Esther, Book of

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[[Image:Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn- Assuerus, Haman and Esther.JPG|thumb|350px|Rembrandt's portrayal of Esther, King Ahasuerus (center), and the evil Haman at their banquet.]]
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The '''Book of Esther''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and of the Christian [[Old Testament]]. Also known to Jews as the '''Megillah''' (Scroll) it is the basis for the [[Jewish]] celebration of the joyous holiday of [[Purim]]. Traditionally, its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration.
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The ''Book of Esther'' is set in the third year of [[Ahasuerus]], a king of Persia usually identified with [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]], although other identifications have been suggested. It tells a story of palace intrigue and a plot to commit [[genocide]] against the Jews, which is thwarted by Esther, a beautiful Jewish maiden who becomes Queen of [[Persia]].
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{{toc}}
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The book's fairy tale-like plot makes it popular reading, although its ending—in which the Jews take mass vengeance on their enemies—raises [[ethics|ethical]] problems. The Catholic and Orthodox versions of ''Esther'', based on the Greek [[Septuagint version]], differ significantly from that of the Hebrew Bible and most [[Protestant]] versions. The historicity of the book is also controversial, in that there is no record of such a person as Esther or most other major characters and events of the book in the history of [[Persia]].
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==Plot summary==
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[[Image:esthermillais.jpg|thumb|250px|''Esther'' by [[John Everett Millais]], depicting Esther visiting the king to inform him of the plot.]]
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Ahasuerus, the king of [[Persia]], is married to the beautiful Queen [[Vashti]]. He holds an opulent banquet for seven days to display his wealth, while Vashti hosts a similar feast for the noble women. At the climax of the feasting, while tipsy from wine, Ahasuerus commands Vashti to appear at the main banquet "with the crown royal, to show the people and the princes her beauty." When she refuses, he burns with anger. After consulting his advises he determines to banish her from his presence and publicly declares a search for a woman worthy to replace her as Queen.
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[[Mordecai]]'s cousin Hadassah is selected from the candidates to be Ahasuerus's new wife and assumes the name of [[Esther]]. She does not reveal her family background as a Jew. At the city gate, Mordecai overhears two men plotting against the king. He reports them to Esther, who provides this intelligence to the Ahasuerus, giving Mordecai credit. (Chapter 2)
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The King's wicked prime minister [[Haman (Judaism)|Haman]] takes offense because Mordecai refuses to kneel before him. Haman retaliates by convincing Ahasuerus to authorize him to deal with the Jews as he pleases. Using the king's own signet ring, Haman causes an edict to be sent throughout the land ordering the Jews, including women and children, to be killed and their properties plundered. (Chapter 3) Informed by Mordecai of Haman's role in the plot, Esther agrees to help at the risk of her own life, asking that Mordecai mobilize all the Jews of the capital city of [[Susa]] (Latin [[Seleucia]], modern Shush in [[Iran]]) to join her in fasting and praying for three days. (Chapter 4)
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[[Image:Homemade hamantaschen.jpg|thumb|left|Hamantashen, the fruit-filled pastries shaped like Haman's three-corned hat, eaten by Jewish children of all ages at Purim.]]
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Esther devises a scheme by which she will not only save her people, but expose the evil Haman at the same time. Haman prepares to have Mordecai publicly executed. Ahasuerus, meanwhile, is reminded of Mordecai's loyalty and wishes to reward him. He asks Haman: "What should be done for the man the king delights to honor?" Thinking that the king refers to Haman himself, the greedy minister replies that he should be given a public parade with great honor. The king immediately honors Mordecai in the manner Haman suggested. (Chapters 5-7)
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The king hosts a banquet for Esther and Haman, in which she warns Ahasuerus of Haman's plot to kill all the Jews, including the loyal Mordecai. Haman is hung on the high gallows that Haman had had built for Mordecai, and Mordecai becomes prime minister in Haman's place. The king authorizes Esther to write a new decree regarding the Jews, which he will authorize. The edict entitles the Jews to take up arms and fight to kill their enemies. The Jews institute a period of feasting and celebration. (Chapter 8) They then kill 500 of their enemies in Susa, hanging the ten sons of Haman. In the surrounding provinces another Jewish force killed another 75,000 of their enemies. The feast of Purim is then instituted as a joyous celebration of their victory and their release from the edict of persecution.
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==Authorship, date, an canonicity==
 
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
 
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
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The '''Book of Esther''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]) and of the [[Old Testament]]. The ''Book of Esther'' or the '''Megillah''' is the basis for the [[Jewish]] celebration of [[Purim]]. Its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration.
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[[Image:Göttingen-Esther.Rolle.0.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Scroll of Esther (Megillah)]]Traditionally, ''Esther'' is usually dated to the third or fourth century B.C.E. However, critical scholarship dates it to the second century. The book's authorship is sometimes attributed to Mordecai himself, but is in fact anonymous.
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A singular characteristic of the book is that it does not mention God. This, together with its militant nationalistic outlook caused its inclusion in both the Jewish and Christian Bibles problematic. Its ending is also problematic in the killing of Haman's sons appears to violate the commandment of Deuteronomy 24:16: "Fathers shall not be put to death for their children, nor children put to death for their fathers..."
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''Esther'' is the one book of the Hebrew Bible not found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. Jewish editors of Greek [[Septuagint]] translation included numerous verses demonstrating the religious piety of both Esther and Mordecai. Roman Catholic and Orthodox versions included these additions as canonical, while they are not included in the [[Hebrew Bible]] and most [[Protestant]] versions.
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==Debate over historicity==
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The historical accuracy of the ''Book of Esther'' is disputed. For the last 150 years, critical scholars have seen the ''Esther'' as a work of fiction, while traditionalists argue in favor of the story being historical.
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As early as the [[eighteenth century]], the lack of clear corroboration of the details of the story with what was known of [[Persian history]] from classical sources led scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate. It was argued that the form of the story—with its [[Cinderella]]-like plot—seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely.
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[[Image:Aert de Gelder 004.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Mordecai and Esther, by Aert de Gelder, c. 1985.]]
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From the late nineteenth century onwards, scholars explored the theory that the story is not only a myth related to the festival of [[Purim]], but may have been related to older [[Mesopotamia]]n legends. According to this interpretation the tale celebrates the triumph of the Babylonian deities [[Marduk]] (Mordecai) and [[Ishtar]] (Esther) and/or the renewal of life in the spring. Although this view is not widely held by the religious scholars today, it remains well known. It is explored in depth in the works of [[Theodore Gaster]].
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Traditionalists argue that Esther derives from real history. They argue that because the feast of Purim is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event. Also, parallels between [[Herodotus]]' account of [[Xerxes 1]] and the events in ''Esther'' have been noted.
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Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "[[Artaxerxes]]" in Greek. In 1923, Jacob Hoschander wrote ''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of [[Artaxerxes II]] Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the basically monotheistic [[Zoroastrianism]] and those who wanted to bring back the [[Magi]]an worship of [[Mithra]] and [[Anahita]].
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Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and [[God]]. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the [[Song of Solomon]] and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the [[Shekinah]].
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==Additions to ''Esther''==
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Additions to Esther account for six appended chapters in the Latin [[Vulgate]] version of the text and later editions based on the Vulgate. These additions were originally interspersed in the Greek [[Septuagint]] version. They were recognized by [[Saint Jerome]] as additions not present in the Hebrew text, and he placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4-16:24. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, as well as other additions and differences. The Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a [[Macedonia]]n where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite, implying he was descended from the [[Amalekite]] leader Agag.
  
  
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The Biblical ''Book of Esther'' is set in the third year of [[Ahasuerus]], a king of Persia usually identified with [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]], although other identifications have been suggested. It tells a story of palace intrigue and [[genocide]] thwarted by a Jewish queen of Persia.
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[[Image:Esther haram.jpg|thumb|Esther readies herself to meet the king: [[Edwin Long]], 1878.]]
  
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==Plot summary==
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The canonicity of the Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the [[Septuagint]]. Rabbinical authorities rejected the Septuagint, opting for the version retained in the [[Masoretic text]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. [[Martin Luther]] was a vocal [[Reformation]]-era critic of the work, considering even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.  
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[[Image:esthermillais.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Esther'' by [[John Everett Millais]], depicting Esther visiting the king to inform him of the plot]]Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, is married to the beautiful Queen [[Vashti]]. He holds an opulent banquet for seven days to display his wealth, while Vashti hosts a similar feast for the noble women. At the climax of the feasting, and more than a little tipsy from wine, Ahasuerus commands Vashti to appear at the main banquet "with the crown royal, to show the people and the princes her beauty." When she refuses, he burns with anger. After consulting his advises he determines to banish her from his presence and publicly declare a search for a woman worthy to replace her as Queen.  
 
  
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[[Mordecai]]'s cousin Hadassah is selected from the candidates to be Ahasuerus's new wife and assumes the "throne name" of [[Esther]]. She does not reveal her family background as a Jew. At the city gate, Mordecai overhears two men plotting against the king. He reports them to Esther, who provides this intelligence to the Ahasuerus, giving Mordecai credit. (Chapter 2)
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The [[Council of Trent]], representing the summation of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Counter-Reformation]], declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. The ''Book of Esther'' is used twice in commonly used sections of the [[Catholic Lectionary]]. In both cases, the text is taken from a Greek addition, including the prayer of [[Mordecai]]. The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] also uses the Septuagint version of ''Esther'', as it does for the entire [[Old Testament]]. The additions are specifically considered as scriptural in the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of the [[Church of England]].
  
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The King's prime minister [[Haman (Judaism)|Haman]] takes offense because Mordecai refuses to kneel before him. Haman retaliates by convincing Ahasuerus to authorize him to deal with the Jews as he pleases. Using the kings own signet ring, Haman causes an edict to be sent throughout the land ordering the Jews, including women and children, to be killed and their properties plundered. (Chapter 3) Informed by Mordecai of Haman's role in the plot, Esther contrives a scheme, Esther agrees to help, asking that Mordecai mobilize all the Jews of Susa to join her in fasting and praying for three days. (Chapter 4) At considerable personal risk, she devises a scheme by which she will not only save her people, but expose the evil Haman at the same time. Ahasuerus, meanwhile, is reminded of Mordecai's loyalty and wishes to reward him. He asks Haman: "What should be done for the man the king delights to honor?" Thinking that the king refers to Haman himself, the greedy minister replies: that he should be given a public parade with great honor. The king immediately honors Mordecai in the manner Haman suggested. (Chapters 6-7)
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Based on the origin of the Septuagint in the Jewish community of [[Alexandria]], scholars suggest that the ''Additions to Esther'' are the work of an Egyptian Jew, writing around 170 B.C.E., who sought to give the book a more religious tone, suggesting that the Jews were saved from destruction because of their piety rather than primarily the cleverness of Mordecai and Esther.
  
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The king hosts a banquet for Esther, in which she warns Ahasuerus of Haman's plot to kill all the Jews. Haman and his sons are hanged on a high gallows he had had built for Mordecai, and Mordecai becomes prime minister in Haman's place. The king authorizes Esther to writer a new decree regarding the Jews, which he will authorizes. The edict entitles the Jews to take up arms and fight to kill their enemies, which they do. The Jews institute a period of feasting and celebration. (Chapter 8) The Jews kill 500 of their enemies in Susa, hanging the 10 sons of Haman the following day. In the surrounding provinces another Jewish forces killed another 75,000 of their enemies. The feast of Purim is then instituted as a joyous celebration of their victory and their release from the edict of persecution.
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Modern Roman Catholic scholars usually recognize the Greek additions having been written later than the original. Some modern Catholic English Bibles restore the Septuagint order and indicate with footnotes that the additions do not appear in the Hebrew text.<ref>[http://www.nccbuscc.org/nab/bible/index.htm#esther Esther] in the [[New American Bible]]. Retrieved February 12, 2008.</ref>
  
 
==Timeline of Major Events==
 
==Timeline of Major Events==
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| 369 B.C.E.
 
| 369 B.C.E.
 
|-
 
|-
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| Ahasuerus's 180-day feast; Queen Vashti exiled, Queen Vashti was replaced by king Ahasuerus(according to christian Beliefs) (killed according to Jewish tradition)
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| Ahasuerus's 180-day feast; Queen Vashti exiled, Queen Vashti was replaced by king Ahasuerus (according to Christian Beliefs) (killed according to Jewish tradition)
 
| 366 B.C.E.
 
| 366 B.C.E.
 
|-
 
|-
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| Tevet, 362 B.C.E.
 
| Tevet, 362 B.C.E.
 
|-
 
|-
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| Haman casts lots to choose date for Jews' annihilation
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| Haman casts lots to choose a date for the Jews' annihilation
 
| Nissan, 357 B.C.E.
 
| Nissan, 357 B.C.E.
 
|-
 
|-
Line 38: Line 80:
 
| Nissan 13, 357 B.C.E.
 
| Nissan 13, 357 B.C.E.
 
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|-
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| Mordecai calls on Jews to repent; 3-day fast ordered by Esther
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| Mordecai calls on Jews to repent; three-day fast ordered by Esther
 
| Nissan 14-16, 357 B.C.E.
 
| Nissan 14-16, 357 B.C.E.
 
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|-
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| Esther goes to Ahasuerus; hosts First wine party with Ahasuerus and Haman
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| Esther goes to Ahasuerus; hosts first wine party with Ahasuerus and Haman
 
| Nissan 16, 357 B.C.E.
 
| Nissan 16, 357 B.C.E.
 
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| Celebrations everywhere, except Shushan where second day of battles are fought
 
| Celebrations everywhere, except Shushan where second day of battles are fought
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| '''Adar 14, 356 B.C.E.'''
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| Adar 14, 356 B.C.E.
 
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|-
 
| Celebration in Shushan
 
| Celebration in Shushan
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==Authorship and date==
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==Notes==
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[[Image:Göttingen-Esther.Rolle.0.JPG|thumb|left|Scroll of Esther (Megillah)]]''Esther'' is usually dated to the third or fourth century B.C.E. Jewish tradition regards it as a redaction by the [[Great Assembly]] of an original text written by [[Mordecai]]<ref>Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Baba Bathra 15a</ref>. The Greek additions to Esther are dated to the 2nd century B.C.E. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
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<references />
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==Debate over historicity==
 
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The historical accuracy of the ''Book of Esther'' is disputed.
 
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As early as the [[eighteenth century]], the lack of clear corroboration of any of the details of the story of the Book of Esther with what was known of [[Persian history]] from classical sources led some scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate.  It was argued that the form of the story seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely.
 
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From the late nineteenth century onwards, several scholars explored the theory that the Book of Esther actually was a myth related to the spring festival of Purim which may have had a mixed West-Semitic/Akkadian/Canaanite origin.  According to this interpretation the tale celebrates the triumph of the Babylonian deities [[Marduk]] and [[Ishtar]] over the deities of [[Elam]] or more likely the renewal of life in the spring and the casting out of the scapegoat of the old year.  Although this view is not widely held by the religious scholars today, it remains well known.  It is explored in depth in the works of [[Theodore Gaster]].
 
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Traditionalists have fought back, arguing that Esther can be seen to derive from real history. For example, historians often give strong credence to the narrative based upon the traditions of a people. Thus, because the feast of Purim (which is a retelling of the book of Esther) is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event.
 
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Also, based on the derivation of "Ahasuerus" from "Xerxes," identification of Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]] is common and parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes and the events in ''Esther'' have been noted. Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Dr. Jacob Hoschander wrote ''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of [[Artaxerxes II]] Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the still more-or-less monotheistic [[Zoroastrianism]] and those who wanted to bring back the [[Magi]]an worship of [[Mithra]] and [[Anahita]].
 
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For the last hundred and fifty years, critical scholars have seen the Book of Esther as a work of fiction, while traditionalists argue in favor of the story being historical. 
 
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Some Christian readers have also tried to see the story as a Christian allegory, in the same vein as the [[Song of Solomon]]. The various major readings are considered separately in the sections that follow:
 
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==Interpretation of Esther as a derivative of Babylonian Mythology==
 
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{{Original research|section|date=September 2007}}
 
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The ''History of Religions'' school of thought, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, argued against the historicity of the Bible by drawing comparisons between Biblical narratives and pagan myths.
 
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The fact that the events of the Book of Esther give rise to the spring festival of [[Purim]] was a reason for scholars arguing that the story emerged from seasonal myth. As the 19th/early 20th century scholars did not have the benefit of the [[Ugaritic]] texts, they sought an origin in Akkadian tradition rather than the more local West Semitic cultures.  In particular, these scholars drew comparisons between individuals in the ''Book of Esther'' and various real and alleged Babylonian and Elamite gods and goddesses:
 
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*Esther was equated with the similarly sounding [[Ishtar]]. Her original Hebrew name ''Hadassah'' was compared with Akkadian ''hadashatu'' said to be a title of Ishtar meaning "bride."
 
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*The custom of preparing [[homentash]]n at Purim is reminiscent of a description of Ishtar in [[Jeremiah]] 7:18, when it was customary "to make cakes to the Queen of Heaven."
 
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*Mordecai was equated with [[Marduk]]. Marduk is a cousin of Ishtar in Chaldean mythology, as was Mordecai a cousin of Esther.
 
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*Vashti was said to be an [[Elam]]ite goddess named Mashti.
 
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*Haman was said to be an Elamite god named Uman or Human (or other variations) or alternatively a Babylonian demon.
 
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*The festival of Purim was equated with various real and conjectural pagan festivals, including an alleged Elamite or Babylonian festival marking the victory of Ishtar and Marduk over Uman and Mashti similar to the triumph of Esther and Mordecai over their rivals Haman and Vashti. Other suggestions were: the Babylonian New Year festival (Sumerian ''Zagmuk'', Akkadian ''Akitu'', called ''Sacaea'' by [[Berosus]]) honouring Marduk - it was suggested that ''purim'' ("lots") originally referred to a belief that the gods chose one's fate for the year by lots; the Persian festival of [[Farvardigan]]; or the Greek festival of [[Pithoigia]] ("wine flask opening") - it was noted that Hebrew for wine press is ''purah'' resembling ''purim''.
 
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These arguments were subsequently shown to be flawed:
 
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*Ishtar was well known to the Jews who officially opposed her worship. Her name in Hebrew scriptures is [[Ashtoreth]] which is phonetically unrelated to Esther despite the superficial similarity when transliterated into English (consonantal root {{Hbraleph}}{{Hbrshin}}{{Hbrtav}}{{Hbrresh}} vs {{Hbraleph}}{{Hbrsamech}}{{Hbrtav}}{{Hbrresh}}). Although the vowelization of the Hebrew name is thought to be a deliberate mispronunciation reflecting the vowels of the word ''bosheth'' denoting a shameful thing, the consonants accurately reflect the original name. "Esther" is most commonly understood to be related to the [[Persian language|Persian]] word for star (cognate with English ''star'') and the [[Median language|Median]] word for myrtle. (See ''[[Esther]]'' for a discussion of the meaning of the name.)
 
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*Akkadian ''hadashatu'' was not a standard title of Ishtar. It occurs once in a description of Ishtar as a "new bride" and its meaning is "new" not "bride." It is a cognate of Hebrew ''hadash'' (with a guttural ''h'') and is phonetically unrelated to "Hadassah" (consonantal root {{Hbrheth}}{{Hbrdalet}}{{Hbrshin}} vs {{Hbrhe}}{{Hbrdalet}}{{Hbrsamech}}).
 
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*Homentashn originated amongst Jews of Eastern Europe in relatively recent times.
 
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*The name Mordecai is indeed most commonly connected with that of the god Marduk. It is considered equivalent to ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'', well attested in the Persepolis texts as a genuine name of the period. The [[Talmud]] relates that his full name was Mordecai Bilshan (Megillah 15a). This has been understood as the Babylonian ''Marduk-bel-shunu'' ("Marduk is their lord"). Similar accounts of Jews in exile being assigned names relating to Babylonian gods is seen in the [[Book of Daniel]]. Babylonian gods and goddesses are indeed organized into families making many including Marduk and Ishtar some form of cousins but this is never a point explicitly stated in Babylonian texts.
 
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*An Elamite goddess named Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources, whereas "Vashti" can be understood as a genuine Persian name meaning "beautiful."
 
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*Elamite theophoric elements such as ''Khuban'', ''[[Khumban]]'' or ''Khumma'' are known but are pronounced with an initial guttural consonant and not as Uman or Human, and are phonetically unrelated to the Persian name Haman meaning "magnificent." The Babylonian demon is named ''Humbaba'' or ''Huwawa'' also pronounced with an initial guttural consonant ''kh'' and unrelated to Haman.
 
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*An Elamite or Babylonian festival marking a victory of Ishtar and Marduk over alleged Uman and Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources. The Babylonian New Year occurs at a very different date to Purim (in the month of ''Nisan'' not ''Adar''). A decision of fate by lots by the gods is not attested in any sources. [[Farvardigan]] was a five day commemoration of the dead bearing no resemblance to Purim. Pithoigia also occurs at a different time to Purim and although Purim is celebrated with wine drinking this is not its focus; moreover the plural of the Hebrew for wine press is ''puroth'' not ''purim''.
 
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==Historical reading==
 
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Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther, most commonly identify Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]] (ruled [[486 B.C.E.|486]] - [[465 B.C.E.|465 B.C.E.]]) or occasionally with [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (ruled [[405 B.C.E.|405]] - [[359 B.C.E.|359 B.C.E.]]).
 
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The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ahasuerus'' is most likely derived from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Khshayarsha'', the origin of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Xerxes''. The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] wrote that Xerxes sought his [[Harem (household)|harem]] after being defeated in the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem with the exception of a domineering [[Queen consort]] [[Amestris]], a daughter of one of his generals, Otanes. ([[Ctesias]] however refers to a father-in-law and general of Xerxes named Onaphas). Amestris has often been identified with [[Vashti]] by those arguing the historical reading. The identification is problematic however - Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, [[Artaxerxes I]] while Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. (Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with [[Esther]], although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.) The name ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'' (considered equivalent to ''Mordecai'') has been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius, and may refer to up to four individuals with the possibility that one of these is the Biblical Mordecai.
 
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The Septuagint version of Esther however translates the name Ahasuerus as ''Artaxerxes'' - a Greek name derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Artakhshatra''. [[Josephus]] too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks and the [[Midrash]]ic text, ''Esther Rabba'' also makes the identification. [[Bar-Hebraeus]] identified Ahasuerus explicitly as [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]].
 
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(This is not to say that the names are equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name ''Artaxerxes'' distinct from ''Ahasuerus'' and a direct Greek rendering of ''Ahasuerus'' is used by Josephus as well as in Septuagint occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther.) Identification as [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] has been more popular than with [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] (ruled [[465 B.C.E.|465]] - [[424 B.C.E.|424 B.C.E.]]) however the latter had a Babylonian concubine, [[Kosmartydene]], who was the mother of his son [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]] (ruled 424 - [[405 B.C.E.|405 B.C.E.]]). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
 
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Based on the view that the [[Ahasuerus]] of the ''[[Book of Tobit]]'' is identical with that of the ''Book of Esther'', some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally [[Cyaxares]] (ruled [[625 B.C.E.|625]] - [[585 B.C.E.|585 B.C.E.]]). In certain manuscripts of Tobit the former is called ''Achiachar'' which like the [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Cyaxares'' is thought to be derived from [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Akhuwakhshatra''. Depending on the interpretation of ''Esther'' 2:5-6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from [[Jerusalem]] with [[Jeconiah]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], in [[597 B.C.E.|597 B.C.E.]]. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
 
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Jacob Hoschander (''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', Oxford University Press, 1923) has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in ''Omanus'' and ''Anadatus'' mentioned by [[Strabo]] as being honoured with [[Anahita]] in the city of [[Zile|Zela]]. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods. (Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term [[Vohu Mana]], however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.)
 
−
 
 
−
==Allegorical Reading==
 
−
{{sectstub}}
 
−
There are many classical Jewish readings of allegories into the book of Esther, mostly from Hasidic sources.  They say that the literal meaning is true, however there is hidden behind this historical account many allegories.
 
−
 
 
−
Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and [[God]].  This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the [[Song of Solomon]] and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the [[Shekinah]].
 
−
 
 
−
==Relation To Other Books In the Bible==
 
−
''Esther'' is (in the Hebrew version) one of only two books of the Bible that do not directly mention [[God]] (the other is [[Song of Songs]]). It is the only book of the [[Tanakh]] that is not represented among the [[Dead Sea scrolls]].  It has often been compared to the first half of the [[Book of Daniel]] and to the [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]] Books of [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]] for its subject matter.
 
−
 
 
−
==Additions to ''Esther''==
 
−
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in ''Esther'' in the [[Septuagint]], the Greek translation, which then was noted by [[Jerome]] in compiling the Latin [[Vulgate]]; additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, perhaps because it was felt that the above-mentioned lack of mention of God was inappropriate in a holy book. Jerome recognized them as additions not present in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Text]] and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4-16:24. However, some modern Catholic English Bibles restore the Septuagint order, such as [http://www.nccbuscc.org/nab/bible/index.htm#esther Esther] in the [[New American Bible|NAB]].
 
−
 
 
−
By the time ''Esther'' was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the [[Macedon]]ians of [[Alexander the Great]], who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the [[Septuagint]] version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.
 
−
 
 
−
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the [[Septuagint]] –- [[Martin Luther]], being perhaps the most vocal [[Reformation]] era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique, and led in part to the complaint of [[anti-Semitism]] frequently made against him.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Council of Trent]], the summation of the [[Roman Catholic]] Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. While modern Roman Catholic scholars openly recognize the Greek additions as clearly being additions to the text, the ''Book of Esther'' is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of [[Mordecai]], and nothing of [[Esther]]'s own words is ever used. The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] uses the Septuagint version of ''Esther'', as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]], Article VI, of the [[Church of England]]<ref>[http://www.episcopalian.org/pbs1928/articles/AnglicanTeaching/041.htm Article VI: OF THE SUFFICIENCY OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES FOR SALVATION]</ref>: "The rest of the Book of Esther."
 
−
 
 
−
Some scholars suggest that ''Additions to Esther'' is the work of an Egyptian Jew, writing around 170 B.C.E., who sought to give the book a more religious tone, and to suggest that the Jews were saved from destruction because of their piety.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
−
 
 
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==Reinterpretations of the story==
 
−
The 2006 film [[One Night with the King]] is loosely based on the Biblical story of Esther.
 
−
 
 
−
The classic Hollywood film version of the story is the [[1960 in film|1960]] ''Esther and the King'' starring [[Joan Collins]] and [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] and directed by [[Raoul Walsh]].
 
−
 
 
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In 1992 a 30-minute, fully-animated video, twelfth in [[Hanna-Barbera]]'s bestselling ''[[The Greatest Adventure: Stories from the Bible|The Greatest Adventure]]'' series, titled ''Queen Esther'' features the voices of [[Helen Slater]] as Queen Esther, [[Dean Jones (actor)|Dean Jones]] as King Ahasuerus, [[Werner Klemperer]] as Haman, and [[Ron Rifkin]] as Mordecal.<ref>[http://www.booksofthebible.com/p1958.html Hanna-Barbera's Greatest Adventure Series Videos - Queen Esther]</ref><ref>[http://www.earthling.com/cgi-bin/google.fcgi/itemKey=1923000071 The Greatest Adventure Stories From The Bible]</ref>
 
−
 
 
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There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by [[John Everett Millais|Millais]].
 
−
 
 
−
[[VeggieTales]] also made an animated version entitled [[Esther: The Girl Who Became Queen]].
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
<references />
+
* Greenspoon, Leonard J., and Sidnie White Crawford. ''The Book of Esther in Modern Research''. Sheffield Academic Pr, 2003. ISBN 978-0826466631
 +
* Hoschander, Jacob. ''The Book of Esther in the Light of History''. Philadelphia: Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning, 1923. {{OCLC|613337}}
 +
* Laniak, Timothy S. ''Shame and Honor in the Book of Esther''. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0788505058
 +
* Moore, Carey A. ''Studies in the Book of Esther''. The Library of Biblical studies. New York: Ktav Pub. House, 1981. ISBN 978-0870687181
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*http://stam.net/what_is_stam.html#megilla
+
All links retrieved November 17, 2023.
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*Source for [http://www.chabad.org/calendar/ Timeline of Major Events]
 
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*[http://Queen-Esther-Movie.com Queen-Esther-Movie.com : All About Esther]
 
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*[http://8x.com/onenight/ One Night With The King: Movie]
 
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*Chanting of the Megillat Esther[http://www.virtualcantor.com/purim.htm]
 
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*Classes on the Megilla [http://www.torah.lebowtech.com]
 
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*[http://taamim.org/megillat-esther-baghdadi.htm Chanting Megillat Esther, Baghdadi Tune]
 
  
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{{wikisourcepar|Bible (King James)/Esther}}
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* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15782 Translation with Rashi's commentary] ''Chabad.org''  
−
===Text and translations===
+
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=483&letter=E Esther in the Jewish Encyclopedia''] ''jewishencyclopedia.com''
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*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
+
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05549a.htm Esther in the Catholic Encyclopedia] newadvent.org
−
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15782 Esther (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
 
−
**[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t33.htm Mechon Mamre] Full text, [[Aleppo Codex]]: text of ''Esther'' in Hebrew
 
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*[[Christian]] translations:
 
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**[http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Esther+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org]
 
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**[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__3-Esther.html The ''Book of Esther''] Full text, [[KJV]], (also available at [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__3-Esther_.html Arabic])
 
−
**[http://www.nccbuscc.org/nab/bible/index.htm#esther Esther] in the [[New American Bible|NAB]]
 
−
**[http://www.livius.org/es-ez/esther/esther01.html Esther] [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV translation]] with photos of Susa
 
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===Introduction and analysis===
 
−
====Early 20th century views====
 
−
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=483&letter=E ''The 1910 Jewish Encyclopedia'']: Early 20th century critical perspective as well a discussion of traditional Jewish views of Esther.
 
−
*[http://12.1911encyclopedia.org/E/ES/ESTHER.htm ''The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica'']: Early 20th century critical perspective.
 
−
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05549a.htm ''The 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Counter arguments to early 20th century criticism.
 
−
 
 
−
====Modern scholarship====
 
−
*[http://www.biblecentre.net/reference/ot_intro/intro233.html Introduction to the Old Testament: Esther]
 
−
* Beal, Timothy K. ''The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther''. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. [[Derrida]], [[Levinas]]
 
−
*[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Purim/TO_Purim_History/Esther_830.htm Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin]: Liberal Jewish view.
 
−
*[[Michael Fox]] ''Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther'', 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmanns, 2001. 333 pp., highly-regarded literary analysis
 
−
* Sasson, Jack M. “Esther” in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335-341, literary view
 
−
*[http://www.aishdas.org/toratemet/en_esther.html The Historicity of Megillat Esther]: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting an historical reading of Esther
 
−
*[http://www.ccel.org/wwsb/Esther/index.html ''Esther, Book of'']: A Christian perspective of the book.
 
−
* Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by [[Theodor Gaster]].  1961.
 
−
* White, Sidnie Ann. “Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora” in Newsom
 
−
 
 
−
==Commentaries and Other Books==
 
−
*Clines, David J.A. ''The Esther Scroll''. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series, 30. Sheffield, England: Sheffield, 1984.
 
−
*Fischer, James A. ''Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther''. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986.
 
−
*Fox, Michael V. ''Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther''. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001.
 
−
*Levenson, Jon D. ''Esther''. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997.
 
−
*McConville, John C.L. ''Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther''. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.
 
−
*Moore, Carey A. ''Esther''. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.
 
−
*Paton, Lewis B. ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther''. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908.
 
  
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[[Category:Bible]]
 
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[[Category:religion]]
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[[Category:Christian]]
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[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
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Latest revision as of 07:27, 17 November 2023

Rembrandt's portrayal of Esther, King Ahasuerus (center), and the evil Haman at their banquet.

The Book of Esther is a book of the Hebrew Bible and of the Christian Old Testament. Also known to Jews as the Megillah (Scroll) it is the basis for the Jewish celebration of the joyous holiday of Purim. Traditionally, its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration.

The Book of Esther is set in the third year of Ahasuerus, a king of Persia usually identified with Xerxes I, although other identifications have been suggested. It tells a story of palace intrigue and a plot to commit genocide against the Jews, which is thwarted by Esther, a beautiful Jewish maiden who becomes Queen of Persia.

The book's fairy tale-like plot makes it popular reading, although its ending—in which the Jews take mass vengeance on their enemies—raises ethical problems. The Catholic and Orthodox versions of Esther, based on the Greek Septuagint version, differ significantly from that of the Hebrew Bible and most Protestant versions. The historicity of the book is also controversial, in that there is no record of such a person as Esther or most other major characters and events of the book in the history of Persia.

Plot summary

Esther by John Everett Millais, depicting Esther visiting the king to inform him of the plot.

Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, is married to the beautiful Queen Vashti. He holds an opulent banquet for seven days to display his wealth, while Vashti hosts a similar feast for the noble women. At the climax of the feasting, while tipsy from wine, Ahasuerus commands Vashti to appear at the main banquet "with the crown royal, to show the people and the princes her beauty." When she refuses, he burns with anger. After consulting his advises he determines to banish her from his presence and publicly declares a search for a woman worthy to replace her as Queen.

Mordecai's cousin Hadassah is selected from the candidates to be Ahasuerus's new wife and assumes the name of Esther. She does not reveal her family background as a Jew. At the city gate, Mordecai overhears two men plotting against the king. He reports them to Esther, who provides this intelligence to the Ahasuerus, giving Mordecai credit. (Chapter 2)

The King's wicked prime minister Haman takes offense because Mordecai refuses to kneel before him. Haman retaliates by convincing Ahasuerus to authorize him to deal with the Jews as he pleases. Using the king's own signet ring, Haman causes an edict to be sent throughout the land ordering the Jews, including women and children, to be killed and their properties plundered. (Chapter 3) Informed by Mordecai of Haman's role in the plot, Esther agrees to help at the risk of her own life, asking that Mordecai mobilize all the Jews of the capital city of Susa (Latin Seleucia, modern Shush in Iran) to join her in fasting and praying for three days. (Chapter 4)

Hamantashen, the fruit-filled pastries shaped like Haman's three-corned hat, eaten by Jewish children of all ages at Purim.

Esther devises a scheme by which she will not only save her people, but expose the evil Haman at the same time. Haman prepares to have Mordecai publicly executed. Ahasuerus, meanwhile, is reminded of Mordecai's loyalty and wishes to reward him. He asks Haman: "What should be done for the man the king delights to honor?" Thinking that the king refers to Haman himself, the greedy minister replies that he should be given a public parade with great honor. The king immediately honors Mordecai in the manner Haman suggested. (Chapters 5-7)

The king hosts a banquet for Esther and Haman, in which she warns Ahasuerus of Haman's plot to kill all the Jews, including the loyal Mordecai. Haman is hung on the high gallows that Haman had had built for Mordecai, and Mordecai becomes prime minister in Haman's place. The king authorizes Esther to write a new decree regarding the Jews, which he will authorize. The edict entitles the Jews to take up arms and fight to kill their enemies. The Jews institute a period of feasting and celebration. (Chapter 8) They then kill 500 of their enemies in Susa, hanging the ten sons of Haman. In the surrounding provinces another Jewish force killed another 75,000 of their enemies. The feast of Purim is then instituted as a joyous celebration of their victory and their release from the edict of persecution.

Authorship, date, an canonicity

Books of the

Hebrew Bible

Scroll of Esther (Megillah)

Traditionally, Esther is usually dated to the third or fourth century B.C.E. However, critical scholarship dates it to the second century. The book's authorship is sometimes attributed to Mordecai himself, but is in fact anonymous.

A singular characteristic of the book is that it does not mention God. This, together with its militant nationalistic outlook caused its inclusion in both the Jewish and Christian Bibles problematic. Its ending is also problematic in the killing of Haman's sons appears to violate the commandment of Deuteronomy 24:16: "Fathers shall not be put to death for their children, nor children put to death for their fathers..."

Esther is the one book of the Hebrew Bible not found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Jewish editors of Greek Septuagint translation included numerous verses demonstrating the religious piety of both Esther and Mordecai. Roman Catholic and Orthodox versions included these additions as canonical, while they are not included in the Hebrew Bible and most Protestant versions.

Debate over historicity

The historical accuracy of the Book of Esther is disputed. For the last 150 years, critical scholars have seen the Esther as a work of fiction, while traditionalists argue in favor of the story being historical.

As early as the eighteenth century, the lack of clear corroboration of the details of the story with what was known of Persian history from classical sources led scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate. It was argued that the form of the story—with its Cinderella-like plot—seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely.

Mordecai and Esther, by Aert de Gelder, c. 1985.

From the late nineteenth century onwards, scholars explored the theory that the story is not only a myth related to the festival of Purim, but may have been related to older Mesopotamian legends. According to this interpretation the tale celebrates the triumph of the Babylonian deities Marduk (Mordecai) and Ishtar (Esther) and/or the renewal of life in the spring. Although this view is not widely held by the religious scholars today, it remains well known. It is explored in depth in the works of Theodore Gaster.

Traditionalists argue that Esther derives from real history. They argue that because the feast of Purim is integral to Jewish history, there is strong reason to believe this story is indeed based upon a true, though obscure, historical event. Also, parallels between Herodotus' account of Xerxes 1 and the events in Esther have been noted.

Others have argued for different identifications, particularly noting traditions referring to Ahasuerus as "Artaxerxes" in Greek. In 1923, Jacob Hoschander wrote The Book of Esther in the Light of History, in which he posited that the events of the book occurred during the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon, in the context of a struggle between adherents of the basically monotheistic Zoroastrianism and those who wanted to bring back the Magian worship of Mithra and Anahita.

Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and God. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the Song of Solomon and to the theme of the Bride of God, which in Jewish tradition manifests as the Shekinah.

Additions to Esther

Additions to Esther account for six appended chapters in the Latin Vulgate version of the text and later editions based on the Vulgate. These additions were originally interspersed in the Greek Septuagint version. They were recognized by Saint Jerome as additions not present in the Hebrew text, and he placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4-16:24. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, as well as other additions and differences. The Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite, implying he was descended from the Amalekite leader Agag.


Esther readies herself to meet the king: Edwin Long, 1878.

The canonicity of the Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint. Rabbinical authorities rejected the Septuagint, opting for the version retained in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible. Martin Luther was a vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considering even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.

The Council of Trent, representing the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text is taken from a Greek addition, including the prayer of Mordecai. The Eastern Orthodox Church also uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for the entire Old Testament. The additions are specifically considered as scriptural in the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England.

Based on the origin of the Septuagint in the Jewish community of Alexandria, scholars suggest that the Additions to Esther are the work of an Egyptian Jew, writing around 170 B.C.E., who sought to give the book a more religious tone, suggesting that the Jews were saved from destruction because of their piety rather than primarily the cleverness of Mordecai and Esther.

Modern Roman Catholic scholars usually recognize the Greek additions having been written later than the original. Some modern Catholic English Bibles restore the Septuagint order and indicate with footnotes that the additions do not appear in the Hebrew text.[1]

Timeline of Major Events

The following is based on the biblical chronology, which specifies months and sometimes days. It presumes that Ahasuerus is the historical Xerxes I.

Event Dates
Ahasuerus ascends the throne of Persia 369 B.C.E.
Ahasuerus's 180-day feast; Queen Vashti exiled, Queen Vashti was replaced by king Ahasuerus (according to Christian Beliefs) (killed according to Jewish tradition) 366 B.C.E.
Esther becomes queen Tevet, 362 B.C.E.
Haman casts lots to choose a date for the Jews' annihilation Nissan, 357 B.C.E.
Royal decree ordering killing of all Jews Nissan 13, 357 B.C.E.
Mordecai calls on Jews to repent; three-day fast ordered by Esther Nissan 14-16, 357 B.C.E.
Esther goes to Ahasuerus; hosts first wine party with Ahasuerus and Haman Nissan 16, 357 B.C.E.
Esther's Second wine party; Haman's downfall and hanging Nissan 17, 357 B.C.E.
Second decree issued by Ahasuerus, empowering the Jews to defend themselves Sivan 23, 357 B.C.E.
Battles fought throughout the empire against those seeking to kill the Jews; Haman's ten sons killed Adar 13, 356 B.C.E.
Celebrations everywhere, except Shushan where second day of battles are fought Adar 14, 356 B.C.E.
Celebration in Shushan Adar 15, 356 B.C.E.
Megillah written by Esther and Mordecai; Festival of Purim instituted for all generations 355 B.C.E.


Notes

  1. ↑ Esther in the New American Bible. Retrieved February 12, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Greenspoon, Leonard J., and Sidnie White Crawford. The Book of Esther in Modern Research. Sheffield Academic Pr, 2003. ISBN 978-0826466631
  • Hoschander, Jacob. The Book of Esther in the Light of History. Philadelphia: Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning, 1923. OCLC 613337
  • Laniak, Timothy S. Shame and Honor in the Book of Esther. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0788505058
  • Moore, Carey A. Studies in the Book of Esther. The Library of Biblical studies. New York: Ktav Pub. House, 1981. ISBN 978-0870687181

External links

All links retrieved November 17, 2023.

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