Difference between revisions of "Iran" - New World Encyclopedia
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===Islamic Revolution=== | ===Islamic Revolution=== | ||
[[Image:Shah&Farah-Pahlavi.JPG|thumb|left|170px| Mohammad Reza Pahlavi overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution.]] | [[Image:Shah&Farah-Pahlavi.JPG|thumb|left|170px| Mohammad Reza Pahlavi overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution.]] | ||
| + | [[Image:Khomeini.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah]] Musavi [[Khomeini]], leader of the [[Islamic revolution]] and founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran]] | ||
Protests against the Shah increased in 1979, culminating in the [[Iranian Revolution]]. The Shah fled the country again, after which [[Khomeini]] returned from exile on February 1, 1979, and eventually succeeded in taking power. On February 11, Khomeini declared a provisional government led by prime minister Mehdi Bazargan and on March 30 to March 31, asked all Iranians sixteen years of age and older, male and female, to vote in a referendum on the question of establishing an [[Islamic republic]] in Iran. Over 98 percent voted in favour of replacing the monarchy with the newly-proposed form of government. Khomeini's new Islamic state instated conservative Islamic laws and unprecedented levels of direct clerical rule. | Protests against the Shah increased in 1979, culminating in the [[Iranian Revolution]]. The Shah fled the country again, after which [[Khomeini]] returned from exile on February 1, 1979, and eventually succeeded in taking power. On February 11, Khomeini declared a provisional government led by prime minister Mehdi Bazargan and on March 30 to March 31, asked all Iranians sixteen years of age and older, male and female, to vote in a referendum on the question of establishing an [[Islamic republic]] in Iran. Over 98 percent voted in favour of replacing the monarchy with the newly-proposed form of government. Khomeini's new Islamic state instated conservative Islamic laws and unprecedented levels of direct clerical rule. | ||
Revision as of 23:15, 17 March 2007
| جمهوری اسلامی ايران Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān Islamic Republic of Iran | |||||
| |||||
| Motto: official: Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī[1] (Persian for "Independence, freedom, (the) Islamic Republic" | |||||
| Anthem: Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān[2] | |||||
| Capital (and largest city) |
Tehran 35°41′N 51°25′E | ||||
| Official languages | Persian | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Government | Islamic Republic | ||||
| - Supreme Leader | Ayatollah Ali Khamenei | ||||
| - President | Mahmoud Ahmadinejad | ||||
| Establishment | |||||
| - Proto-Elamite Period | 8000 B.C.E. | ||||
| - Middle-Elamite Period | 3400 B.C.E. - 550 B.C.E. | ||||
| - Median Dynastic Empire (Creation of the First Iranian Dynastic Empire) | 728 B.C.E. - 550 B.C.E. | ||||
| - Achaemenid Dynastic Empire | 550 B.C.E. - 330 B.C.E. | ||||
| - Parthian (Arsacid) Dynastic Empire | 248 B.C.E. - 224 C.E. | ||||
| - Sassanid Dynastic Empire | 224 C.E. - 651 C.E. | ||||
| - Early Islamic | 651 - 861 C.E. | ||||
| - Safavid Dynasty | May 1502 | ||||
| - First Constitution | August 5, 1906 | ||||
| Area | |||||
| - Total | 1,648,195 km² (17th) 636,372 sq mi | ||||
| - Water (%) | 0.7 | ||||
| Population | |||||
| - 2006 census | 70,049,262[3] (17th) | ||||
| - Density | 42/km² 109/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2005 estimate | ||||
| - Total | $610.4 billion [4] | ||||
| - Per capita | $8,900 [5] | ||||
| HDI (2004) |  0.746 (medium)
| ||||
| Currency | Iranian rial (ريال) (IRR)
| ||||
| Internet TLD | .ir | ||||
| Calling code | +98 | ||||
Iran, (ايران, Īrān), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ايران, transliteration: Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān), and formerly known as "Persia" in the West, is a large country located in the Middle East.
Shi'a Islam is the official state religion and Persian the official language.
Iran is one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations. Iran is also one of the few states that comprise the Cradle of Humanity. The history of Iran covers over four thousand years, and throughout history, Iran has been of great geostrategic importance because of its central location in Eurasia.
Iran is significant in international politics on account of its large supply of petroleum and influence in the region.
Etymology
The ancient nation of Iran was known to the West as Persia until 1935. The name was used in the West due to the ancient Greek name for Iran, Persis. Persia is used to describe the nation of Iran, its people, or its ancient empire. The Persians have called their country Iran / Iranshahr since the Sassanian period.
The name Persia comes from a region in the south of Iran, called Fars or Pars in the Persian language. Persis is the Greek language form of Pars, based on which other European nations termed it Persia. Eratosthenes however does make mention of the word "Iran" in his writings. This region was the core of the original Persian Empire. Westerners referred to the state as Persia until March 21, 1935, when Reza Shah Pahlavi formally asked the international community to call the country by its native name, Iran, which means Land of the Aryans. Because of some Persian scholars' protests the government announced in 1959 that both Persia and Iran could be used.
In 2007, the official name of the nation was the Islamic Republic of Iran, but the noun Persia and the adjective Persian are still used.
Geography
Iran is the seventeenth-largest country in the world. Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, one-fifth the size of the United States or slightly larger than the state of Alaska. Iran's area is approximately 636,300 square miles (1,648,000 square kilometres), of which 631,663 square miles (1,636,000km²) is land, and approx. 4633 square miles (12,000 km²)is water.
Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan (including its Nakhichevan exclave) and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east, and Iraq and Turkey to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf, across which lie Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.
Iran's central plateau is a tectonic plate, that forms a basin surrounded by several tall, heavily eroded mountain ranges. The geology is highly unstable, creating frequent earthquakes.
Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz Mountains. The latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 18,386 feet (5604 meters) that is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush.
The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins like the saline Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dash-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. Except for some scattered oases, such as Tabas, these deserts are uninhabited.
The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman.
Iran's climate is mostly arid or semi-arid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast.
On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 84°F. (29°C. Annual precipitation is 27 inches (680mm) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 67 inches (1700mm) in the western part.
To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than eight inches (200mm) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 100°F (38°C).
The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from five to 14 inches (135 to 355mm).
More than one-tenth of the country is forested. The most extensive growths are found on the mountain slopes rising from the Caspian Sea, with stands of oak, ash, elm, cypress, and other valuable trees. On the plateau proper, areas of scrub oak appear on the best-watered mountain slopes, and villagers cultivate orchards and grow the plane tree, poplar, willow, walnut, beech, maple, and mulberry. Wild plants and shrubs spring from the barren land in the spring and afford pasturage, but the summer sun burns them away. More than 2000 plant species are grown in Iran. The land covered by Iran’s natural flora is four times that of the Europe’s.
One of the most famous members of wildlife in Iran are the world's last surviving, critically endangered Asiatic Cheetah, which today are found nowhere else but in Iran. Iran had lost all its Asiatic Lion and the now extinct Caspian Tigers by the earlier part of the twentieth century.
Bears in the mountains, wild sheep and goats, gazelles, wild asses, wild pigs, panthers, and foxes abound. Domestic animals include sheep, goats, cattle, horses, water buffalo, donkeys, and camels. The pheasant, partridge, stork, and falcon are native to Iran.
The Persian leopard is said to be the largest of all the subspecies of leopards in the world. Found throughout the Alborz and Zagros mountain ranges, as well as smaller ranges within the Iranian plateau, the leopard population is sparse, due to loss of habitat, loss of natural prey, and population fragmentation.
Natural hazards include periodic droughts, floods, dust storms, sandstorms, and earthquakes along western border and in the northeast.
Environmental issues include: Air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; wetland losses from drought; soil degradation (salination); inadequate supplies of potable water in some areas; and urbanization.
The capital city, Tehran, had a metropolitan population of 7,314,000 in 2005. More than half of Iran's industry, including the manufacturing of automobiles, electronics and electrical equipment, military weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and chemical products, is based in Tehran. It is also a leading center for the sale of carpets and furniture. There is an oil refinery nearby.
History
There are records of numerous ancient and technologically advanced civilizations on the Iranian plateau before the arrival of Aryan tribes from the north, many of whom are still unknown to historians today. Archaeological findings place knowledge of Persian prehistory at middle paleolithic times (100,000 years ago). The earliest sedentary cultures date from 18,000 to 14,000 years ago.
Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic populations lived in caves in the Zagros and Elburz mountains. The earliest civilizations in the region descended from the Zagros foothills, where they developed agriculture and animal husbandry, and established the first urban cultures in the Tigris-Euphrates basin in present day Iraq.
In 6000 B.C.E. the world saw a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centers. The south-western part of Iran was part of the Fertile Crescent where most of humanity's first major crops were grown. Seven thousand year old jars of wine were excavated in the Zagros Mountains, and ruins of 7000-year-old settlements such as Sialk are further testament to this. Many dynasties have ruled Persia throughout the ages, including Teppe Sialk, Shahr-e Sukhteh, the Marlik civilization, the Luristan civilization, and the Mannaeans. Scholars and archaeologists are only beginning to discover the scope of the independent, non-Semitic Elamite Empire and Jiroft civilizations.
Median and Achaemenian Empires
The written history of (Iran) began in about 3200 B.C.E. with the Proto-Iranian civilization, followed by the Elamites. The Aryans (Indo-Iranians) arrived in the third and second millennium B.C.E. The Median dynasty (728–550 B.C.E.) is credited with founding Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenian Empire (648–330 B.C.E.).
Cyrus the Great created the Cyrus Cylinder, considered the first declaration of human rights. He was the first king whose name was suffixed with the word "Great" and the first Shah of Iran to be properly called. Cyrus also banned slavery in all of the conquered areas that became the Persian Empire. Cyrus' seminal ideas greatly influenced later human civilizations; Cyrus' principles of ruling – advocating "love" rather than "fear" – influenced the original U.S. Constitution]].
After Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses ruled for seven years (531-522 B.C.E.) and continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522-486 B.C.E.). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.
Darius' first capital was at Susa, and he started the building programme at Persepolis. He built a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal. He improved the extensive road system, and it is during his reign that mention is first made of the Royal Road, a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals.
Major reforms took place under Darius. Coinage, in the form of the daric (gold coin) and the shekel (silver coin) was introduced, and administrative efficiency was increased. The Old Persian language appears in royal inscriptions, written in a specially adapted version of cuneiform.
Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point. The Persian Empire represented the world's first global superpower and was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions that few powers have ever matched. The Silk Road, connecting Persia with China was significant not only for the development and flowering of the great civilizations of China, ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India and Rome, but also helped to lay the foundations of our modern world.
Alexander the Great conquered Persia in 333 B.C.E. only to be followed shortly by two more vast and unified Iranian empires that shaped the pre-Islamic identity of Iran and Central Asia: the Parthian (250 B.C.E.—226 C.E.) and Sassanian (226-650 C.E.) dynasties. The latter dynasties also defeated the Roman empire at the height of its power on several occasions.
Parthian Empire
Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late third century B.C.E., and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 B.C.E. and 224 c.e.. It was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia). Parthia (mostly due to their invention of heavy cavalry) was the archenemy of the Roman Empire in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily-armed and armoured cataphracts and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas, as they were not skilled in siege warfare. The Parthian empire lasted five centuries, until 224 C.E., when the the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, the Persians of the Sassanian dynasty.
Zoroastrianism
Before the Islamic conquest of Persia, Zoroastrianism was the state religion of the Sassanian Empire of Persia (224-651 C.E.), and played an important role in the earlier Median, Achaemenian and Parthian dynasties. The Iranian Prophet Zoroaster is considered by numerous scholars as the founder of the earliest religion based on revealed scripture. Many scholars point out that Judaism and subsequently, Christianity and Islam have borrowed from Zoroastrianism in regards to the concepts of Eschatology, Angelology and Demonology, as well as the fallen angel Satan, as the ultimate agent of evil. Zoroastrian monotheism has had major influence on the religions of the Middle Eastern monotheisms in adaptations of such concepts as heavens, hells, judgment day and messianic figures.
Despite its persecution of certain Christians during the fourth century, fifth century Zoroastrian Iran became a haven for Nestorians fleeing Christian territories that supported the Council of Ephesus. As a result, the Assyrian Church of the East was formed.
Sassanian Empire
The first Shah of the Sassanian Empire, Ardashir I, started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. During Khosrau II's rule in 590-628, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine and Lebanon were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians called their empire Erānshahr (or Iranshæhr, "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of Iranians). The Sassanian period witnessed the highest achievement of Persian civilization, their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe.
After roughly six hundred years of conflict with the Roman Empire, the war-exhausted Persians lost the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (632 C.E.) in Hilla (present day Iraq), paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia. In that battle, the much larger Sassanian army had elephants that terrified the Arab cavalry. To solve that problem, the Arab horses were decorated in costume, frightening the Persian elephants. When an Arab warrior killed the lead elephant, other elephants fled, trampelling numerous Persian fighters. At dawn of the fourth day, a sandstorm broke out blowing sand in the Persian army's faces resulting in total disarray for the Sassanian army.
Islamic Iran
Persia was conquered and incorporated into the Arab Empire, but Persia’s cultural richness filled a cultural vacuum in the pious but rough-and-ready Arab society. Persian literature, philosophy, medicine, and art were about to become a major element of Muslim civilization from Cordoba to Delhi, from Guinea to Samarkand. Persia also had the benefit of its craftsmen’s mastery, the skill of its traders (who became the bankers of the new Islamic world) and of facilities resulting from its position as a crossroads of the major "highways" of that period.
Persians quickly asserted key roles in the new Islamic state. Persian Abu Moslem led troops from the Khorasan region to expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. Arabs chose their "viziers" (ministers) from among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. In the year 822, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir II of Khorasan, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Thaheids.
During the ninth and tenth centuries, there was a resurgence of Persian national identity, against Arabization of Islam and Muslims. Most notable was the decision to retain the Persian language as the official language, which lasted to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important person in maintaining the Persian language, in the "Shahnameh", the "Book of Kings."
Scholars made significant advances in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, engineering, and many other fields. During this time Islamic philosophy developed and was often pivotal in scientific debates—key figures were usually scientists and philosophers. Persian scientists Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd also played a major role in saving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Abū ‘Alī, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. This Islamic Golden Age influenced the rise of European science, and contributed to the European Renaissance.
The late Middle Ages however had brought many critical events in the region from 1220 Persia was again invaded and destroyed by wave after wave of calamity starting with the Mongol invasion followed later by Tamerlane. During this period more than half of the population were killed and didn´t reach its pre-Mongol levels until the twentieth century]].
Turkish invasion
The Turks gradually infiltrated the Khorasan region along the Caspian coast and arrived in Anatolia which became their new homeland. In the year 999, they were sufficiently powerful to dominate local Persian dynasties. Mahmud of Ghazni founded a vast empire. He even conquered Northern India and helped to propagate in these remote lands the new Islamic-Persian civilization of which he was the principal protector. The Saljuqs, his successors, asserted their domination from the Bosphorus to China. These sovereigns usually named Persians as wazirs and Persia was a hotbed of intense cultural activity.
Mongol invasion
At the beginning of the thirteenth century Genghis Khan united scattered tribes of Mongolia and started attacking the neighbouring countries. In 1218, he came down from the Altai mountains, marched through Iranian territories in Transoxiana to Khorasan, occupied mainland-Persia, then turned east through India and China. Most of the countries he conquered never really recovered from the bloodshed and destruction he wrought upon them. Holaku, one of the conqueror's grandsons, was left behind to reign over Persia. He like other invaders before him soon became "Persianized". Settled in Maragheh (South of Tabriz), he called Persian men of letters to his court and encouraged the sciences and arts.
Yet another conqueror, Tamerlane (Teymur-e Lang), was to be seduced by the mirage of an Empire of the Orient. In 1370, he entered Iran, and over a period of 30 years, he conquered Iraq, Syria, Anatolia, Russia and India. He was about to invade China when he died in 1404. He chose Samarkand as his capital and his kingdom, while administered by Turkmen, was of distinctively Persian culture.
Safavid Empire (1502-1736)
The Safiviyeh came to be led by a 15-year-old Ismail I. To establish political legitimacy, the Safavid rulers claimed to be descended from Imam Ali and his wife Fatima (the daughter of Prophet Muhammad) through the seventh Imam Musa al-Kazim. To further legitimize his power, Ismail I also added claims of royal Sassanian heritage after becoming Shah. Persia underwent a revival under the Safavid dynasty (1502-1736). Iran's contemporary Shia character, and significant segments of Iran's current borders take their origin from this era.
Shah Ismail soon conquered and unified Iran under his rule. The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, Shah Abbas I the Great (1587–1629) came to power in 1587 aged 16. Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing Herat and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against the Ottomans recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. He dislodged the Portuguese from Bahrain in 1602, and the English navy from Hormuz (1622), in the Persian Gulf (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the English East India Company and the Dutch East India Company. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule Persian architecture flowered again.
Afsharids, Zands and Qajars
A faltering Safavid court eventually gave way to the conqueror Nadir Shah ruled as Shah of Iran (1736–1747) and was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty. He restored order and implemented policies for preserving the territorial integrity of Iran. In a short period, he conquered Afghanistan and India and giving a huge boost to Iran's economy. The Afsharids were then followed by the Zand dynasty, founded by Karim Khan, who brought a period a peace for Iranians. Later came the Qajar dynasty (1795-1925).
By the seventeenth century, European countries, including Portugal, Great Britain, Imperial Russia, and France, had already started establishing colonial footholds in the region. Iran as a result lost sovereignty over many of its provinces to these countries via the Turkmanchai treaty, Gulistan Treaty, and others.
Constitutional revolution
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. This revolution was sparked in December, 1905, when two Iranian merchants were publicly beaten, in Tehran, for charging exhorbitant prices. Protest against this by other merchants was joined by clerics. An uprising widened when government troops entered a mosque to disperse protesters. In a scuffle in early 1906 the Government killed a descendant of the prophet Muhhamed, and a large number of clergy seek sanctuary in the holy city Qom.
In the summer of 1906 approximately 12,000 men camped out in the gardens of the British Embassy. It was there that the demand for a parliament was born, the goal of which to limit the power of the Shah. In August 1906, Mozaffareddin Shah agrees to allow a parliament, and in the fall, the first elections are held. The first Majlis (parliament) was convened on October 7, 1906.
The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament. The revolution was the first event of its kind in the Middle East, and opened the way for cataclysmic change in Persia, heralding the modern era.
Oil discovered
The discovery of oil in 1908 by the British in Khuzestan spawned intense renewed interest in Persia by the British Empire and the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later BP). Control of Persia remained contested between the United Kingdom and Russia, in what became known as The Great Game, and codified in the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, which divided Persia into spheres of influence, regardless of her national sovereignty.
Pahlavi dynasty
In 1921 Reza Khan (later Reza Shah Pahlavi), an officer in Iran's only military force (Persian Cossack Brigade) used his troops to support a coup against the government of the Qajar dynasty. Within four years he had established himself as the most powerful person in the country by suppressing rebellions and establishing order. In 1925 a specially convened assembly deposed Ahmad Shah Qajar, the last ruler of the Qajar dynasty, and named Reza Khan, who earlier had adopted the surname Pahlavi, as the new shah.
Reza Shah had ambitious plans for modernizing Iran. He sent hundreds of Iranians, including his son, to Europe for training. During 16 years from 1925 and 1941, Reza Shah's numerous development projects transformed Iran into an urbanized country. Public education progressed rapidly, and new social classes were formed. A professional middle class and an industrial working class had emerged. By the mid-1930s Reza Shah's dictatorial style of rule caused dissatisfaction among some groups, particularly the clergy who were opposed to his reforms.
Reza Shah tried to avoid involvement with Britain and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Even though many of his development projects required foreign technical expertise, he avoided awarding contracts to British and Soviet companies. Although Britain, through its ownership of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, controlled all of Iran's oil resources, Reza Shah preferred to obtain technical assistance from Germany, France, Italy, and other European countries. This made problems for Iran after 1939, when Germany and Britain became enemies in World War II. Reza Shah proclaimed Iran as a neutral country, but Britain insisted that German engineers and technicians in Iran were spies with missions to sabotage British oil facilities in southwestern Iran. Britain demanded that Iran expel all German citizens, but Reza Shah refused.
Second World War
Following Germany's invasion of the USSR in June 1941, Britain and the Soviet Union became allies. Britain and the USSR saw the newly opened Trans-Iranian Railroad as a route to transport supplies from the Persian Gulf to the Soviet region. In August 1941, because Reza Shah refused to expel the German nationals, Britain and the USSR invaded Iran, arrested him and sent him into exile, taking control of Iran's communications and coveted railroad.
In 1942 the United States, an ally of Britain and the USSR during the war, sent a military force to Iran to help maintain and operate sections of the railroad. Securing Iran's oil resources and a supply corridor for themselves. The British and Soviet authorities allowed Reza Shah's system of government to collapse and limited the constitutional government interfaces. They permitted Reza Shah's son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to succeed to the throne.
In January 1942 they signed an agreement with Iran to respect Iran's independence and to withdraw their troops within six months of the war's end. In 1943 at the Tehran Conference, the United States reaffirmed this commitment. In 1945, the USSR refused to announce a timetable to leave Iran's north-western provinces of East Azerbaijan and West Azerbaijan, where Soviet-supported autonomy movements had developed.
The USSR withdrew its troops in May 1946, but tensions continued for several months. This episode was one of the precipitating events of the emerging Cold War, the post-war rivalry between the United States and its allies, and the USSR and its allies.
Iran's political system became increasingly open. Political parties were developed, and in 1944 the Majlis election was the first genuinely competitive election in more than 20 years. Foreign influence remained a very sensitive issue for all parties. The Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), which was owned by the British government, continued to produce and market Iranian oil. In the beginning of 1930s some Iranians began to advocate nationalization of the country's oil fields. After 1946 this became an increasingly popular political movement.
The Cold War
In 1951, an eccentric pro-democratic nationalist, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected prime minister. Mossadegh alarmed the West by his nationalization of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum, BP) that had controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain immediately embargoed Iran.
Soon after, members of the British Intelligence Service invited the United States to join them in covertly overthrowing the democratically-elected Mossadegh. Initially, United States President Harry S. Truman refused, but after Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected the British proposed the plan again. After convincing Eisenhower that Mossadegh was sympathetic to communism (even though he was an avowed anti-communist), the United States agreed to assist Britain in Operation Ajax. President Eisenhower authorized the CIA to take the lead in the operation of overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a US-friendly monarch.
The CIA faced many setbacks, but the covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the US Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Agents were hired to facilitate violence; and, as a result, protests broke out across the nation. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on August 19, 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's rule became increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the US and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey and then to Iraq. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.
Islamic Revolution
Protests against the Shah increased in 1979, culminating in the Iranian Revolution. The Shah fled the country again, after which Khomeini returned from exile on February 1, 1979, and eventually succeeded in taking power. On February 11, Khomeini declared a provisional government led by prime minister Mehdi Bazargan and on March 30 to March 31, asked all Iranians sixteen years of age and older, male and female, to vote in a referendum on the question of establishing an Islamic republic in Iran. Over 98 percent voted in favour of replacing the monarchy with the newly-proposed form of government. Khomeini's new Islamic state instated conservative Islamic laws and unprecedented levels of direct clerical rule.
Iran's relations with the United States were severely strained after the revolution, especially when Iranian students seized US embassy personnel on November 4, 1979, labeling the embassy a "den of spies" and accused its personnel of being CIA agents trying to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953.
Khomeini did not stop the students from holding embassy employees hostage and instead supported the embassy take over, a move that only increased his popularity among the revolutionaries. Women, African Americans and one hostage diagnosed with multiple sclerosis were soon released. Despite attempts made by the administration of US President Jimmy Carter at negotiating and rescuing the remaining hostages through such methods as Operation Eagle Claw, Iran refused to release them and threatened to put the hostages on trial for espionage. The students demanded the handover of the shah in exchange for the hostages. However, this exchange never took place, and after 444 days of captivity, embassy employees were finally allowed to leave Iran and return to the United States.
Iran-Iraq War
Meanwhile, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan, which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. The islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well.
On September 22, 1980, the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise. Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini refused a cease-fire from Iraq, demanding huge reparation payments, an end to Saddam's rule, and that he be tried for crimes against humanity. Khomeini also sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.
Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran). All of these countries provided intelligence, agents for chemical weapons as well as other forms of military assistance to Saddam Hussein. Iran's principal allies during the war were Syria, Libya, and North Korea.
The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks, while unanimously announcing that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan brought some three million Afghan refugees to Iran. In 1989 Khomeini died and was succeeded by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. The presidency was soon filled by Ali Akbar Rafsanjani, who sought improved relations and with Western nations while somewhat diminishing the influence of revolutionary factions and embarking on a military build-up. An earthquake hit Northern Iran on June 21, 1990, killing nearly 40,000 people.
When Iraq invaded Kuwait in August, 1990, Iran adhered to international sanctions against Iraq. However, Iran condemned the use of U.S.-led coalition forces against Iraq during the Persian Gulf War (1991). As a result of the war and its aftermath, more than one million Kurds crossed the Iraqi border into Iran as refugees.
Rafsanjani was re-elected president in 1993. The United States suspended all trade with Iran in 1995, accusing Iran of supporting terrorist groups and attempting to develop nuclear weapons. In 1997, Mohammad Khatami, a moderately liberal Muslim cleric, was elected president. Several European Union countries began renewing economic ties with Iran in the late 1990s. The United States, however, continued to block more normalized relations, arguing that the country had been implicated in international terrorism and was developing a nuclear weapons capacity. In 1999, as new curbs were put on a free press, pro-democracy student demonstrations erupted at Tehran University and other urban campuses. These were followed by a wave of counter demonstrations by conservative factions.
Reformers won a substantial victory in the February 2000, parliamentary elections, capturing about two thirds of the seats, but conservative elements in the government forced the closure of the reformist press. Attempts by parliament to repeal restrictive press laws were forbidden by Khamenei. Despite these conditions, President Khatami was overwhelming re-elected in June, 2001.
U.S. invasion of Iraq
On January 29, 2002, in his State of the Union Address United States President George W. Bush labeled Iran, along with Iraq, and North Korea as an "Axis of evil" The speech sparked widespread demonstrations all across Iran. Tensions with the United States increased after the Anglo-American invasion of Iraq in March, 2003, as U.S. officials increasingly denounced Iran for pursuing the alleged development of nuclear weapons. In October, however, Iran agreed, in negotiations with several Western European nations, to tougher international inspections of its nuclear installations. Concern over Iran's nuclear program nonetheless continued. An earthquake, centered on Bam in south-east Iran, killed more than 26,000 people in December, 2003.
In the February 2004 elections, conservatives secured some two thirds of the seats of parliament. Many Iranians were unhappy with the failure of the parliament to achieve any significant reforms or diminish the influence of the hardliners.
Nuclear dispute
In mid-2004 Iran began resuming the processing of nuclear fuel as part of its plan to achieve self-sufficiency in nuclear power production, stating the negotiations with European Union nations had failed to bring access to the advanced nuclear technology that was promised. The action was denounced by the United States as one that would give Iran the capability to develop nuclear weapons. The International Atomic Energy Agency said that there was no evidence that Iran was seeking to develop such arms. However, the IAEA also called for Iran to abandon its plans to produce enriched uranium. In November 2004, Iran agreed to suspend uranium enrichment, but also subsequently indicated that it would not be held to the suspension if the negotiations the EU nations failed.
The presidential elections in June, 2005, were won by the hard-line conservative mayor of Tehran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, who ran on a populist, anti-corruption platform. Ahmadinejad and former president Rafsanjani were the leaders after the first round, but in the run-off Ahmadinejad's populist economic policies combined with Rafsanjani's inability to pick up sufficient reformist support assured the former's win. Ahmadinejad's victory, gave conservatives control of all branches of Iran's government.
After Iran resumed (August., 2005) converting raw uranium into gas, a necessary step for enrichment, the IAEA passed a resolution that accused Iran of failing to comply with the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty and called for the agency to report Iran to the UN Security Council. The timetable for the reporting, however, was left undetermined.
In October 2005, Ahmadinejad held a conference titled "The World without Zionism" In the speech, Ahmadinejad gave the examples of Iran under the Shah, the Soviet Union and Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq as examples of apparently invincible regimes that ceased to exist and that " he hoped the Zionist regime occupying Jerusalem, would collapse. In Western media this was later translated as Ahmadinejad calling for genocide and for "Israel to be wiped of the map." Iran’s foreign minister denied that Tehran wanted to see Israel "wiped off the map, "saying Ahmadinejad had been misunderstood. " Iran's stated policy on Israel is to urge a one-state solution through a countrywide referendum in which a government would be elected that all Palestinians and all Israelis would jointly vote for; which would normally be an end to the "Zionist state". Iran's supreme leader Ayatollah Khamenei, rejecting any attack on Israel, called for a referendum in Palestine.
In February, 2006, the IAEA voted to report Iran to the UN Security Council. In response Iran resumed uranium enrichment and ended surprise IAEA inspections and surveillance of its nuclear facilties. The Security Council called for Iran to suspend its nuclear research program in 30 days, but the statement left unclear what if any response there would be if Iran refused. On April 11, 2006, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had successfully enriched uranium. President Ahmadinejad made the announcement in a televised address from the north-eastern city of Mashhad, where he said "I am officially announcing that Iran joined the group of those countries which have nuclear technology." The uranium was enriched to 3.5 percent using over a hundred centrifuges. At this level, it could be used in a nuclear reactor.
The enrichment program caused the nations involved China, France, Germany, Russia, the United States, and the EU to refer the issue back to the Security Council in July, 2006. The Council set an August 31 deadline for Iran to stop enrichment, but Iran insisted it would continue its program and ignored the deadline. The council's veto-holding nations were divided over the subsequent U.S. call for sanctions, and the situation remained unresolved; in October Iran announced it had expanded its enrichment facilities.
On May 8, 2006, Ahmadinejad sent a personal letter to United States President George W. Bush to propose "new ways" to end Iran's nuclear dispute. In the letter, Ahmadinejad also questions the 911 attack on the World Trade Centre in New York. Could it be planned and executed without coordination with intelligence and security services – or their extensive infiltration? Of course this is just an educated guess. Why have the various aspects of the attacks been kept secret? Why are we not told who botched their responsibilities? And, why aren’t those responsible and the guilty parties identified and put on trial?
It was the first direct contact between the American and Iranian heads of state since April 9, 1980. U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and National Security Adviser Stephen Hadley both reviewed the letter and dismissed it as a negotiating ploy and publicity stunt and considered it to be a broad, historic look at the United States-Iran relations.
On December 11, 2006 the "International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust" opened, to widespread condemnation. The conference, called for by and held at the behest of Ahmadinejad, was in the media widely described as a "Holocaust denial conference" or a "meeting of Holocaust deniers", though Iran insists it is not a Holocaust denial conference but to provide a scientific atmosphere for scholars to offer their opinions in freedom about a historical issue.
On 23 December 2006, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 1737, that imposed sanctions against Iran for failing to stop its uranium enrichment program following resolution 1696. Ahmadinejad said that sanctions cannot dissuade Iranians from their decision to make progress.
Government and politics
The political system of the Islamic Republic of Iran is based on the 1979 constitution called the "Qanun-e Asasi" ("Fundamental Law"). The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies.
Governing bodies
The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for the delineation and supervision of general policies. The Supreme Leader is commander-in-chief' of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the 12 members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.
The president is the highest state authority, and is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. The Council of Guardians approves presidential candidates. The president implements the constitution and exercises executive powers, except for matters directly related to the supreme leader, who has the final say in all matters. The president appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight vice-presidents serve under the president, as well as a cabinet of 21 ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. The executive branch does not control the armed forces. Although the president appoints the ministers of intelligence and defense, the president must obtain approval from the supreme leader before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence.
The Council of Guardians comprises 12 jurists including six appointed by the supreme leader. The head of the judiciary, who is also appointed by the supreme leader, recommends the remaining six, who are appointed by parliament (Majles). If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to parliament for revision.
The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.
The Majlis of Iran (Islamic Consultative Assembly), or parliament, is comprised of 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties] and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians. Before the Islamic Revolution, Iran's legislature was bicameral with both the Majlis and a senate. The Senate was eliminated in the 1979 constitution.
The supreme leader appoints the head of the judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.
The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The assembly elects the supreme leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the supreme leader from power at any time. The assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.
Iran is a founding member of the United Nations organization and also a member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Non-Aligned Movement.
City and village councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. The first local council elections were held across the country in 1999. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.
Politics
Formal political parties are a relatively new phenomenon in Iran and most conservatives still prefer to work through political pressure groups rather than parties, and often political parties or groups are formed prior to elections and disbanded soon thereafter.
A loose pro-reform coalition called the Second Khordad Front, which includes political parties as well as less formal pressure groups and organizations, achieved considerable success at elections to the sixth Majles in early 2000. Groups in the coalition include: Islamic Iran Participation Front (IIPF), Executives of Construction Party (Kargozaran), Solidarity Party, Islamic Labor Party, Mardom Salari, Mojahedin of the Islamic Revolution Organization (MIRO), and Militant Clerics Society (Ruhaniyun). The coalition participated in the seventh Majles elections in early 2004.
The Islamic Revolutionary Party (IRP) was Iran's sole political party until its dissolution in 1987. Iran now has a variety of groups engaged in political activity. Some are oriented along political lines or based on an identity group, while others are more akin to professional political parties seeking members and recommending candidates for office. Some are active participants in the revolution's political life while others reject the state.
Groups that generally support the Islamic Republic include Ansar-e Hizballah, Muslim Students Following the Line of the Imam, Tehran Militant Clergy Association (Ruhaniyat), Islamic Coalition Party (Motalefeh), and Islamic Engineers Society. Active pro-reform student groups include the Office of Strengthening Unity (OSU). Opposition groups include Freedom Movement of Iran, the National Front, Marz-e Por Gohar.
Various ethnic and monarchist organizations; armed political groups that have been repressed by the government include Mujahidin-e Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO), People's Fedayeen, Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan (KDPI), and Komala.
Iran is divided into 30 provinces (ostanha).
Military
Iran has two kinds of armed forces: the regular forces and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps, totalling about 545,000 personnel. Both fall under the command of the Ministry of Defence. The regular armed forces has an estimated 420,000 troops in three branches: Ground forces (350,000 troops), navy (18,000 sailors) and air force (52,000 airmen). The Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps has an estimated 125,000 personnel in five branches: Qods Force (special forces), Basij (paramilitary), navy, Air Force, and the ground forces.
Iran also has a paramilitary volunteer force called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed Basij members, up to 300,000 reservists, and a further 11 million men and women who could be mobilized.
Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. In the early 2000s, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as Fajr-3 (MIRV) missile, Hoot, Kowsar, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles, at least one of which Israel claims has been used to spy on Israel. In 2006, Iranian officials said, its UAVs spied on the American aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan for 25 minutes without being detected.
Iran is a founding member of the United Nations, NAM, OIC, OPEC, and ECO.
Economy
Iran's economy is marked by a bloated, inefficient state sector, over reliance on the oil sector, and statist policies that create major distortions throughout. Most economic activity is controlled by the state. Private sector activity is typically small-scale workshops, farming, and services.
Relatively high oil prices in recent years have enabled Iran to amass nearly $60-billion in foreign exchange reserves, but have not eased economic hardships such as high unemployment and inflation. The proportion of the economy devoted to the development of weapons of mass destruction remains a contentious issue with leading Western nations.
In the early twenty first century, the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000-2004.
In 2004 the GDP was estimated at $163-billion ($542-billion at purchasing power parity), or $2440 per capita ($8100 PPP), 71st on a list of 181 nations. Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.
Iran is OPEC's second largest oil producer, exporting over three million barrels of oil per day. Moreover, it holds 10 percent of the world's confirmed oil reserves. Iran also has the world's second largest natural gas reserves (after Russia).
The 2007 administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by investing revenues in areas like automobiles, manufacturing, aerospace industries, consumer electronics, petrochemicals and nuclear technology. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry. For energy, it currently relies on conventional methods, but as of March 2006, uranium refinement, the last major hurdle to developing nuclear power, was revealed to have taken place.
Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies (totaling some $30-billion per year) that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.
Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and Central Asia, much like the European Union.
Exports totalled $63.18-billion in 2006. Export commodities were petroleum (80 percent), chemical and petrochemical products, fruits and nuts, and carpets. Export partners were Japan 16.9 percent, China 11.2 percent, Italy 6 percent, South Korea 5.8 percent, Turkey 5.7 percent, Netherlands 4.6 percent, France 4.4 percent, South Africa 4.1 percent, Taiwan 4.1 percent.
Imports totalled $45.48-billion in 2006. Import commodities were industrial raw materials and intermediate goods, capital goods, foodstuffs and other consumer goods, technical services, and military supplies. Import partners were Germany 13.9 percent, UAE 8.4 percent, China 8.3 percent, Italy 7.1 percent, France 6.3 percent, South Korea 5.4 percent, and Russia 4.9 percent.
Demographics
Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching 70,049,262 in 2006. More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and nearly one quarter of its people are 15 years of age or younger. The Iranian diaspora is estimated at over four million people who emigrated to North America, Europe, South America and Australia, mostly after the Iranian revolution in 1979. Iran also hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.
Ethnicity
The main ethnic groups are Persians (51 percent), Azeris (24 percent), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8 percent), Kurds (7 percent), Arabs (3 percent), Baluchi (2 percent), Lurs (2 percent), Turkmens (2 percent), Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Pashtuns and others (1 percent). There is little ethnic conflict, although the Kurds, living on Iran's western border, have pushed for autonomy. The nomadic tribal groups in the southern and western regions have been difficult to control. The Arab population of the southwestern province of Khuzestan has aspired to break away from Iran.
Religion
Most Iranians are Muslims. 90 percent belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 8 percent belong to the Sunni branch, mainly Kurds. The remaining 2 percent are non-Muslim religious minorities, mainly Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians. The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majles' (Parliament). However the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution has increased with executions and the denial of access to higher education.
The state religion of “Ithnaashara,” or Twelver Shi'ism, was established by the Safavid Dynasty in the seventeenth century. Shi'a Muslims revere the descendants of Fatimah, daughter of the prophet Muhammad, and her husband, Ali, Muhammad's cousin. Twelve Imams are recognized, all of whom were martyred except the twelfth, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who disappeared, but will return at the end of time with Jesus to judge mankind. Hassain, one of two sons of Fatimah and Ali, is the central figure in Iranian Shi’ism. He was martyred in a struggle for power between rival sects, which became Shi'a and Sunni. The Islamic months of Muharram and Safar are time for ritual mourning for Hassain, with processions, self-flagellation, and 10-day dramatic depictions of the martyrdom. Also revered is Imam Reza, the eighth leader of Shi'a Muslims, who is buried in the northeastern Iranian city, Mashhad. His shrine is a key pilgrimage destination for Shi'a Muslims.
Among religious minorities in Iran, Zoroastrians date back more than two thousand years, Iranian Jews date back to the removal to Babylon, and Assyrian Christians, who follow a non-Trinitarian doctrine, have lived continually in Iran since the third century.
Arab and Baluchi populations in the south and Turkish populations in the north and west are Sunni Muslims. The Baha'i movement, a semi-mystical nineteenth-century departure from Shi'ia Islam, is homegrown. It won converts from Islam, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity, and has spread from Iran to every nation on earth.
Women cannot preach to men, but female clerics may minister to women. A young man wanting to be a cleric may train in a religious school. When he has completed a course of study, he take up residence in a community needing a cleric. Overtime, he may build a reputation as a “mujtahed” capable of interpreting Islamic law, and as he gains respect and followers, he may rise to become an ayatollah (literally, Reflection of God").
Mysticism is important. In pursuit of religious truth, Sufis focus on a meditative path that may include group chanting and dance. Shrines of Islamic saints are extremely important. These are purported graves of the descendants of the prophet Muhammad through the Shi'a Imams. A pilgrimage to a shrine is a common. Longer pilgrimages to Karbala, Mashhad, or Mecca are respected. There are 30 holidays in Iran revolving around the birth or death of the various Shi'a Imams.
Roles of men and women
Women have always had a strong role in Iranian life. Women have served in government since the 1950s. The marriage age for women has increased to 21 years, while the birthrate has fallen to 2.45 percent. Education for women is universal, and education for girls has increased steadily. All professions are theoretically open to women, but the Iranian government’s requirement to cover the hair and the female form limits the type of jobs available. Revolutionary Guards have mutilated women for showing too much hair or for wearing lipstick.
In Iran, it is considered manly for men to be emotionally sensitive, artistically engaged, and aesthetically acute, while women can be emotionally distant and detached. Open weeping is common for either sex, as is kissing and hand holding between members of the same sex. Physical contact between members of the opposite sex, such as shaking hands, is avoided except between relatives. A proper Iranian man or woman will not be in a closed room with a member of the opposite sex (except for his or her spouse).
Marriage and the family
Marriage, in Iran, merges two families, giving each family extensive rights and obligations. Therefore, the families want to be certain they are compatible before any marriage takes place. A mother is on the lookout for good marriage prospects for her children. Once a prospect is selected, the mother lets her counterpart in the other family know that a proposal would be made, or would be welcome. The husband makes the proposal in a meeting between the two families.
Marriage within the family is common. A man of marriageable age has a right of first refusal for his father's brother's daughter—his cousin. The families already know each other, and live in the same society. This type of marriage consolidates wealth from the grandparents' generation. A love match with someone outside the family is not impossible, but the family visitation and negotiation must be observed.
A cleric draws up a marriage contract. The bride brings a dowry consisting of household goods and her clothing. An amount is written into the contract as payment for the woman should divorce occur. The wife belongs to her husband's household, but retains her name, and may hold property separate from her husband. A celebration is held after the contract is signed, and is a prelude to the consummation of the marriage. In many areas, it is important that the bride is virginal, and the bed sheets are inspected. The new couple may live with their relatives until they set up their own household.
Polygyny is allowed, but not widely practiced. Divorce is less common than in the West. Families prefer to stay together, since it is difficult to untangle the close relationships between the two families. Children of a marriage belong to the father. After a divorce, men assume custody of boys over three years and girls over seven. Women sometimes renounce their divorce payment to get custody.
Branches of an extended family may live in rooms in the same compound, but have separate eating and sleeping arrangements. Members of extended families have wide rights to hospitality in the homes of even their most distant relations. Family members tend to socialize with each other.
Male children inherit full shares of their father's estate, wives and daughters half-shares. The patriarch is the oldest male of the family, and he demands respect from other family members. Some members of an extended family will go into government, others into the military, others join the clergy, and so on. Families try to marry their children into powerful families. The family aims to extend its influence into as many spheres as possible.
Land ownership
Absentee landlords for hundreds of years used a sharecropping arrangement with tenant farmers. Based on a principle of five shares — land, water, seed, animal labor, and human labor — the farmer received two-fifths of the produce, since he supplied the human and animal labor. Landlords also hired laborers to work for wages. Land reforms in the 1960s and 1970s resulted in sharecropping farmers receiving the land, while the wage farmers received nothing.
Nomadic tribes claim grazing rights along their route of migration, with the rights parceled out by family affiliation. Government officials contest this.
Landowners on their death have willed large tracts of land, including whole villages, as well as other property, to the religious bequest (waqf) trust. The Pahlavi rulers sought to break the economic power of the clergy, who controlled this vast property empire, by nationalizing it, and action vehemently opposed by the clergy before the revolution.
Language
"Persian" is the name for the primary language spoken by around 40 million in Iran. However, the Iranian languages and their various dialects (totaling an estimated 150-200 million speakers) exceed the Iranian borders and are spoken throughout western China, southern Russia, and eastern Turkey. As part of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages, it is an ancient language, and one of extraordinary grace and flexibility. Having absorbed Arabic vocabulary and many Turkish elements, its vocabulary has expanded to well over 100,000 commonly used words. It is easy to learn, and ideally suited for the poetry and literature. The language is remarkably stable; Iranians can read twelfth century literature with relative ease. Iranian residents whose first language is not Persian are bilingual in Persian and their primary language. Persons whose first language is Persian are usually monolingual.
Class
In Iran, a man in ragged clothes, unshaven, and without any outward trapping of luxury may in fact be rich and powerful, and a well-dressed man driving a fine European car may be mired in debt. Clever youths from poor backgrounds may become educated, and, with the help of persons of power and authority, rise quickly in status and wealth. The public tends to dismiss awards, promotions, and public accolades. Clerics advance through the informal acknowledgment of their peers. “Ta'arof,” a ritualized system speech and behaviour, allows individuals to interrelate in a harmonious fashion, recognizing each other’s status.
Culture
Iran has a long history of art, music, architecture, poetry, philosophy, traditions, and ideology. The following quotes from poets belonging to a vast chronological and geographical expanse can be a proper exemplification of the devotion to Persian culture and its multimillenial penetrating existence:
همه عالم تن است و ایران دل
نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل
"Iran is the Heart and all the universe,
The Body,
Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility."
—Nizami
که ایران بهشت است یا بوستان
همی بوی مشک آید از دوستان
"Whether one thinks of Iran as Eden or Garden,
The smell of musk abounds there from friend and companion."
—Ferdowsi
بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند
چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار دگر عضوها را نماند قرار
"Of one Essence is the human race
thus has Creation put the base,
One Limb impacted is sufficient
For all Others to feel the Mace."
—Saadi
Inscribed on the United Nations' Hall of Nations
Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium AD. Nearly all philosophical, scientific, or literary work of the Islamic empires was written in Persian and translated to Arabic. The Islamic conquest of Iran during the first half of the seventh century began a synthesis of the Arabic and Iranian tongues. By the tenth century, this cultural diffusion threatened to erase native Persian entirely, as Persian writers, scientists, and scholars elected to write in the language of the Qur'an (Arabic) (see List of Iranian scientists and scholars). Moreover, Islamic caliphate was largely disdainful towards Persians and Persian culture more specifically during the rule of first caliphate dynasty of Umayyads who vividly sought Arabic supremacy in all aspects of their empire. This prompted Ferdowsi to compose the Shahnameh (Persian: Book of Kings), Iran's national epic from its legendary prehistoric nascence till its defeat at the battle of al-Qādisiyyah. It was written entirely in Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language.
| “ | ... I suffered during these thirty years, but I - the Ajam - have revived the Persian language; I shall not die since I am alive again, as I have spread the seeds of this language ... | ” |
Ferdowsi (935–1020)
Iran's literary tradition is rich and varied as well, although the world is most familiar with Iranian poetry. Rumi is by far the most famous of Iran's poets, although Saadi is considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. Both poets were practitioners of Sufism, and are quoted by Iranians with the same frequency and weight as the Qur'an. Cinema has continued to thrive in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. (Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years.) One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The Iranian media is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. The state also actively monitors the Internet, which has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers [7].
The quest for social justice and equity is an important Iranian cultural trait. The Cyrus Cylinder is considered the world's first declaration of human rights, and was the basis of government for the Achaemenian dynasty. Equality of the sexes also has a strong historical precedent in Iran: from the Achaemenian to the Sassanian dynasties, women were encouraged to pursue an education and study at universities; they held property, influenced the affairs of state, and worked and received the same compensation as men. Today, women compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country. Respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners are also an integral part of Iranian etiquette. The Iranian New Year (Norouz) is celebrated on March 21 from Spain in the west to Kazakhstan in the east. It is celebrated as the first day of spring. Norouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.[7]
Cuisine
The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their regions. Iranian food is not spicy. Herbs are used a lot, as is fruit from plums and pomegranates to quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. The main Persian cuisines are combinations of rice with meat, chicken or fish and plenty of garlic, onion, vegetables, nuts, and herbs. To achieve a delicious taste and a balanced diet, unique Persian spices such as saffron, diced limes, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes.
Sports
Many kinds of sports are practiced in Iran, both traditional and modern. Tehran, for example, was the first city in the Middle East to host the Asian Games in 1974, and continues to host and participate in major international sporting events to this day.
Football
Football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport in Iran. Iran has been able to reach the Football World Cup finals three times, and its national team is among the football elite in Asia. Many Iranian also play in major European leagues, and many Iranian clubs have hired European players or coaches.
Skiing
Iran is home to numerous mountainous regions, many of which are suitable hiking and skiing, and are gaining increasing popularity among foreign visitors.[8] The Tochal resort is the world's fifth-highest ski resort at over 3,730 m at its highest 7th station. The resort was completed in 1976 shortly before the overthrow of the Shah. It is only a mere 15 minutes away from Tehran's northern districts, and operates 7 months a year. From the Tochal peak, one has a spectacular view of the Alborz range, including the 5,671 metre (18,606 ft) high Mount Damavand, a dormant volcano.
Martial arts
Due to the low cost and the great benefits for the individual, martial arts have exploded in popularity in Iran in the past 20 years. Kyokushin, Shotokan, Wushu, and Taekwondo are the most popular. There are even indigenous styles such as Shinzen Karate[9] or Kan-zen-ryu[10] and Sungjado.[11] One can now find dojos from almost every martial arts style in Iran, with large numbers of followers.
Other popular sports in Iran are volleyball, rallying, and basketball.
In basketball, Iran has a national team, and a professional league, with good players in asia. The clubs have begun hiring foreign players and coaches into their roster.
In rallying, women drivers participate in national rally tournaments, including Iran's successful female driver Laleh Seddigh. Also traditional sports like Chess, Backgammon, Polo, and Wrestling are incredibly popular in Iran.
Arts
The cinema of Iran (or Persian cinema) is a flourishing film industry with a long history. Many popular commercial films are made in Iran, and Iranian art films have won many international film awards, and festivals of Iranian films are held annually around the globe. Along with China, Iran has been lauded as one of the best exporters of cinema in the 1990s. Persian arts. Many critics now rank Iran as the world's most important national cinema artistically, with a significance that invites comparison to Italian Neorealism and similar movements in past decades.[12] World-renowned German filmmaker Werner Herzog, along with many film critics from around the world, has praised Iranian cinema as one of the world's most important artistic cinemas.[13]
Besides cinema made in Iran, the terms "Iranian cinema" and "Persian cinema" can refer to to movies made in the Persian language in other regions, such as Europe and the United States or the cinema of parts Iranian Cultural Continent ("Greater Iran").
Architecture
The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. The architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry. Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture. Persian (Iranian) architecture left a profound influence on the architecture of old civilizations. Professor Arthur Pope wrote: "Architecture in Iran has at least 6,000 years of continuous history, examples of which can be seen from Syria to north India and Chinese borders, and from Caucasus to Zanzibar."Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that over the ages has spread wide and far to other cultures being adopted. Iran ranks among the top 10 nations with the most architectural ruins from antiquity and is recognized by UNESCO.
Poetry
So strong is the Persian aptitude for versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. In short, the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar. For example, almost half of Avicenna's medical writings are known to be versified. Persian poetry is worldwide recognized and have served as an inspiration for writers and poets around the World. Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage, an extravagance of panegyrics, and what is known as سبک فاخر "exalted in style". Rumi:
Love’s nationality is separate from all other religions, The lover’s religion and nationality is the Beloved (God). The lover’s cause is separate from all other causes Love is the astrolabe of God’s mysteries.[14]
يارب از ابر هدايت برسان بارانى
پيشتر زانكه چو گردى ز ميان برخيزم
Pour down, O Lord! from the clouds of thy guiding grace, The rain of a mercy that quickeneth on my grave, Before, like dust that the wind bears from place to place, I arise and flee beyond the knowledge of man.
Up from Earth's Centre through the Seventh Gate
کردم همه مشکلات گیتی را حل,
I rose, and on the Throne of Saturn sate,
بیرون جستم زقید هر مکر و حیل,
And many Knots unravel'd by the Road;
هر بند گشاده شد مگر بند اجل.
But not the Master-Knot of Human Fate.
Scientific progress
Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a long history. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. To mention just a few, Persians first discovered Algebra, invented the wind mill and found medical uses of alcohol.
In present times, scientists in Iran are trying to revive the golden age of Persian science. Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.[15]
Theoretical and computational sciences are rapidly developing in Iran. Theoretical physicists and chemists are regularly publishing in high impact factor journals. Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come online in 2007. Iranian Biophysicists (especially molecular biophysics) have gained international reputation since the 1990s. High field NMR facilities, as well as Microcalorimetry, Circular dichroism, and instruments for single protein channel studies have been provided in Iran during recent decades. Tissue engineering and research on biomaterials have just started to emerge in biophysics departments. In late 2006, Iranian scientists cloned successfully a sheep, by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Isfahan.[16]
Human rights
Iranian history boasts the first charter of human rights [17]; the Persian Empire (Iran) established unprecedented principles of human rights in the 6th century B.C.E. Since then, the status of human rights in Iran has varied dramatically. Today, the violation of human rights by the Islamic Republic of Iran continues to be significant, despite many efforts by Iranian human right activists, writers, NGOs and some political parties. Human rights in Iran regularly faces the issues of governmental impunity, restricted freedom of speech, and gender inequality. According to Human Rights Watch, respect for human rights in Iran, especially freedom of expression and opinion, deteriorated considerably in 2005. The government routinely uses torture and ill-treatment in detention, including prolonged solitary confinement, to punish dissidents. The judiciary, which is accountable to Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, has been at the center of many serious human rights violations. The American-backed[18] Freedom House rated political rights in Iran as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "6" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free". [19]
Major cities
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[20][21] The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.[21] Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahwaz, and Qom. Tehran is the largest city with 7,160,094 inhabitants (metropolitan: 14,000,000). More than half of the country's industry is based there. Industries include the manufacturing of cars, electronics and electrical equipment, military weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and chemical products. Mashhad, one of the holiest Shi'a cities, is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million. The population of the eight largest cities (2006, unless otherwise noted) are as follows (non-metropolitan estimates):[22]
- Elahieh view.jpg
Tehran
7,160,094 - Imam Ali Reza.jpg
Mashad
2,837,734 
Isfahan
1,573,378- Poets tomb tabriz.jpg
Tabriz
1,523,085 - Saadi X.JPG
Shiraz
1,279,140 - Qom masjed-e-hazrat-masumeh.jpg
Qom
1,046,578 - Ahvaz Bridge.jpg
Ahvaz
841,145
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- ↑ http://www.bookrags.com/browse/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Practices/50
- ↑ http://www.iranchamber.com/geography/articles/flag_anthem.php
- ↑ Statistical Centre, Government of Iran. "سرشماری ۱۳۸۵". Retrieved 2006-12-03.
- ↑ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html#Econ
- ↑ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html#Econ
- ↑ http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Religions/iranian/Zarathushtrian/fravahar.htm "Fravahar"
- ↑ Iran News, Payvand.com. "Nowrouz Vital Meeting to be Held in Tehran". Retrieved 2006-04-14.
- ↑ [1]
- ↑ [2]
- ↑ [3]
- ↑ [4]
- ↑ The Iranian Cinema
- ↑ The Iranian Cinema: A Dream With No Awakening
- ↑ The Mysteries of the Universe and Rumi's Discoveries on the Majestic Path of Love
- ↑ http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm
- ↑ [5] The first successfully cloned animal in Iran
- ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/documentary_archive/6034541.stm
- ↑ [6] 2005 Freedom House Annual Report, page 26, indicating 75% US federal funding
- ↑ Freedom in the World 2006 (
PDF). Freedom House (2005-12-16). Retrieved 2006-07-27.
See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom - ↑ Payvand. "Iran: Focus on reverse migration". Retrieved 2006-04-17.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Cultural Heritage New Agency. "Tourism and Travel: About Iran". Retrieved 2006-04-17.
- ↑ Stefan Helders, World Gazetteer. "Iran: largest cities and towns and statistics of their population". Retrieved 2006-04-14.
Further reading
- Benjamin Walker, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Cacutta, 1950.
- Michael Barker, Catalyst for Iranian Resistance: US “democracy promoters” and regime change in Iran, Znet, 18 December 2006.
External links
- Government
- Official website of the President of Iran
- The blog of the President of Iran
- Template:Fa icon Official website of the Council of Guardians of Iran
- Template:Fa icon Official website of the Majlis (Legislature) of Iran
- Official website of the Judiciary of Iran
- Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Official website of the Spokesman of the Government of Iran
- Official website of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
- Official website of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization
- Template:Fa icon Official website of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting
- Other
- Travel guide to Iran from Wikitravel
- Slideshow: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan
- The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)
- Encyclopaedia Britannica's Country Page - "Iran"
- Open Directory Project - Iran directory category
- BBC News interactive maps detailing Iran's people, land and infrastructure
- Uncovering Iran season onBBC Radio 4
- Encyclopædia Iranica
- WikIran Encyclopedia
- The Islamic Republic of Iran by Ynetnews
- Living in the axis of evil Dossier on life in Teheran published by the Internationalist Review
- Iranian news and media
- soc.culture.Iran (a Usenet newsgroup)
- List of Iranian news and media from the Open Directory Project
- Yahoo! News Full Coverage Iran Yahoo headline links
- Guardian section about Iran
- CAIS Archaeological and Cultural News
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For dependent and other territories, see Dependent territory and List of unrecognized countries.
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4 Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania.
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