Galatians, Epistle to the

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{{epname|Galatians, Epistle to the}}
 
{{Books of the New Testament}}
 
{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the Galatians''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus]] to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of [[Galatia]] in central [[Anatolia]]. It is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the [[Mosaic Law]] within [[Early Christianity]]. Along with the [[Epistle to the Romans]], it is the most theologically significant of the [[Pauline epistles]], and has been particularly influential in [[Protestant]] thought. 
 
  
==Galatia==
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The '''Epistle to the Galatians''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus]] to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of [[Galatia]] in central [[Anatolia]]. It is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the [[Mosaic Law]] within [[Early Christianity]].
Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches in [[Galatia]]" ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:2;&version=31; 1:2]), but location of these churches is a matter of debate. A minority of scholars have argued that the "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to a [[Celt]]ic people living in northern [[Asia Minor]], but perhaps the majority opinion is that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s B.C.E. and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. [[Acts of the Apostles]] records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and [[Phrygia]]," which lay immediately west of Galatia.
 
  
== Historical background ==
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{{cquote|You foolish Galatians! Who has bewitched you?—''Gal. 3:1''|20px|}}
The churches of [[Galatia]] were founded by Paul himself (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2016:6;&version=31; 16:6]; Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:8;&version=31; 1:8]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:13;&version=31; 4:13], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:19;&version=31; 4:19]). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from [[paganism]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:8;&version=31; 4:8]). After Paul's departure, the churches were visited by individuals whom Paul regarded as troublemakers preaching a "different gospel" from that preached by Paul ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:6-9;&version=31; 1:6–9]). The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's angry response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.
 
  
The identity of these "opponents" is disputed. We do not have a record of their activity, but are left to reconstruct it from Paul's response. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as [[Jewish Christians]] (i.e. [[Judaizer]]s), who taught that in order for pagans to belong to the people of God, they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law. The letter indicates controversy concerning [[Circumcision in the Bible|circumcision]], [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] observance, and the [[Mosaic Law]]. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of [[Abraham]], who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings ({{bibleverse||Genesis|17}}), see also [[Abrahamic religion]]. They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an [[Twelve apostles|apostle]], perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem#Bishops of Jerusalem|Jerusalem church]] governed by [[James the Just]].  
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The letter indicates that some of the Galatians had been influenced to believe that they needed to be circumcised in order to be true Christians. Paul expressed extreme dismay at those among the Galatians who had accepted this teaching. He angrily condemned those who taught it as "false brethren," saying, "I wish they would go the whole way and emasculate themselves!" (Galatians 5:12) He argued forcefully for Christian freedom from the Jewish ceremonial law, insisting that Christians are "justified by faith" and are "no longer under the supervision of the law." (3:24-25) The letter is also famous for its [[universalism]], especially its saying: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ [[Jesus]]." (3:28)
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{{toc}}
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Along with the [[Epistle to the Romans]], ''Galatians'' is the most theologically significant of the [[Pauline epistles]], and has been particularly influential in [[Protestant]] thought. Ironically, although it was intended to unite Jews and Christians, it later became the basis for Christians separating themselves from Jews, and even persecuting [[Jewish Christians]] who continued the practice of [[circumcision]].
  
It appears the teachers made some headway among Paul's converts. Sociological research has suggested that [[proselytes|converts]] from dominant paganism may have suffered a "loss of identity," and found the clarity offered by a Jewish identity and a law-observant lifestyle attractive.
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[[Image:Paul of Tarsus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Saint Paul]]
  
Paul responds angrily. He rehearses his [[Road to Damascus|conversion]] and apostolic credentials, records his relationship with the Jerusalem Church, and engages in an argument over the interpretation of the Abraham story.
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== Historical background ==
  
==Authenticity==
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The churches of [[Galatia]] were founded by [[Saint Paul|Paul]] himself, together with [[Timothy]] and [[Silas]]. (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2016:6;&version=31; 16:6]) These communities seem to have been composed at least partly of converts from [[paganism]], although both Jews and "God-fearers"—[[Gentiles]] who accepted the One God and associated with Jewish synagogues, but not as full members—were also involved. After Paul's departure, the churches were visited by individuals whom Paul regarded as troublemakers preaching a "different gospel" from that preached by Paul. ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:6-9;&version=31; 1:6–9]) The Galatians were receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's angry response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.
{{main|Authorship of the Pauline Epistles}}
 
  
Virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's writing.
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The opponents against whom Paul battles are known today as [[Judaizer]]s, teachers who insisted that in order for Gentiles to be accepted into the Christian community, they must become Jews. This meant not only accepting the moral laws of [[Judaism]], such as the [[Ten Commandments]], but also being circumcised. Prior to Paul and Barnabas' mission to the Gentiles, nearly all members of the Christian movement had been Jews. Thus, many in the Judean churches—who saw Jesus as the resurrected Jewish [[Messiah]]—understood that belief in [[Jesus]] and his teachings could only be practiced by people willing to live as Jews, just as Jesus did.
  
The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles.  Moreover, Paul's description of the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%202:1-10;&version=31; 2:1–10]) gives a different point of view than the description in Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2015:2-29;&version=31; 15:2–29], whereas a forger writing in later decades would most likely have stuck close to the account in Acts to convince his audience that this was an authentic writing by Paul.
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The letter indicates a particularly heated controversy concerning [[Circumcision in the Bible|circumcision]], [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] observance, fellowship between Gentiles and Jews within the Christian community, and the [[Mosaic Law]].
  
The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish or Jewish [[proselytes]]. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.
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==Contents==
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''Galatians'' addresses the basic question "Was the [[Mosaic Law]] binding on Gentile Christians?" The epistle is designed to counter the position that acceptance of Jewish ceremonial law—especially [[circumcision]]—was an essential part of following Jesus.
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[[Image:Paul de Tarse.gif|thumb|Icon of Saint Paul]]
  
There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large.
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In chapter 1 Paul defends his apostolic authority. ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:11-19;&version=31; 1:11–19]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%202:1-14;&version=31; 2:1–14]) He insists that his words are just as binding as any other apostle's, even though Paul himself did not follow the living [[Jesus]] in his earthly life. Paul also admits that he personally opposed the early Christian movement. Paul's gospel was not taught to him by men, but by a "revelation from Jesus Christ." Thus, he declares: "Even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel other than the one we preached to you, let him be eternally condemned!"
  
==Date and audience==
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In chapter 2, Paul explains that he was at first distrusted by the Judean church. However, three years after his conversion, he went to Jerusalem. There he met none of the other [[apostle]]s except "[[James the Just|James]], the Lord's brother." Then, after 14 years he returned to Jerusalem to meet with a larger group to discuss how the gospel should be properly preached among the [[Gentiles]]. Paul may be describing the so-called [[Council of Jerusalem]] of Acts 15, although the accounts are not easy to reconcile. There, Paul was opposed by certain "false brothers"—probably the members of the Jerusalem church from a strict branch of the [[Pharisees]], as reported in Acts 15:5, who insisted that Gentile believers be circumcised. Paul sees himself as the apostle to the Gentiles, while [[Saint Peter|Peter]] had been sent to the Jews.<ref>This account, too, does not entirely square with Acts' version, where Peter, not Paul, is the first to have preached to the Gentiles.</ref> Paul names James, Peter, and John—in that order—as the "pillars" of the church and declares that they agreed entirely with him.<ref>Acts, however, indicates that James insisted that Gentile Christians must not eat meat that had been strangled and must refrain from "blood"—two [[kosher]] dietary rules that hardly square with Paul's insistence that Jewish ceremonial laws do not apply to Gentiles. Acts also indicates a stipulation that Gentile Christians must not eat food sacrificed to idols, an issue which Paul deals with in chapter 8 of [[1 Corinthians]].</ref>
There are three main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom. The North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2018:23;&version=31; 18:23]). The visit to [[Jerusalem]], mentioned in Gal 2:1&ndash;10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, ''or possibly Acts 18:22 (at the end of his Second Missionary Journey)'', and it is spoken of as a thing of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written after the [[Council of Jerusalem]]. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at the same time, namely, in the winter of AD 57&ndash;58, during Paul's stay in [[Corinth]] (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2020:2-3;&version=31; 20:2&ndash;3]). This letter to the Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, tidings having reached him of the state of matters; and that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same fundamental doctrines of the gospel.
 
  
The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before or shortly after the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have traveled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%209:30;&version=31; 9:30]), or during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia.
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However, at [[Antioch]], where Paul and Barnabas had established a sizable community, certain "men from James" came from [[Jerusalem]] and stirred up a major controversy. The issue was no longer whether Gentiles had to be circumcised, for that question had already been settled. Rather, it was whether Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians could share table fellowship with one another. The "men from James" insisted that Jews were not allowed to eat with Gentiles, while Paul insisted that Jews and Gentiles were one family in [[Christ]]. The other Jews in the congregation—including both Peter and Paul's companion Barnabas—ended up siding with the "men from James," with the result that Paul publicly opposed Peter "to his face."
  
The third theory concerning the timing of the writing of the Book of Galatians most widely accepted is according to:
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In chapter 3, Paul gives the theological basis for his stance: "The law was put in charge to lead us to Christ," he explains, "that we might be justified by faith. Now that faith has come, we are no longer under the supervision of the law." Instead, we become children of God through faith in Jesus. He concludes with a famous passage: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus. If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise."
  
[http://www.theologywebsite.com/nt/galatians.shtml]
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In chapter 4, Paul again takes up his [[diatribe]] against the Judaizers, saying that "Those people are zealous to win you over, but for no good." He uses the analogy of the biblical women [[Sarah]] and [[Hagar]] and their sons, [[Isaac]] and [[Ishmael]], as figures of Christian freedom versus Jewish enslavement to the [[Law of Moses]]. In a passage declaring Christianity's ultimate estrangement from the Jewish religion from which it sprang, he invokes Genesis' order to "get rid of the slave woman and her son" (Genesis 21:10) and declares: "We are not children of the slave woman, but of the free woman."
  
Is “The view that Galatians 2:1-10 is the visit of Acts 11:30. This theory, which has received widespread support in recent times, is claimed to avoid all the difficulties of alternative views. It means that Galatians 1:2 may be interpreted literally as the story of the second visit of the apostle to Jerusalem. Under this hypothesis, the following reconstruction is suggested:  
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Finally, in chapter 5, Paul throws down the gauntlet and absolutely forbids the [[circumcision]] of Gentile Christians. "If you let yourselves be circumcised," he declares, "Christ will be of no value to you at all... you have fallen away from grace." At the same time, he cautions against taking Christian freedom too far, for one must indeed struggle against the "sinful nature" by following Judaism' basic moral commandments, if not its ceremonial law. Among the sinful acts Paul lists to be avoided are: "sexual im[[morality]], impurity, debauchery, [[idolatry]] and [[witch]]craft, hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions, envy, drunkenness, and orgies."
  
About a year after Paul and Barnabas began work at Antioch (Acts 11:26) the church decided to send them to Jerusalem with a relief fund for the Judean churches after hearing about the conditions from some itinerant prophets. During this visit Paul and Barnabas had the opportunity to inform the leaders at Jerusalem about developments among the Gentiles.  
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Paul concludes his letter by encouraging his readers to be vigilant against evil and "do good to all people, especially to those who belong to the family of believers." He ends with a note written in his own hand—as opposed to the rest of the letter, which was apparently dictated to a scribe—reminding the Galatians that: "Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; what counts is a new creation."
  
As [[Apostle Titus|Titus]] was with them, the question of Jewish-Gentile fellowship was brought into sharp focus, but Titus was not compelled to be circumcised (Gal 2:3).  
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==Authenticity==
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Virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's own writing. The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles. Moreover, Paul's description of the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%202:1-10;&version=31; 2:1&ndash;10]) gives a different point of view than the description in Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2015:2-29;&version=31; 15:2&ndash;29], whereas a forger writing in later decades would most likely have stuck close to the account in Acts to convince his audience that this was an authentic writing by Paul.
  
The Jerusalem apostles acknowledged Paul's credentials as apostle to the uncircumcision (Gal 2:7ff), but laid him under obligation to remember the poor. This was the very thing he had already done, as Galatians 2:10 makes clear.  
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The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish or Jewish [[proselytes]]. There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.
  
On their return to Antioch they encouraged Jewish and Gentile Christians to have fellowship together. Acts 11:19 ff certainly suggests that at an early stage there were Gentiles in the church, but no crisis seems to have arisen until the arrival of emmissaries from Jerusalem (Gal 2:12). Following the reservations of Gentile fellowship by James' (Hebrew) men, first Peter then Barnabas withdrew, but this position seemed to be so intolerable to Paul that he challenged and rebuked Peter before the whole church.  
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==Date and audience==
 
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[[Image:Galatia Map.png|thumb|250px|Galatia was a Roman province in today's Turkey. On this map, the ''Mare Internum'' is the Mediterranean Sea.]]
Immediately following this incident the Antioch church commended Paul and Barnabas to their missionary work, which was destined to raise the same problems in a more acute form. Without doubt the Jerusalem leaders soon heard of the success of Paul's missions among the Gentiles and the Jewish-Gentile question reached a crisi for the Judean Christians. They were quite prepared to acknowledge Paul's work among the Gentiles and were quite willing to concede that Gentiles could become Christians, but they could not tolerate the abolition of all distinction between Jew and Gentile. If Gentiles wished to have fellowship with Jewish Christians they must conform to Jewish scruples. They must be circumcised and must respect Jewish ritual requirements at meal times. The Jewish leaders consequently dispatched representatives to the galatian churches and to the sponsoring church at Antioch (Gal 1:7; Acts 15:1).
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The [[Acts of the Apostles]] records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and [[Phrygia]]," the latter lying immediately west of Galatia. It is probably to these churches that the Epistle to the Galatians was addressed.
 
 
The Antioch church, following the lead of Paul and Barnabas, recognized the necessity of discussing this burning question at top level, and sent Paul, Barnabas and others unnamed in Acts as delegates to the Jerusalem church, as a result of which a conference was convened (Acts 15).  
 
  
If this reconstruction is correct the epistle was written before the Council was convened, but it is not possible to be any more specific than that. The letter may have been written on Paul's way to Jerusalem for the Council. In any case, it would be dated 49-50C.E. and in that event would become the earliest of Paul's extant epistles.
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There are two main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom. The ''North Galatian'' view holds that it was written soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2018:23;&version=31; 18:23]), during his "second missionary journey." The visit to [[Jerusalem]], mentioned in Gal 2:1&ndash;10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past. In this view the epistle must have been written after the [[Council of Jerusalem]]. Also the similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led some to the conclusion that they were both written around the same time, namely, in the winter of 57-58 C.E., during Paul's stay in [[Corinth]] (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2020:2-3;&version=31; 20:2&ndash;3]). The letter to the Galatians, however, was written urgently in harsh language with little systematic thinking, while the letter to the Romans is a more deliberate and systematic treatise, in exposition of the same fundamental doctrines. This argues for Galatians being written before Romans.
  
==Contents==
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The ''South Galatian'' view holds that Paul wrote it during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia. This theory makes the letter quite early, perhaps 48 or 49 C.E. In this view Galatians may be the first of Paul's extant letters, even predating Thessalonians.
This epistle addresses the question "Was the [[Mosaic Law]] binding on Christians?" The epistle is designed to counter the position that [[Legalism (theology)|men cannot be justified by faith without the works of the law]]; see also the [[Epistle of James]] and the [[Expounding of the Law]]. After an introductory address (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:1-10;&version=31; 1:1&ndash;10]), the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle.  
 
  
In Chapter [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=1&version=31 1] he defends his apostolic authority ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:11-19;&version=31; 1:11&ndash;19]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%202:1-14;&version=31; 2:1&ndash;14]).  Chapters [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=2&version=31 2], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=3&version=31 3], and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=4&version=31 4] show the influence of the [[Judaizers]] in destroying the very essence of the [[gospel]].  Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruit of the Spirit.  Chapter 4 then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%205,6:1-10;&version=31; 5; 6:1&ndash;10] teaching about the right use of their Christian freedom. For example, it is clear that some took "freedom in Christ" as justification of [[antinomianism]].
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==Significance==
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With the exception of [[Romans]], the Epistle to the Galatians is probably the most significant of Paul's surviving letters, in terms of historical impact. Indeed, many of its "shoot-from-the-hip" arguments make for better short quotations even than Romans, although Galatians is far less theologically sophisticated. As far as the controversy with the Judaizers is concerned, ultimately, Paul's attitude on the [[circumcision]] issue carried the day. [[Christianity]] would not be a Jewish sect that believed Jesus was the [[Messiah]], but would become a separate religion in the [[Roman Empire]], appealing mainly to [[Gentiles]].
  
In the conclusion of the epistle ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%206:11;&version=31; 6:11]), Paul writes, "Ye see how large a letter I have written with mine own hand." It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand. Regarding this conclusion, [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]], in his Commentary on the epistle, says: "At this point the apostle takes the pen from his [[amanuensis]], and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ([[2 Thessalonians|2 Thess]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:2;&version=31; 2:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%203:17;&version=31; 3:17]) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
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Later, Paul's letter was used effectively by those in the Christian church who believed that Christianity should have little or nothing to do with the Jewish religion and people from which it sprang. During the [[Spanish Inquisition]], this attitude led inquisitors to consider the circumcision of children of Jewish converts to be evidence of insincerity and [[heresy]], a crime punishable by death.
  
Galatians also contains a catalogue of [[vice]]s and [[virtue]]s, a popular formulation of Christian ethics.
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During the [[Protestant Reformation]], Martin Luther and other reformers used Galatians to emphasize the principle of ''sola gracia''—salvation by grace alone rather than Catholic "legalism" and "works" of penance. For Luther, there could be no compromise of Galatians' assertion that we are "justified by faith" alone, even if the [[Epistle of James]] had insisted on the exact opposite, that man is justified by works, not faith.
  
An interesting literary interpretation of this period of [[Christianity]] and the character of Paul can be found in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s short story "The Church that was at Antioch." A [[Roman Empire|Roman]] soldier and follower of [[Mithraism]] discovers the faith on his death bed, after having tried to defuse tension between the [[Pauline Christianity|Gentile]] and [[Jewish Christians]] over issues of [[Mosaic Law]] such as [[History of male circumcision|circumcision]] and the [[kashrut|preparation of food]].
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Finally, to church historians, Galatians provides some of the [[New Testament]]'s most useful information regarding the early church. Since it covers some of the same material as the [[Book of Acts]]—sometimes confirming it, other times seeming to contradict it—Galatians serves as a means of establishing confirmed facts about early Christian history. On the other hand, it also exposes fascinating differences of perspective and opinion between Paul—who sees himself as absolutely right and people such as the "men from James" and even the [[Apostle Peter]] as dead wrong on the issue of table fellowship—and Acts, which many critics believes tends to smooth over the differences between James, Peter, and Paul.
  
==Textual criticism==
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==Notes==
<!--The following paragraph all comes from Ehrman's book, cited in the reference note—>
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<references/>
No original of the letter is known to exist. The earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars today, named P46, dates to approximately the year 200 C.E., approximately 150 years after the original was presumably drafted. This fragmented papyrus, parts of which are missing, almost certainly contains errors introduced in the process of being copied from earlier manuscripts.<ref>Ehrman, Bart (2005) Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-073817-0. page 60.</ref> However, through careful research relating to paper construction, handwriting development, and the established principles of textual criticism, scholars can be rather certain about where these errors and changes appeared and what the original text probably said.
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
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* Boers, Hendrikus. ''The Justification of the Gentiles: Paul's Letters to the Galatians and Romans''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1994. ISBN 978-1565630116
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* Dunn, James D. G. ''The Epistle to the Galatians.'' Black's New Testament commentaries. Hendrickson Publishers, 1993. ISBN 978-1565630369
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* Galambush, Julie. ''The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book.'' HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 978-0060596361
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* Howard, George. ''Paul: Crisis in Galatia: a Study in Early Christian Theology''. Cambridge University Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0521217095
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
* online translations of the ''Epistle to Galatians'':
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All links retrieved February 13, 2024.
* [http://www.biblegateway.com ''Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions'' at GospelCom.net]
 
* [http://unbound.biola.edu ''Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions'' at Biola University]
 
* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Galatians+1 ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org]
 
* [http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/H/HoeneckeGalatians/HoeneckeGalatians.pdf Translation of Galatians by Gerald O. Hoenecke, et al.]
 
*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0001400.html#T0001413 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897:] Epistle to the Galatians, commencing "The genuineness of this epistle is not called in question. Its Pauline origin is universally acknowledged."
 
*[http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/eysingsp.html G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, "The Spuriousness of so-called Pauline epistles exemplified by the ''Epistle to the Galatians''," 1912]: a review of the critical analysis that identified ''Galatians'' among the "four Epistles" considered by critical readers to be post-Pauline.
 
*[http://www.galatians-paul-the-torah-law-legalism.info Galatians, Paul, The Torah-Law & Legalism]:
 
  
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Online translations of the ''Epistle to Galatians'':
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* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians+1&version=NIV Galatians 1] ''www.biblegateway.com''
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* [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Galatians+1 Galatians Chapter 1] ''www.gospelhall.org''
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*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0001400.html#T0001413 Galatians, Epistle to] ''www.ccel.org''
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*[http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/eysingsp.html G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, "The Spuriousness of so-called Pauline epistles exemplified by the ''Epistle to the Galatians''," 1912] A review of the critical analysis that identified ''Galatians'' among the "four Epistles." ''www.depts.drew.edu''
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Latest revision as of 19:12, 13 February 2024

New Testament

The Epistle to the Galatians is a book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul of Tarsus to a number of early Christian communities in the Roman province of Galatia in central Anatolia. It is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law within Early Christianity.

You foolish Galatians! Who has bewitched you?—Gal. 3:1

The letter indicates that some of the Galatians had been influenced to believe that they needed to be circumcised in order to be true Christians. Paul expressed extreme dismay at those among the Galatians who had accepted this teaching. He angrily condemned those who taught it as "false brethren," saying, "I wish they would go the whole way and emasculate themselves!" (Galatians 5:12) He argued forcefully for Christian freedom from the Jewish ceremonial law, insisting that Christians are "justified by faith" and are "no longer under the supervision of the law." (3:24-25) The letter is also famous for its universalism, especially its saying: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." (3:28)

Along with the Epistle to the Romans, Galatians is the most theologically significant of the Pauline epistles, and has been particularly influential in Protestant thought. Ironically, although it was intended to unite Jews and Christians, it later became the basis for Christians separating themselves from Jews, and even persecuting Jewish Christians who continued the practice of circumcision.

Saint Paul

Historical background

The churches of Galatia were founded by Paul himself, together with Timothy and Silas. (Acts 16:6) These communities seem to have been composed at least partly of converts from paganism, although both Jews and "God-fearers"—Gentiles who accepted the One God and associated with Jewish synagogues, but not as full members—were also involved. After Paul's departure, the churches were visited by individuals whom Paul regarded as troublemakers preaching a "different gospel" from that preached by Paul. (1:6–9) The Galatians were receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's angry response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.

The opponents against whom Paul battles are known today as Judaizers, teachers who insisted that in order for Gentiles to be accepted into the Christian community, they must become Jews. This meant not only accepting the moral laws of Judaism, such as the Ten Commandments, but also being circumcised. Prior to Paul and Barnabas' mission to the Gentiles, nearly all members of the Christian movement had been Jews. Thus, many in the Judean churches—who saw Jesus as the resurrected Jewish Messiah—understood that belief in Jesus and his teachings could only be practiced by people willing to live as Jews, just as Jesus did.

The letter indicates a particularly heated controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, fellowship between Gentiles and Jews within the Christian community, and the Mosaic Law.

Contents

Galatians addresses the basic question "Was the Mosaic Law binding on Gentile Christians?" The epistle is designed to counter the position that acceptance of Jewish ceremonial law—especially circumcision—was an essential part of following Jesus.

Icon of Saint Paul

In chapter 1 Paul defends his apostolic authority. (1:11–19; 2:1–14) He insists that his words are just as binding as any other apostle's, even though Paul himself did not follow the living Jesus in his earthly life. Paul also admits that he personally opposed the early Christian movement. Paul's gospel was not taught to him by men, but by a "revelation from Jesus Christ." Thus, he declares: "Even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel other than the one we preached to you, let him be eternally condemned!"

In chapter 2, Paul explains that he was at first distrusted by the Judean church. However, three years after his conversion, he went to Jerusalem. There he met none of the other apostles except "James, the Lord's brother." Then, after 14 years he returned to Jerusalem to meet with a larger group to discuss how the gospel should be properly preached among the Gentiles. Paul may be describing the so-called Council of Jerusalem of Acts 15, although the accounts are not easy to reconcile. There, Paul was opposed by certain "false brothers"—probably the members of the Jerusalem church from a strict branch of the Pharisees, as reported in Acts 15:5, who insisted that Gentile believers be circumcised. Paul sees himself as the apostle to the Gentiles, while Peter had been sent to the Jews.[1] Paul names James, Peter, and John—in that order—as the "pillars" of the church and declares that they agreed entirely with him.[2]

However, at Antioch, where Paul and Barnabas had established a sizable community, certain "men from James" came from Jerusalem and stirred up a major controversy. The issue was no longer whether Gentiles had to be circumcised, for that question had already been settled. Rather, it was whether Jewish Christians and Gentile Christians could share table fellowship with one another. The "men from James" insisted that Jews were not allowed to eat with Gentiles, while Paul insisted that Jews and Gentiles were one family in Christ. The other Jews in the congregation—including both Peter and Paul's companion Barnabas—ended up siding with the "men from James," with the result that Paul publicly opposed Peter "to his face."

In chapter 3, Paul gives the theological basis for his stance: "The law was put in charge to lead us to Christ," he explains, "that we might be justified by faith. Now that faith has come, we are no longer under the supervision of the law." Instead, we become children of God through faith in Jesus. He concludes with a famous passage: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus. If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise."

In chapter 4, Paul again takes up his diatribe against the Judaizers, saying that "Those people are zealous to win you over, but for no good." He uses the analogy of the biblical women Sarah and Hagar and their sons, Isaac and Ishmael, as figures of Christian freedom versus Jewish enslavement to the Law of Moses. In a passage declaring Christianity's ultimate estrangement from the Jewish religion from which it sprang, he invokes Genesis' order to "get rid of the slave woman and her son" (Genesis 21:10) and declares: "We are not children of the slave woman, but of the free woman."

Finally, in chapter 5, Paul throws down the gauntlet and absolutely forbids the circumcision of Gentile Christians. "If you let yourselves be circumcised," he declares, "Christ will be of no value to you at all... you have fallen away from grace." At the same time, he cautions against taking Christian freedom too far, for one must indeed struggle against the "sinful nature" by following Judaism' basic moral commandments, if not its ceremonial law. Among the sinful acts Paul lists to be avoided are: "sexual immorality, impurity, debauchery, idolatry and witchcraft, hatred, discord, jealousy, fits of rage, selfish ambition, dissensions, factions, envy, drunkenness, and orgies."

Paul concludes his letter by encouraging his readers to be vigilant against evil and "do good to all people, especially to those who belong to the family of believers." He ends with a note written in his own hand—as opposed to the rest of the letter, which was apparently dictated to a scribe—reminding the Galatians that: "Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything; what counts is a new creation."

Authenticity

Virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's own writing. The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles. Moreover, Paul's description of the Council of Jerusalem (Gal 2:1–10) gives a different point of view than the description in Acts 15:2–29, whereas a forger writing in later decades would most likely have stuck close to the account in Acts to convince his audience that this was an authentic writing by Paul.

The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish or Jewish proselytes. There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.

Date and audience

Galatia was a Roman province in today's Turkey. On this map, the Mare Internum is the Mediterranean Sea.

The Acts of the Apostles records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and Phrygia," the latter lying immediately west of Galatia. It is probably to these churches that the Epistle to the Galatians was addressed.

There are two main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom. The North Galatian view holds that it was written soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts 18:23), during his "second missionary journey." The visit to Jerusalem, mentioned in Gal 2:1–10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past. In this view the epistle must have been written after the Council of Jerusalem. Also the similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led some to the conclusion that they were both written around the same time, namely, in the winter of 57-58 C.E., during Paul's stay in Corinth (Acts 20:2–3). The letter to the Galatians, however, was written urgently in harsh language with little systematic thinking, while the letter to the Romans is a more deliberate and systematic treatise, in exposition of the same fundamental doctrines. This argues for Galatians being written before Romans.

The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote it during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia. This theory makes the letter quite early, perhaps 48 or 49 C.E. In this view Galatians may be the first of Paul's extant letters, even predating Thessalonians.

Significance

With the exception of Romans, the Epistle to the Galatians is probably the most significant of Paul's surviving letters, in terms of historical impact. Indeed, many of its "shoot-from-the-hip" arguments make for better short quotations even than Romans, although Galatians is far less theologically sophisticated. As far as the controversy with the Judaizers is concerned, ultimately, Paul's attitude on the circumcision issue carried the day. Christianity would not be a Jewish sect that believed Jesus was the Messiah, but would become a separate religion in the Roman Empire, appealing mainly to Gentiles.

Later, Paul's letter was used effectively by those in the Christian church who believed that Christianity should have little or nothing to do with the Jewish religion and people from which it sprang. During the Spanish Inquisition, this attitude led inquisitors to consider the circumcision of children of Jewish converts to be evidence of insincerity and heresy, a crime punishable by death.

During the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther and other reformers used Galatians to emphasize the principle of sola gracia—salvation by grace alone rather than Catholic "legalism" and "works" of penance. For Luther, there could be no compromise of Galatians' assertion that we are "justified by faith" alone, even if the Epistle of James had insisted on the exact opposite, that man is justified by works, not faith.

Finally, to church historians, Galatians provides some of the New Testament's most useful information regarding the early church. Since it covers some of the same material as the Book of Acts—sometimes confirming it, other times seeming to contradict it—Galatians serves as a means of establishing confirmed facts about early Christian history. On the other hand, it also exposes fascinating differences of perspective and opinion between Paul—who sees himself as absolutely right and people such as the "men from James" and even the Apostle Peter as dead wrong on the issue of table fellowship—and Acts, which many critics believes tends to smooth over the differences between James, Peter, and Paul.

Notes

  1. This account, too, does not entirely square with Acts' version, where Peter, not Paul, is the first to have preached to the Gentiles.
  2. Acts, however, indicates that James insisted that Gentile Christians must not eat meat that had been strangled and must refrain from "blood"—two kosher dietary rules that hardly square with Paul's insistence that Jewish ceremonial laws do not apply to Gentiles. Acts also indicates a stipulation that Gentile Christians must not eat food sacrificed to idols, an issue which Paul deals with in chapter 8 of 1 Corinthians.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Boers, Hendrikus. The Justification of the Gentiles: Paul's Letters to the Galatians and Romans. Hendrickson Publishers, 1994. ISBN 978-1565630116
  • Dunn, James D. G. The Epistle to the Galatians. Black's New Testament commentaries. Hendrickson Publishers, 1993. ISBN 978-1565630369
  • Galambush, Julie. The Reluctant Parting: How the New Testament's Jewish Writers Created a Christian Book. HarperSanFrancisco, 2005. ISBN 978-0060596361
  • Howard, George. Paul: Crisis in Galatia: a Study in Early Christian Theology. Cambridge University Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0521217095

External links

All links retrieved February 13, 2024.

Online translations of the Epistle to Galatians:


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