Democratic Republic of the Congo

Template:DRC-InfoBox The Democratic Republic of the Congo, often referred to as DRC or Congo, and formerly as Zaire, is the third largest country by area on the African continent and the richest in mineral wealth. The name "Congo" (meaning "hunter") comes from the Bakongo ethnic group that lives in the western part of the Congo River basin.

Formerly the colony of Belgian Congo, the country's post-independence name was the Republic of Congo until August 1, 1964, when its name was changed to Democratic Republic of Congo (to distinguish it from the neighboring country of the same name).

Both before and after independence, the Congolese have endured exploitation, war, and cruelty, most recently during the devastating Second Congo War (sometimes referred to as the African World War), the deadliest conflict since World War II.

Geography

The map of Democratic Republic of Congo from CIA World Factbook

The Congo is situated at the heart of the west-central portion of sub-Saharan Africa and is bounded by (clockwise from the southwest) Angola, the Republic of Congo, the Central African Republic, the Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania (across Lake Tanganyika), and Zambia. Its territory also straddles the Equator, with one-third to the north and two-thirds to the south. The size of Congo, 905,063 square miles (2,345,410 km²), is comparable to that of Western Europe or the United States east of the Mississippi River.

The country enjoys access to the Atlantic Ocean through a narrow stretch that follows the Congo River into the Gulf of Guinea.

Geology

The Great Rift Valley, in particular the Eastern Rift, plays a key role in shaping the Congo's geography. Not only is the northeastern section of the country much more mountainous, but due to the rift's tectonic activities, this area also experiences low levels of volcanic activity. The rifting of the African continent in this area has also manifested itself as the famous Great Lakes, which lie on the Congo's eastern frontier. The country is bordered in the east by two of these: Lake Albert and Lake Tanganyika. Perhaps most important of all, the Rift Valley has endowed most of the south and east of the Congo with an enormous amount of mineral wealth. These include cobalt, copper, cadmium, petroleum, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, and coal.

Climate and terrain

As a result of its equatorial location, the Congo experiences large amounts of precipitation and has the highest frequency of thunderstorms on earth. Annual rainfall exceeds 80 inches in some places, and the area sustains the second largest rainforest in the world (after the Amazon). This jungle covers most of the vast, low-lying central basin of the river, which slopes toward the Atlantic in the west. This area is surrounded by plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, mountainous terraces in the west, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High, glaciated mountains are found in the extreme eastern region.

Rivers

The tropical climate has also produced the Congo River system, which dominates the region topographically along with the rainforest it flows through, though they are not mutually exclusive. The river basin (meaning the Congo River and all of its myriad tributaries) occupies nearly the entire country and an area of nearly 400,000 square miles (one million square kilometers). The river and its tributaries (major offshoots include the Kasai, Sangha, Ubangi, Aruwimi, and Lulonga) form the backbone of Congolese economics and transportation, and they have a drastic impact on the daily lives of the people. The river provides the country's only outlet to the Atlantic Ocean via a narrow strip of land on its north bank; otherwise Congo would be completely landlocked.

The sources of the Congo are in the highlands and mountains of the Great Rift Valley, as well as Lake Tanganyika and Lake Mweru. Kinshasa and Brazzaville are actually on opposite sides of the river at the Malebo Pool (Stanley Pool), then the river narrows and falls through a number of cataracts in deep canyons (collectively known as the Livingstone Falls), runs past Boma, and empties into the Atlantic. The river has the second-largest flow and the second-largest watershed in the world (trailing the Amazon in both respects).

Flora and fauna

Bas-Congo landscape.

The rainforests of the Democratic Republic of Congo contain great biodiversity, including many rare and endemic species, such as both species of chimpanzee: the common chimpanzee and the bonobo (also known as the Pygmy Chimpanzee), mountain gorilla, okapi (found only in Congo), and white rhino. The animals to be found also include lions, leopards, elephants, giraffes, exotic birds, and many reptiles and insects.

Five of the country's national parks are listed as World Heritage Sites: the Garumba, Kahuzi-Biega, Salonga and Virunga National Parks, and the Okapi Wildlife Reserve.

Environmental issues

The civil war and resultant poor economic conditions have endangered much of this biodiversity. Many park wardens were either killed or could not afford to continue their work. Deforestation, human encroachments, and poaching are all factors affecting the wildlife.

Over the past century or so, the DRC has developed into the center of what has been called the Central African "bushmeat" problem, which is regarded by many as a major environmental, as well as socio-economic crisis. "Bushmeat" is another word for the meat of wild animals. It is typically obtained through trapping, usually with wire snares, or otherwise with shotguns or arms originally intended for use in the DRC's numerous military conflicts.

The "bushmeat crisis" has emerged in the DRC mainly as a result of the poor living conditions of the Congolese people. A rising population combined with deplorable economic conditions has forced many Congolese to become dependent on bushmeat, either as a means of acquiring income (hunting the meat and selling), or are dependent on it for food. Unemployment and urbanization throughout Central Africa have exacerbated the problem further by turning cities like the urban sprawl of Kinshasa into the prime market for bushmeat.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the only country in the world in which bonobos (Pygmy chimpanzees) are found in the wild.

Hunting has been facilitated by the extensive logging prevalent throughout the Congo's rainforests, which allows hunters much easier access to previously unreachable jungle terrain, while simultaneously eroding habitats. Due to violent instability, most rainforests in the DRC were left alone by commercial logging, but the return of a relative peace has brought a renewed interest in logging.

History

Early history

The first inhabitants of the region now known as Congo were the Pygmies, hunter-gatherers who once lived through the Congo River Basin but later retreated into the forests and mountains in the east. About four thousand years ago, the early Bantu-speaking farmers started moving into the coastal area from the north, and that population became more dense as the migration continued, leading to the formation of chiefdoms and kingdoms. The Kongo Kingdom emerged in the thirteenth century and was the first to encounter Europeans.

Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo River in 1482, followed in 1491 by Roman Catholic missionaries, who were welcomed by the Kongo king. Shipments of slaves to America, particularly Brazil, also began. Arab slave traders had also found their way into Congo from the east. Though cannibalism had existed in isolated societies before then, the devastation of rural Congo wrought by the slave trade made it much more common and widespread.

But the interior remained mysterious to Europeans, who were blocked by the formidable cataracts that the river flowed through on its final two hundred miles. Two priests had managed to make their way past that point, but their reports were buried and it was not until the early nineteenth century that further attempts were made. By the 1880s, British trading firms were dealing in ivory, copper, and palm oil, and British and American missionaries were active.

The Congo Free State (1885 – 1908)

A Congolese farming village is emptied and leveled to make way for a rubber plantation.

European exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. The first was Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his later explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. The Congo territory was acquired formally by Leopold at the Conference of Berlin in 1885. He made the land his private property and named it the Congo Free State. Though Leopold began various development projects, such as the railway that ran from the coast to Leopoldville (now Kinshasa)), nearly all these projects were aimed at increasing the capital Leopold and his cohorts could extract from the colony. The selling of rubber made a fortune for Leopold.

Between 1885 and 1908, about ten million Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation and diseases. A government commission later concluded that the population of the Congo had been "reduced by half" during this brutal period. To enforce the rubber quotas, the Force Publique (FP) was called in, an army created to terrorize the local population. The FP, for example, cut off the hands of those who did not fulfill rubber quotas. Eventually there were international protests, spearheaded mainly by British reformer Edmund D. Morel and British diplomat/Irish patriot Roger Casement, as well as by famous writers such as Mark Twain. Joseph Conrad's novella Heart of Darkness also takes place in Congo Free State.

In 1908, the Belgian parliament, which was at first reluctant, bowed to international pressure (especially from Great Britain) and took the Free State as a Belgian colony. From then on, it became the Belgian Congo.

Belgian Congo (1908 – 1960)

Once the Belgian government took over the Congo, the situation improved slightly. Economic and social changes transformed the Congo into a model colony. Select Bantu languages were taught in primary schools, a rare occurrence in colonial education. Doctors and medics achieved great victories against African trypanosomiasis, commonly known as sleeping sickness. Railways, ports, roads, mines, plantations, industrial areas, etc. were constructed.

The Congolese, however, lacked political power and lived in an apartheid-like society where all decisions were made in Leopoldville and Brussels. The Belgian authorities had absolute power. Resistance against this lack of democracy grew, and in 1955, the upper class, the so-called évolués, initiated a campaign to end the inequality.

Political crises (1960-1965)

Shortly before independence, in May 1960, the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), led by Patrice Lumumba, won the parliamentary elections. Lumumba was appointed prime minister. Joseph Kasavubu was elected president by the parliament.

The Belgian Congo achieved independence on June 30, 1960, as the Republic of Congo. Shortly afterward, the provinces of Katanga (with Moise Tshombe) and South Kasai engaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership. Subsequent events led to a crisis between President Kasavubu and Prime Minister Lumumba. Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from office, but Lumumba declared his action "unconstitutional."

Lumumba had previously appointed Joseph Mobutu chief of staff of the new Congo army. Taking advantage of the leadership crisis, Mobutu garnered enough support within the army to inspire a mutiny, with financial support from the United States and Belgium, whose aversion to communism influenced them to finance Mobutu's quest to maintain "order." In January 1961, Katangan forces assassinated Lumumba. Amid widespread confusion, several short-lived governments took over in quick succession.

Zaire (1971 – 1997)

Following five years of extreme instability and civil unrest, Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, now a lieutenant general, overthrew Kasavubu in a coup. He had U.S. support because of his staunch opposition to communism. A one-party system was established, and Mobutu declared himself head of state. He would occasionally hold elections in which he was the only candidate.

Relative peace and stability were achieved; however, Mobutu's government was accused of human rights violations, repression, a cult of personality, and excessive corruption.

In an effort to spread African consciousness, starting on June 1, 1966, Mobutu renamed the nation's cities (Léopoldville became Kinshasa, Stanleyville became Kisangani, and Elisabethville became Lubumbashi). In 1971, he renamed the country the Republic of Zaire, its fourth name change in eleven years and its sixth overall. The Congo River became the Zaire River. In 1972, Mobutu renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, U.S. relations with Kinshasa cooled, as Mobutu was no longer deemed a necessary Cold War ally, and his opponents stepped up demands for reform. This atmosphere contributed to Mobutu's declaring the Third Republic in 1990, whose constitution was supposed to pave the way for democratic reform. The reforms turned out to be largely cosmetic, and Mobutu's rule continued until conflict forced him to flee in 1997. The name of the nation was changed to Congo, since the name Zaire carried strong connections to Mobutu.

Conflict and transition (1996 – present)

Since 1994, the Congo has been rent by ethnic strife and civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees fleeing the Rwandan genocide. The government of Mobutu was toppled in May 1997 by a rebellion led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila, who changed the country's name back to Democratic Republic of Congo-Kinshasa. His former allies soon turned against him, however, and his regime was challenged by a Rwandan and Ugandan-backed rebellion in August 1998. Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan intervened to support the new regime in Kinshasa.

File:Monuc peacekeepers.jpg

UN peacekeepers to the DRC in 2005

A cease-fire was signed in July 1999; nevertheless, fighting continued, especially in the eastern part of the country. Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 and his son Joseph Kabila was named head of state. The new president quickly began overtures to end the war, and an accord was signed in South Africa in 2002. By late 2003, a fragile peace prevailed as the transitional government]] was formed.

This period of conflict has been the bloodiest in history since World War II. Almost four million people have died as a result of the fighting.

On July 30, 2006, the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. Kabila took 45 percent of the votes and his main opponent, Jean-Pierre Bemba, took 20 percent. That was the origin of a two-day fight between the two factions from August 20,, 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa. Sixteen people died before police and the UN mission, MONUC, took control of the city.

A second round of elections between the two leading candidates, Kabila and Bemba, was held on October 29, 2006. Rioters destroyed polling stations in Congo's east and electoral officials organized a revolt over burned ballots in the north. Despite that, the presidential vote was called a success. Both Kabila and Bemba assured that they would respect the result, but Bemba's militants have begun riots in opposition of the decision by the Supreme Court that will legitimise Kabila's 58%-42% winning result on the run-off. Bemba has argued for his supporters to stop fighting the government and vowed to take his seat as an official opposition leader.

Politics

The government is a republic with executive power vested in the president, who is head of state. The cabinet is appointed by the ruling party in the parliament. The prime minister is elected by the parliament.

The 500-member lower house of parliament was elected in July 30, 2006 national elections. Provincial Assemblies elected the Senate in October 29, 2006 elections. The Senate elected provincial governors.

Constitution: June 24, 1967; amended August 1974; revised February 15, 1978; amended April 1990; transitional constitution promulgated April 1994; Constitutional Act promulgated May 1997; draft constitution proposed but not finalized March 1998; transitional constitution adopted on April 2, 2003. A new constitution was passed by the transitional parliament on May 2005. The D.R.C. held a constitutional referendum on December 18-19, 2005. Official results indicated that 84% of voters approved the constitution. The new constitution was promulgated in a ceremony on February 18, 2006.

Branches: Executive—President is head of state. Judicial—Supreme Court (Cour Supreme). Administrative subdivisions: Ten provinces and the capital city, Kinshasa. Political parties: President Joseph Kabila’s party is Parti du Peuple pour la Reconstruction et le Developpement (PPRD). Two main coalitions represent President Kabila and his presidential run-off challenger, former Transitional Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba. Other opposition parties include Union pour la Democratie et le Progres Social (UDPS), Forces du Futur (FDF), Forces Novatrices pour l'Union et la Solidarite (FONUS), Parti Democrate Social Chretien (PDSC), Mouvement Social Democratie et Developpement (MSDD), Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution—Fait Prive (MPR-FP), Union des Nationalistes et des Federalistes Congolais (UNAFEC), and Mouvement National Congolais/ Lumumba (MNC/L). Former rebel movements-turned-political parties include the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie (RCD), Mouvement pour la Liberation du Congo (MLC), and independent splinter groups of the RCD (RCD-ML, RCD-N). Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory A transitional constitution was adopted on April 2, 2003; a new constitution was promulgated February 2006. Extensive executive, legislative, and military powers are vested in the president. The legislature does not have the power to overturn the government through a vote of no confidence. The judiciary is nominally independent; the president has the power to dismiss and appoint judges. The president is head of a 35-member cabinet of ministers.

President Joseph Kabila has made significant progress in liberalizing domestic political activity, establishing a transitional government, and undertaking economic reforms in cooperation with the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF). However, serious human rights problems remain in the security services and justice system. The eastern part of the country is characterized by ongoing violence and armed conflict, which has created a humanitarian disaster and contributed to civilian deaths (more than 3.8 million, according to a prominent international non-governmental organization). MONUC continues to play an important peacekeeping role in the D.R.C., and in October 2004, its authorized force strength increased to 16,700.

On July 30, 2006 the D.R.C. held its first free, democratic, multi-party elections in more than 40 years. The D.R.C.’s 25 million registered voters were charged with electing a president (from a field of 33 candidates) and 500 deputies to the National Assembly (out of a total of 9,709 candidates). Despite some unexpected technical and logistical difficulties, coupled with isolated incidents of violence and intimidation, the elections were held in a largely calm and orderly fashion. Voter turnout nationwide was high, particularly in the eastern provinces, compared to the December 2005 constitutional referendum.

The Independent Electoral Commission (CEI) on August 20, 2006 announced official provisional results from the July 30 presidential elections. According to CEI figures, incumbent Joseph Kabila won 44.81% of the votes cast versus Vice President Jean-Pierre Bemba’s 20.3%. As no candidate won a majority of votes in the first round and in accordance with the country’s electoral law, the top two recipients, Kabila and Bemba faced off in a second round of balloting. Threats to the D.R.C.’s transitional process were marked by military clashes in Kinshasa just hours after provisional election results were announced. This crisis was exclusively confined to central Kinshasa in the Gombe area and was essentially a clash between Vice President Bemba and President Kabila’s militias. The runoff presidential elections were held on October 29, 2006. On November 27, 2006 the Congolese Supreme Court declared President Kabila the winner over Vice President Bemba by a margin of 58% to 42%. Kabila was inaugurated on December 6, 2006.

Voters in July 2006 also chose from among 9,709 legislative candidates to fill 500 seats in the National Assembly, representing 169 electoral districts. Approximately one-third of these districts elected one deputy by a simple majority. The rest were multiple-seat districts, ranging from two representatives to a maximum of 17 (in one of Kinshasa’s voting districts). In these areas, deputies were chosen by proportional representation using open party lists. To select the winners in multiple-seat districts, all valid votes cast were first divided according to political party. Next, an “electoral quotient” was determined by dividing the number of votes cast by the number of representatives to be elected. Finally, the number of votes a party received was divided by this “electoral quotient” to determine how many seats the party will win. The candidates ultimately elected are those who received the highest number of votes within their particular party lists. National Assembly deputies will also serve five-year terms and there is no restriction on the number of times they can be re-elected.

After four years of interim between two constitutions that established different political institutions at the various levels of all branches of government, as well as different administrative divisions of the country, politics in the Democratic Republic of Congo is settling into a stable presidential democratic republic.

The transitional constitution established a system composed of a bicameral legislature with a Senate and a National Assembly. The Senate, among other things, is in charge of drafting the new constitution. The executive branch is vested in a sixty-member cabinet, headed by a pentarchy of a president and four vice presidents. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The unusual organization of the executive — considering the large number of vice presidents — has earned it the very official nickname of "The 1 + 4."

The transition constitution also established a relatively independent judiciary, headed by a Supreme Court with constitutional interpretation powers.

to be updatedThe 2006 constitution, also known as the Constitution of the Third Republic, came into effect in February 2006. It has concurrent authority, however, with the transitional constitution until the inauguration of the elected officials who [will emerge] from the [July 2006] elections. Under this constitution, the legislature will remain bicameral; the executive will be concomitantly undertaken by a President and the government; and the latter will be led by a Prime Minister, appointed from the party with the majority at the National Assembly. The government – not the President – is responsible to the Parliament.

The provincial governments will gain new powers, under the new decentralized model, with the creation of provincial parliaments, with oversight over the Governor, head of the provincial government, whom they elect.

The new constitution also sees the disappearance of the Supreme Court, which is divided into three new institutions. The constitutional interpretation prerogative of the Supreme Court will be held by the Constitutional Court.

Administrative divisions

File:Provinces de la République démocratique du Congo - 2005.svg

A new provincial map of Democratic Republic of Congo.

The Congo is divided into eleven provinces, including Kinshasa):

1. Kinshasa
2. Province Orientale
3. Kasaï Oriental
4. Kasaï Occidental
5. Maniema
6. Katanga
7. Sud-Kivu
8. Nord-Kivu
9. Bas-Congo
10. Équateur
11. Bandundu

The provinces are divided into districts and then subdivided into territories.

Economy

The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo — a nation endowed with vast potential wealth — has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The two recent conflicts (the First and Second Congo Wars), which began in 1996, have dramatically reduced national output and government revenue, have increased external debt, and have resulted in the deaths from war, famine, and disease of perhaps 3.8 million people. Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict, lack of infrastructure, and the difficult operating environment. The war intensified the impact of such basic problems as an uncertain legal framework, corruption, inflation, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations.

Malnutrition affects approximately two-thirds of the country's population. Conditions improved in late 2002 with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops. A number of International Monetary Fund and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Joseph Kabila has begun implementing reforms. Much economic activity lies outside the GDP data.

Congo has significant deposits of tantalum, which is used in the fabrication of electronic components used in computers and mobile phones.

Demographics

The population was estimated at 56.6 million in 2003, growing quickly from 46.7 million in 1997. As many as 250 ethnic groups have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the Kongo, Luba, and Mongo. Although seven hundred local languages and dialects are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of French and the intermediary languages Kongo, Tshiluba, Swahili, and Lingala.

About 80 percent of the Congolese population are Christian, predominantly Roman Catholic. Among the largest Protestant churches are: Anglican Church of Congo, Église des Frères mennonites, Église du Christ au Congo.

Muslims constitute 10 percent of the population. The religion was first brought to the country by traders from East Africa.

Most of the non-Christians adhere to either traditional religions or syncretic sects. Traditional religions embody such concepts as monotheism, animism, vitalism, spirit and ancestor worship, witchcraft, and sorcery and vary widely among ethnic groups. The syncretic sects often merge Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals. The most popular of these sects, Kimbanguism, was seen as a threat to the colonial regime and was banned by the Belgians. Kimbanguism, officially "the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet Simon Kimbangu," now has about three million members, primarily among the Bakongo of Bas-Congo and Kinshasa.

Languages

Major Bantu languages in the Congo.

An estimated total of 242 languages are spoken in the DRC, but only 4 have the status of national languages: Kongo, Lingala, Tshiluba, and Swahili. French is also an official language. It is meant to be a neutral language, to ease communication among the different ethnic groups.

When the country was a Belgian colony, the four national languages were already being used in primary schools, which makes the country one of the few to have had literacy in local languages during the occupation by Europeans.

Culture

The culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo reflects the diversity of its hundreds of ethnic groups and their differing ways of life throughout the country — from the mouth of the Congo River on the coast, upriver through the rainforest and savanna in its center, to the more densely populated mountains in the far east. Since the late nineteenth century, traditional ways of life have undergone changes brought about by colonialism, the struggle for independence, the stagnation of the Mobutu era, and most recently, the First and Second Congo Wars. Despite these pressures, the customs and cultures of the Congo have retained much of their individuality.

The country's 60 million inhabitants are mainly rural. The 30 percent who live in urban areas have been the most open to Western influences.

Cuisine

A typical meal in a Congolese home contains a starch (varying by region), some vegetable, and fish or meat when available. The starches are based on such staples as corn, cassava, plantains, rice, beans, and sweet potatoes. Fish is more likely to be part of the diet near waterways. Insects (particularly certain types of ants, crickets, grasshoppres and caterpillars) serve as an alternative source of protein. The vegetables served include those that grow wild.

Clothing

In ancient times, women commonly wore a raffia or bead skirt, which has generally been replaced by a wrap that covers the body from the waist down, with a top of the same material. Men, too, traditionally wore a piece of raffia cloth around their waist, before adopting pants in modern times. During the Mobutu dictatorship, ties and jackets were banned and Mao-style shirts were imposed as the national dress for men. Tody men commonly wear a Congolese version of the West African dashiki.

Adornment of the body took various forms, including scarification and elaborate coiffures. Both men and women wore adornments for their hair, such as combs, hairpins, hat pins, and hats.

Art and architecture

Most traditional art incorporates a human motif, including statues of ancestor figures or spirits that were invoked for protection or divination. Sometimes only the faces were portayed. Masks were used throughout the Congo for special ceremonies.

Modern popular art revolves around the two main cities: Kinshasa, the political and commercial capital, and Lubumbashi, the mining center. Patrice Lumumba is often portrayed as a national hero. Other themes are village life in precolonial times or historical narration of events.

Houses in rural Congo reflect the landscape in the material used (forest or savanna, for example), custom (circular or rectangular, with or without a veranda), and the status of the occupant.

Music

Another notable feature in Congo culture is its sui generis music. The DRC has blended its ethnic musical sources with Cuban rumba and meringue to give birth to Soukous. Influential figures of Soukous and its offshoots (N'dombolo, Rumba Rock) are Franco Luambo, Tabu Ley, Lutumba Simaro, Papa Wemba, Koffi Olomide, Kanda Bongo, Ray Lema, Mpongo Love, Abeti Masikini, Reddy Amisi, Pepe Kalle, and Nyoka Longo.

Africa produces music genres that are direct derivatives of Congolese Soukous. Some of the African bands sing in Lingala, the main language in the DRC. The same Congolese Soukous, under the guidance of "le sapeur" Papa Wemba, has set the tone for a generation of young guys who dress in expensive designer clothing.

Sources and Further reading

• Wrong, Michela. 2001. In the footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: living on the brink of disaster in Mobutu's Congo. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0060188804 and ISBN 9780060188801
• Hochschild, Adam. 1998. King Leopold's Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395759242 and ISBN 9780395759240
• Nest, Michael Wallace, François Grignon, and Emizet F. Kisangani. 2006. The Democratic Republic of Congo: economic dimensions of war and peace. International Peace Academy occasional paper series. Boulder, Colo: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1588262332 and ISBN 9781588262332
• Human Rights Watch (Organization). 2005. The curse of gold: Democratic Republic of Congo. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1564323323 and ISBN 9781564323323
• Mukenge, Tshilemalema. 2002. Culture and Customs of the Congo. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313314853
• Gondola, Ch. Didier. 2002. The History of Congo. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313316961
• Edgerton, Robert B. 2002. The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312304862

External links

Democratic Republic of the Congo Portal

Prehistory

• September 30, 2006. République Démocratique du Congo. African Archaelogy-French Language. Retrieved April 14, 2007.

News

• Bureau of Consular Affairs. March 23, 2007. CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE. United States Department of State. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
• Nordland, Rod. November 13, 2006. More Vicious Than Rape. Newsweek World News. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
• Koinange, Jeff. May 26, 2006. Rape, brutality ignored to aid Congo peace. Cable News Network World. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
• June 02, 2006. CNN Exclusive: DR Congo President Joseph Kabila interviewed about mass rapes in the Kivus. Jewels in the Jungle. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
• Mwepu, Francis. Ituri: Congo's Savage Conflict Defeats Free Elections. Environment News Service. Retrieved April 14, 2007.

Overviews

• BBC. Country Profile. Retrieved May 4, 2007.
• Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2006. U.S. State Department. [3] Retrieved May 4, 2007.
• March 15, 2007. Congo, Democratic Republic of the. The World Factbook. Retrieved April 14, 2007.
• December 31, 2006. A Synopsis of Political and Armed Parties in the Democratic Repunlic of Congo. SaferAccess. Retrieved April 14, 2007.

Culture

• Nevember 10, 2006. DRC Congolese literature at a glance Reading Women Writers and African Literatures. Retrieved April 15, 2007.

Other

• January 19, 2007. Congo Looks Towards Democracy. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Retrieved April 16, 2007.
• February 11, 2007. Blogging on the Congo, Africa. The Salon. Retrieved April 16, 2007.
• 'Child Alert: Democratic Republic of Congo'. Child Alert. Retrieved April 16, 2007.
• Congo Main cities of Congo. Turbomaps. Retrieved April 16, 2007.
• 1993-2007. Democratic Republic of the Congo. Microsoft. Retrieved April 16, 2007.

Geographic locale

Countries of Central Africa

Burundi • Central African Republic • Chad • Democratic Republic of the Congo • Rwanda

Countries of Africa

Sovereign states
Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Comoros · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt¹ · Equatorial Guinea · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea-Bissau · Guinea · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Morocco · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Spain² · Sudan · Swaziland · São Tomé and Príncipe · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Zambia · Zimbabwe

Dependencies  |  Unrecognized
British Indian Ocean Territory (UK) · French Southern and Antarctic Lands (France) · Mayotte (France) · Réunion (France) · St. Helena³ (UK)  |  Puntland · Somaliland · Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

¹ Partly in Asia.  ² Mostly in Europe.  ³ Includes the dependencies of Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha.

Member states of the African Union

Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Equatorial Guinea · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Sudan · Swaziland · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Western Sahara (SADR) · Zambia · Zimbabwe

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

• Democratic Republic of the Congo  ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

• History of "Democratic Republic of the Congo"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.