounded by commentaries of various Talmudic scholars during the ages.

Halakha is thus based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition, including the Mishnah, the halakhic Midrash, the Talmud, and its commentaries. The Halakha has developed slowly, through a precedent-based system. The literature of questions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa. Over time, as practices developed, codes of Jewish law were written based on the responsa. The most important code, the Shulkhan Arukh, largely determines Orthodox Jewish religious practice up to today.

Jewish philosophy

Main article: Jewish philosophy

Jewish philosophy refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Early Jewish philosophy was influenced by the philosophy of Plato, Aristotle, and Islamic philosophy. The key classical Jewish philosophers include Solomon ibn Gabirol, Saadia Gaon, Maimonides, and Gersonides.

Major changes occurred in response to the Enlightenment, leading to the post-Enlightenment and modern Jewish philosophers such as Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Will Herberg, Emmanuel Levinas, Richard Rubenstein, Emil Fackenheim, and Joseph Soloveitchik.

A Jewish bride c. 1876

Who is a Jew?

According to traditional Jewish law, someone is considered to be a Jew if he or she was born of a Jewish mother or converted in accord with Jewish Law. Recently, however, the American Reform and Reconstructionist movements have included those born of Jewish fathers and Gentile mothers, if the children are raised as Jews.

Even in Orthodox tradition, a Jew who ceases to practice Judaism is still considered a Jew, as is a Jew who does not accept Jewish principles of faith and becomes an agnostic or an atheist; so too with a Jew who converts to another religion. However, in the latter case, the person loses standing as a member of the Jewish community and may become known as an apostate.

Jewish prayer and practice

Prayers

A Yemeni Jew wearing a kippah skullcap prays with a tallit shawl. The prayer boxes strapped to his forehead and arm are tefillin.

In Orthodox Judaism, there are three main daily prayer services for Jewish men. All three include a number of benedictions (18 on the Sabbath and 19 on weekdays) called the Amidah. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the Shema. There are also prayers and benedictions recited throughout the day, such as those before eating or drinking. Women play a prominent role in the prayers of Shabbat, celebrated in the home.

Several religious objects are commonly used in prayer. The tallit is a Jewish prayer shawl. A kippah or yarmulke (skullcap) is a head covering worn during prayer by most Jews, and at all times by more orthodox Jews. Phylacteries or tefillin, boxes containing the portions of the Torah mandating them, are strapped to the forehead and forearm by religious Jews during weekday morning services.

The approach to prayer differs among the various branches of Judaism. Conservative and Orthodox congregations follow a more traditional liturgy, and Reform and Reconstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations, contemporary writings, abbreviated services, and a greater role for women, who may even serve as rabbis.

Shabbat

Main article: Shabbat

Shabbat (Sabbath) is the weekly, sacred day of rest lasting from Friday night sundown to Saturday night sundown, commemorating God's day of rest upon the completion of creation. It plays an important role in Jewish practice and is the subject of a large body of religious law.

Torah readings

The core of festival and Sabbath prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Jewish Bible, called Haftarah. During the course of a year, the full Torah is read, and the cycle begins again every autumn during Simhat Torah (“rejoicing in the Torah”).

Jewish holidays

Table setting at a Passover Seder

The Jewish holy days celebrate central themes in the relationship between God and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption. Some holidays are also linked to the agricultural cycle.

  • Pesach or Passover celebrates the Exodus from Egypt, and coincides with the barley harvest. It is the only holiday that centers on a formal religious service held in the home, called the Seder.
  • Sukkot, or "The Festival of Booths" is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths that represent the shelters of the people of Israel during their wandering in the wilderness. It coincides with the fruit harvest and marks the end of the agricultural cycle.
  • Rosh Hashanah is the Jewish New Year, celebrating the day that the world was created and marking the advance of the Jewish calendar from one year to the next. It is also marks the beginning of the period of atonement that ends ten days later with Yom Kippur.
  • Yom Kippur, or The Day of Atonement, involves fasting and solemn prayers for the redemption of sins committed during the previous year, both individual and collective. Many consider this the most important Jewish holiday.

There are many minor holidays as well, including Purim, which celebrates the events told in the biblical book of Esther, and Hanukkah, which celebrates the successful rebellion by the Maccabees against the Seleucid Empire. Hanukkah has become increasingly important in recent centuries, especially among secular and Reform Jews, as a means for Jewish families to share in the joys of the winter holiday season marked in Christian tradition by Christmas.

Synagogues and Jewish buildings

Interior of the Esnoga synagogue in Amsterdam. The reader’s platform in the foreground, and the ark is in the background.

Synagogues are a Jewish house of prayer and study, usually containing separate rooms for prayer (the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. A synagogue may contain any (or none) of these features:

  • An ark where the Torah scrolls are kept
  • An elevated reader's platform where the Torah is read
  • An "Eternal Light" (ner tamid), a continually-lit lamp as a reminder of the menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem
  • A pulpit facing the congregation for preaching and/or a small platform facing the ark from which prayers may be led

In addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include religious schools known as yeshivas and ritual baths call mikvas necessary for carrying various purification rituals. Jewish community centers also represent an important center of Jewish life, attracting non-observant as well as religious Jews.

Dietary laws: Kashrut

Main article: Kashrut

The laws of kashrut ("keeping kosher") are the Jewish dietary laws. Food, in accord with Jewish law, is termed kosher, while other food is termed treifah or treif. Orthodox Jews and some Conservative Jews keep kosher, to varying degrees of strictness, while Reform, Reconstructionist, and secular Jews generally do not.

Family purity

The niddah ("menstruant," often referred to euphemistically as "family purity") laws and various other laws (such as dress codes) regulating the interaction between men and women are perceived by Orthodox Jews as vital factors in Jewish life, though they are rarely followed by Reform or Conservative Jews. The laws of niddah dictate that sexual intercourse cannot take place while the woman is having a menstrual flow, and the wife must count seven "clean" days and immerse in a mikvah (ritual bath) before resuming marital relations.

Life-cycle events

Life-cycle events occur throughout a Jew's life that bind him/her to the entire community.

Community leadership

Priesthood

Prior to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., priests were crucial to Jewish worship, since it was they who attended to the required Temple and sacrifices. Since the priesthood is an inherited position, in many Orthodox Jewish communities priests are treated with honor, even though they may not perform their duties. The priestly orders include the Kohen, a priest descended from Aaron and the Levite, descended of Levi, the son of Jacob.

Prayer leaders

Rabbi Praying, by Szymon Buchbinder

The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:

  • Rabbi of a congregation—A Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation and/or acting as is pastor.
  • Hazzan (cantor)—A trained vocalist who leads in the recitation of prayers, chants, or songs.

The following roles may be filled by a rabbi and/or cantor, or by specialists:

  • Shaliach tzibur or Shatz, the congregation's prayer leader.
  • Baal koreh, the "master of the reading," who reads the weekly Torah portion.
  • Gabbai (sexton), summons people to read the Torah, appoints the shatz for the week if this position is not permanent, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied.

Specialized religious roles

Other religious specialists include the following, some of which require rabbinical degrees:

  • Dayan (judge)—An expert in Jewish law who sits on a beth din (rabbinical court) for civil suits and divorce cases.
  • Mohel—The man who performs the brit milah (rite of circumcision).
  • Shochet—A butcher trained in the slaughter of kosher meat.
  • Sofer—A scribe responsible for copying Torah scrolls and other religious documents.
  • Rosh yeshivah—The head and chief lecturer of a yeshiva.
  • Mashgiach of a yeshiva—An expert in mussar (ethics) who oversees the spiritual welfare of the students in a yeshiva.
  • Mashgiach over kosher products—An overseer of merchants and manufacturers of kosher food.

Judaism and other religions

Christianity and Judaism

Although Christians believe in God and accepted the Hebrew Bible as their Old Testament, Jews have endured a stormy relationship with Christians throughout history. One issue causing difficulty was the development of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, seen by Jews as a violation of the strict principle of monotheism. Another key issue in this dynamic is the supposed Jewish responsibility for the death of Jesus, which resulted in a long-standing tradition of Christian anti-Judaism.

From a Jewish viewpoint the the Holocaust represented the culmination of Christian civilization's animosity toward the Jews. Since the end of World War II, Christian-Jewish reconciliation has made important strides, as some denominations have officially rejected the doctrine of Jewish collective responsibility for killing Jesus, and the Catholic Church has gone so far as to apologize to the Jews for its history of antisemitism.

Islam and Judaism

Like Christianity, Islam recognized the Jewish scriptures as valid, and also stuck to a firm tradition of monotheism. During the last 1500 years, Judaism underwent significant developments under Islamic rule, leading to an interplay between the two religions which has been both positive and negative at times. Jewish communities flourished under Islamic governments in Babylonia, and the later period around 900 to 1200 C.E. in Moorish Spain, and came to be known as the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Indeed, for much of its history, Judaism fared much better under Muslim regimes than Christian ones. The twentieth century animosity of Muslim leaders towards Zionism and the establishment of the state of Israel have led to a serious crisis in Jewish-Islamic relations, involving occasional violence between Muslims and Jews, especially in Israel and Palestine.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Elazar, Daniel Judah, and Rela M. Geffen. The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities. SUNY series in American Jewish society in the 1990s. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2000. ISBN 9780791446898.
  • Freundel, Barry. Contemporary Orthodox Judaism's Response to Modernity. Jersey City, NJ: KTAV Pub. House, 2004. ISBN 9780881257786.
  • Gotzmann, Andreas, and Christian Wiese. Modern Judaism and Historical Consciousness: Identities, Encounters, Perspectives. Leiden: Brill, 2007. ISBN 9789004152892.
  • Gurock, Jeffrey S. From Fluidity to Rigidity: The Religious Worlds of Conservative and Orthodox Jews in Twentieth Century America. David W. Belin lecture in American Jewish affairs, 7. Ann Arbor: Jean and Samuel Frankel Center for Judaic Studies, the University of Michigan, 1998. ISBN 9781881759065.
  • Hirsch, Ammiel, and Yaakov Yosef Reinman. One People, Two Worlds: An Orthodox Rabbi and a Reform Rabbi Explore the Issues That Divide Them. New York: Schocken Books, 2002. ISBN 9780805211405.
  • Levy, Richard N. A Vision of Holiness: The Future of Reform Judaism. New York: URJ Press, 2005. ISBN 9780807409411.

External links

All links retrieved October 4, 2022.

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