Names of God in Judaism

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At the bottom of the hands, the two letters on each hand combine to form יהוה (YHWH), the name of God.

An early depiction of the Tetragrammaton - circa 600 B.C.E. Portion of writing on silver scroll with the "Priestly Benediction" (Numbers 6:24-26)

Portion of column 19 of the Psalms Scroll (Tehilim) from Qumran Cave 11. The Tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew can be clearly seen six times in this portion.

The Tetragrammaton in Phoenician (1100 B.C.E. to AD 300), Aramaic (10th Century B.C.E. to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts.

In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title. It represents the Jewish conception of the divine nature, and of the relation of God to the Jewish people. To show the sacredness of the names of God, and as a means of showing respect and reverence for them, the scribes of sacred texts took pause before copying them, and used terms of reverence so as to keep the true name of God concealed. The various names of God in Judaism represent God as he is known, as well as the divine aspects which are attributed to him.

The numerous names of God have been a source of debate amongst biblical scholars. Some have advanced the variety as proof that the Torah has many authors (see documentary hypothesis), while others declare that the different aspects of God have different names, depending on the role God is playing, the context in which God is referred to, and the specific aspects which are emphasized (see Negative theology in Jewish thought). This is akin to how a person may be called by: his first name, 'Dad', 'Captain', 'Honey', 'Sir', etc. depending on the role being played, and who is talking.

Names of God

The Tetragrammaton

The most important and most often written name of God in Judaism is the Tetragrammaton, the four-letter name of God as YHWH or, in modern English, Yahweh. "Tetragrammaton" derives from the Greek prefix tetra- ("four") and gramma ("letter"). By some counts, the Tetragrammaton appears 6828 times in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible. This name is first mentioned in Genesis 2:4.

In English language Bibles YHWH is traditionally translated as "The Lord." Babbinical Judaism forbids pronouncing the name outside the Temple in Jerusalem. Because the original Hebrew texts only included consonants, the correct pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton may have been lost. Some conjecture that it was pronounced as "Yahweh" or something similar, but others suggest that it never had a pronunciation. However, it is found as an element in numerous Hebrew names such as the first syllable in Joshua or Jesus or the last syllable Elijah, Isiaiah, etc. The Hebrew letters are named Yod-Heh-Vav-Heh—יהוה—written right to left and transliterated in English as YHWH, YHVH, or JHVH.

In appearance, YHWH is the third person singular imperfect of the verb "to be," meaning, literally, "He is." This agrees with the meaning of the name given in Exodus 3:14, where God is represented as speaking, and gives his name in the first person—"I am."

The translation of YHWH as "Jehovah" was created by using adding the vowel points of "Adonai." Early Christian translators of the Torah were apparently unaware in Jewish tradition, these vowel points only served to remind the reader not to pronounce the divine name, but instead say "Adonai," (Lord). These translated took the letters "IHVH," from the Latin Vulgate version of the Bible, plus the vowels "a-o-a," rendering the word as "Iehovah" in sixteenth century English, which later became "Jehovah."

Pronouncing the tetragrammaton

Judaism generally teaches that the four-letter name of God, YHWH, not to be uttered except by the High Priest in the Temple. However, there are notably exception, especially in kabbalistic tradition. However, the name is never said in traditional Jewish religious rituals. Orthodox and Conservative Jews never pronounce it for any reason. Some non-Orthodox Jews are willing to pronounce it for educational purposes only.

Substituting Adonai for YHWH apparently dates back at least to the third century B.C.E. However, passages such as:

"And, behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto the reapers, YHWH [be] with you. And they answered him, YHWH bless thee" (Ruth 2:4)

indicate that there was a time when the name was in common usage. Moreover, the Book of Genesis indicates that the patriarchs dating back to the time of Seth "called upon the Name of YHWH."

Hashem

It is common Jewish practice to restrict the use even of the word Adonai to prayer only. In conversation, many Orthodox Jewish people will call God Hashem, which is Hebrew for "the Name" (see Leviticus 24:11).

While other names of God in Judaism are generally restricted to use in a liturgical context, Hashem is thus used in more casual circumstances. ample, this pattern is used during all prayers in the movie Ushpizin.

Other names of God

Adonai

Jews also call God Adonai, Hebrew for "Lord" (Hebrew: אֲדֹנָי). Formally, this is plural ("my Lords"), but the plural is usually construed as a respectful, and not a syntactic plural. (The singular form is Adoni, "my lord." This was used by the Phoenicians for the god Tammuz and is the origin of the Greek name Adonis. Jews only use the singular to refer to a distinguished person.)

Since pronouncing YHWH is considered sinful, Jews use Adonai instead in prayers, and colloquially would use Hashem ("the Name"). When the Masoretes added vowel pointings to the text of the Hebrew Bible around the eighth century CE, they gave the word YHWH the vowels of Adonai, to remind the reader to say Adonai instead.

The Sephardi translators of the Ferrara Bible go further and substitute Adonai with A.

El

The word El appears in other northwest Semitic languages such as Phoenician and Aramaic. In Akkadian, ilu is the ordinary word for god. It is also found in Old South Arabian and in Amharic/Ethiopian, and, as in Hebrew, it is often used as an element in proper names. In northwest Semitic texts it often appears to be used of one single god, perhaps the head of the pantheon, sometimes specifically said to be the creator.

El (Hebrew: אל) is used in both the singular and plural, both for other gods and for the God of Israel. As a name of God, however, it is used chiefly in poetry and prophetic discourse, rarely in prose, and then usually with some epithet attached, as "a jealous God." Other examples of its use with some attribute or epithet are: El `Elyon ("Most High God"), El Shaddai ("God Almighty"), El `Olam ("Everlasting God"), El Hai ("Living God"), El Ro'i ("God of Seeing"), El Elohe Israel ("God, the God of Israel"), El Gibbor ("God of Strength"). In addition, names such as Gabriel ("Strength of God"), Michael ("He Who is Like God"), Raphael ("God's medicine") and Daniel ("God is My Judge") and Israel ("one who has struggled with God") use God's name in a similar fashion.

Elohim

A common name of God in the Hebrew Bible is Elohim (Hebrew: אלהים); as opposed to other names mentioned in this article, this name also describes gods of other religions.

Despite the -im ending common to many plural nouns in Hebrew, the word Elohim, when referring to God is grammatically singular, and takes a singular verb in the Hebrew Bible. The word is identical to the usual plural of el meaning a god or magistrate, and is cognate to the 'lhm found in Ugaritic, where it is used for the pantheon of Canaanite Gods, the children of El and conventionally vocalized as "Elohim" although the original Ugaritic vowels are unknown. When the Hebrew Bible uses elohim not in reference to God, it is plural (for example, Exodus 20:3). There are a few other such uses in Hebrew, for example Behemoth. In Modern Hebrew, the singular word ba'alim ("owner") looks plural, but likewise takes a singular verb.

Another popular explanation comes from the interpretation of El to mean "power"; Elohim is thus the plural construct "powers." Hebrew grammar allows for this form to mean "He is the Power (singular) over powers (plural)," just as the word Ba'alim means "owner" (see above). "He is lord (singular) even over any of those things that he owns that are lordly (plural)."

Other scholars interpret the -im ending as an expression of majesty (pluralis majestatis) or excellence (pluralis excellentiae), expressing high dignity or greatness: compare with the similar use of plurals of ba`al (master) and adon (lord). For these reasons many Trinitarians cite the apparent plurality of elohim as evidence for the basic Trinitarian doctrine of the Trinity. This was a traditional position but modern Christian theologians now largely accept that this is an exegetical fallacy.^{[citation needed]}

Theologians who dispute this claim, cite the hypothesis that plurals of majesty came about in more modern times. Richard Toporoski, a classics scholar, asserts that plurals of majesty first appeared in the reign of Diocletian (284-305 C.E.)¹. Indeed, Gesenius states in his book Hebrew Grammar ² the following:

The Jewish grammarians call such plurals … plur. virium or virtutum; later grammarians call them plur. excellentiae, magnitudinis, or plur. maiestaticus. This last name may have been suggested by the we used by kings when speaking of themselves (compare 1 Maccabees 10:19 and 11:31); and the plural used by God in Genesis 1:26 and 11:7; Isaiah 6:8 has been incorrectly explained in this way). It is, however, either communicative (including the attendant angels: so at all events in Isaiah 6:8 and Genesis 3:22), or according to others, an indication of the fullness of power and might implied. It is best explained as a plural of self-deliberation. The use of the plural as a form of respectful address is quite foreign to Hebrew.

The plural form ending in -im can also be understood as denoting abstraction, as in the Hebrew words chayyim ("life") or betulim ("virginity"). If understood this way, Elohim means "divinity" or "deity." The word chayyim is similarly syntactically singular when used as a name but syntactically plural otherwise.

The Hebrew form Eloah (אלוה, which looks as though it might be a singular form of Elohim) is comparatively rare, occurring only in poetry and late prose (in the Book of Job, 41 times). What is probably the same divine name is found in Arabic (Ilah as singular "a god," as opposed to Allah meaning "The God" or "God") and in Aramaic (Elaha). This unusual singular form is used in six places for heathen deities (examples: 2 Chronicles 32:15; Daniel 11:37, 38;). The normal Elohim form is also used in the plural a few times, either for gods or images (Exodus 9:1, 12:12, 20:3; and so forth) or for one god (Exodus 32:1; Genesis 31:30, 32; and elsewhere). In the great majority of cases both are used as names of the one God of Israel.

The root-meaning of the word is unknown. One theory is that it may be connected with the old Arabic verb alih ("to be perplexed, afraid; to seek refuge because of fear"). Eloah, Elohim, would, therefore, be "He who is the object of fear or reverence," or "He with whom one who is afraid takes refuge." Another theory is that it is derived from the Semitic root "uhl" meaning "to be strong." Elohim then would mean "the all-powerful One," based on the usage of the word "el" in certain verses to denote power or might (Genesis 31:29, Nehemiah 5:5).

In many of the passages in which Elohim occurs in the Bible it refers to non-Israelite deities, or in some instances to powerful men or judges, and even angels (Exodus 21:6, Psalms 8:5).

¹R. Toporoski, "What was the origin of the royal "we" and why is it no longer used?," (The Times, May 29, 2002. Ed. F1, p. 32)
²Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar (A. E. Cowley, ed., Oxford, 1976, p.398)

`Elyon

The name `Elyon (Hebrew: עליון) occurs in combination with El, YHWH or Elohim, and also alone. It appears chiefly in poetic and later Biblical passages. The modern Hebrew adjective "`Elyon" means "supreme" (as in "Supreme Court") or "Most High." El Elyon has been traditionally translated into English as 'God Most High'. The Phoenicians used what appears to be a similar name for God, Έλιον. It is cognate to the Arabic `Aliyy.

Shaddai

Shaddai was a late Bronze Age Amorite city on the banks of the Euphrates river, in northern Syria. The site of its ruin-mound is called Tell eth-Thadyen: "Thadyen" being the modern Arabic rendering of the original West Semitic "Shaddai." It has been conjectured that El Shaddai was therefore the "god of Shaddai" and associated in tradition with Abraham, and the inclusion of the Abraham stories into the Hebrew Bible may have brought the northern name with them (see Documentary hypothesis).

In the vision of Balaam recorded in the Book of Numbers 24:4 and 16, the vision comes from Shaddai along with El. In the fragmentary inscriptions at Deir Alla, though Shaddai is not, or not fully present, shaddayin appear, less figurations of Shaddai. These have been tentatively identified with the ŝedim of Deuteronomy 34:17 and Psalm 106:37-38, who are Canaanite deities.

According to Exodus 6:2, 3, Shaddai is the name by which God was known to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The name Shaddai (Hebrew: שַׁדַּי) is used as a name of God later in the Book of Job.

In the Septuagint and other early translations Shaddai was translated with words meaning "Almighty." The root word "shadad" (שדד) means "to overpower" or "to destroy." This would give Shaddai the meaning of "destroyer" as one of the aspects of God. Thus it is essentially an epithet. Harriet Lutzky has presented evidence that Shaddai was an attribute of a Semitic goddess, linking the epithet with Hebrew šad "breast" as "the one of the Breast," as Asherah at Ugarit is "the one of the Womb".

Another theory is that Shaddai is a derivation of a Semitic stem that appears in the Akkadian shadû ("mountain") and shaddā`û or shaddû`a ("mountain-dweller"), one of the names of Amurru. This theory was popularized by W. F. Albright but was somewhat weakened when it was noticed that the doubling of the medial d is first documented only in the Neo-Assyrian period. However, the doubling in Hebrew might possibly be secondary. In this theory God is seen as inhabiting a mythical holy mountain, a concept not unknown in ancient West Asian mythology (see El), and also evident in the Syriac Christian writings of Ephrem the Syrian, who places Eden on an inaccessible mountaintop.

An alternative view proposed by Albright is that the name is connected to shadayim which means "breasts" in Hebrew. It may thus be connected to the notion of God’s fertility and blessings of the human race. In several instances it is connected with fruitfulness: "May God Almighty [El Shaddai] bless you and make you fruitful and increase your numbers…" (Gen. 28:3). "I am God Almighty [El Shaddai]: be fruitful and increase in number" (Gen. 35:11). "By the Almighty [El Shaddai] who will bless you with blessings of heaven above, blessings of the deep that lies beneath, blessings of the breasts [shadayim] and of the womb [racham]" (Gen. 49:25).

It is also given a Midrashic interpretation as an acronym standing for "Guardian of the Doors of Israel" (Hebrew: שׁוֹמֶר דְלָתוֹת יִשְׂרָאֶל). This acrony, which is commonly found as carvings or writings upon the mezuzah (a vessel which houses a scroll of parchment with Biblical text written on it) that is situated upon all the door frames in a home or establishment.

Still another view is that "El Shadai" is comprised of the Hebrew relative pronoun She (Shin plus vowel segol),or as in this case as Sha (Shin plus vowel patach followed by a dagesh),cf. A Beginner's Handbook to Biblical Hebrew, John Marks and Virgil Roger, Nashville:Abingdon, 1978 "Relative Pronoun, p.60, par.45) The noun containing the dagesh is the Hebrew word Dai meaning "enough,sufficient, sufficiency" (cf. Ben Yehudah's Pocket English-Hebrew/Hebrew-English,New York, NY:Pocket Books, Simon & Schuster Inc.,1964,p.44). This is the same word used in Judaism' celebration of the Passover using the song "Dai, Dai, Eynu" or "It would have been sufficient." That song celebrates the various miracles God performed while extricating the Hebrews from Egyptian servitude. It is understood as such by The Stone Edition of the Chumash (Torah) published by the Orthodox Jewish publisher Art Scroll, editors Rabbi Nosson Scherman/Rabbi Meir Zlotowitz, Brooklyn, New York: Mesorah Publications,Ltd. 2nd edition, 1994, cf. Exodus 6:3 commentary p.319. It is often paraphrased in English translations as "Almighty" although this is an interpretive element. The name then refers to the pre-Mosaic patriarchal understanding of deity as "God who is sufficient." God is sufficient, that is, to supply all of one's needs, and therefore by derivation "almighty." It may also be understood as an allusion to the singularity of deity "El" as opposed to "Elohim" plural being sufficient or enough for the early patriarchs of Judaism. To this was latter added the Mosaic conception of YHWH as God who is sufficient in Himself,thatis,a self-determined eternal Being qua Being,for whom limited descriptive names cannot apply. This may have been the probable intent of "eyeh asher eyeh" which is by extension applied to YHWH (a likely anagram for the three states of Being past, present and future conjoined with the conjunctive letter vav), cf. Exodus 3:13-15.

Shalom

Shalom ("Peace"; Hebrew: שלום)

The Talmud says "the name of God is 'Peace'" (Pereq ha-Shalom, Shab. 10b), (Judges 6:24); consequently, one is not permitted to greet another with the word shalom in unholy places such as a bathroom (Talmud, Shabbat, 10b). The name Shlomo, "His peace" (from shalom, Solomon, שלומו), refers to the God of Peace. Shalom can also mean "hello" and "goodbye."

Shekhinah

Shekhinah (Hebrew: שכינה) is the presence or manifestation of God which has descended to "dwell" among humanity. The term never appears in the Hebrew Bible; later rabbis used the word when speaking of God dwelling either in the Tabernacle or amongst the people of Israel. The root of the word means "dwelling." Of the principal names of God, it is the only one that is of the feminine gender in Hebrew grammar. Some believe that this was the name of a female counterpart of God, but this is unlikely as the name is always mentioned in conjunction an article (e.g.: "the Shekhina descended and dwelt among them" or "He removed Himself and His Shekhina from their midst"). This kind of usage does not occur in Semitic languages in conjunction with proper names.

The Arabic form of the word "Sakina سكينة" is also mentioned in the Quran.This mention is in the middle of the narrative of the choice of Saul to be king and is mentioned as descending with the ark of the covenant here the word is used to mean "security" and is derived from the root sa-ka-na which means dwell:

And (further) their Prophet said to them: "A Sign of his authority is that there shall come to you the Ark of the Covenant, with (an assurance) therein of security from your Lord, and the relics left by the family of Moses and the family of Aaron, carried by angels. In this is a Symbol for you if ye indeed have faith."

Yah

The name Yah is composed of the first two letters of YHWH. It appears often in names, such as Elijah. The Rastafarian Jah is derived from this, as well as the expression Hallelujah. For the root of Yah see http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Yah+egypt+tour

YHWH Tzevaot/Sabaoth

The name YHWH and the title Elohim frequently occur with the word tzevaot or sabaoth ("hosts" or "armies," Hebrew: צבאות) as YHWH Elohe Tzevaot ("YHWH God of Hosts"), Elohe Tzevaot ("God of Hosts"), Adonai YHWH Tzevaot ("Lord YHWH of Hosts") or, most frequently, YHWH Tzevaot ("YHWH of Hosts"). This name is traditionally transliterated in Latin as Sabaoth, a form that will be more familiar to many English readers, as it was used in the King James Version of the Bible.

This compound divine name occurs chiefly in the prophetic literature and does not appear at all in the Pentateuch, Joshua or Judges. The original meaning of tzevaot may be found in 1 Samuel 17:45, where it is interpreted as denoting "the God of the armies of Israel." The word, apart from this special use, always means armies or hosts of men, as, for example, in Exodus 6:26, 7:4, 12:41, while the singular is used to designate the heavenly host.

The Latin spelling Sabaoth combined with the large, golden vine motif over the door on the Herodian Temple (built by the Idumean Herod the Great) led to identification by Romans with the god Sabazius. In Christianity this title is translated as "God of the Universe".^{[citation needed]}

The name Sabaoth is also associated with a demi-god in the gnostic scriptures of the Nag Hammadi Text; he is the son of Yaltabaoth.

Eight Names of God

In medieval times, God was sometimes called The Seven. Among the ancient Hebrews, the seven names for the Deity over which the scribes had to exercise particular care were:

1. El
2. Elohim
3. Adonai
4. Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh
5. YHWH (i.e. Jehovah)
6. Shaddai
7. Zebaot

Lesser used names of God

• Adir — "Strong One."

• Adon Olam — "Master of the World."
• Avinu Malkeinu — "Our Father, our King."

• Boreh — "the Creator."

• Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh — "I Am That I Am": a modern Hebrew version of "Ehyeh asher Ehyeh."
• Elohei Avraham, Elohei Yitzchak ve Elohei Ya`aqov — "God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob."
• El ha-Gibbor — "God the hero" or "God the strong one."
• Emet — "Truth."
• E'in Sof — "endless, infinite," Kabbalistic name of God.
• Ro'eh Yisra'el — "Shepherd of Israel."
• Ha-Kaddosh, Baruch Hu — "The Holy One, Blessed be He."
• Kaddosh Israel — "Holy One of Israel."
• Melech ha-Melachim — "The King of Kings" or Melech Malchei ha-Melachim "King of Kings of Kings," to express superiority to the earthly rulers title.
• Makom or Hamakom — literally "the place," meaning "The Omnipresent"; see Tzimtzum.
• Magen Avraham — "Shield of Abraham."
• Ribbono shel `Olam — "Master of the World."
• YHWH-Yireh (Jehovah-jireh) — "The Lord will provide" (Genesis 22:13-14).
• YHWH-Rapha — "The Lord that healeth" (Exodus 15:26).
• YHWH-Niss"i (Yahweh-Nissi) — "The Lord our Banner" (Exodus 17:8-15).
• YHWH-Shalom — "The Lord our Peace" (Judges 6:24).
• YHWH-Ra-ah — "The Lord my Shepherd" (Psalm 23:1).
• YHWH-Tsidkenu — "The Lord our Righteousness" (Jeremiah 23:6).
• YHWH-Shammah (Jehovah-shammah) — "The Lord is present" (Ezekiel 48:35).
• Tzur Israel — "Rock of Israel."

In English

The words God and Lord (Adonai) are often written by many Jews as G-d and L-rd as a way of avoiding writing a name of God, as to avoid the risk of the sin of erasing or defacing the name. Any Hebrew name of God is forbidden to be erased. In Deuteronomy 12:3-4, the Torah exhorts one to destroy idolatry, and from here it is understood not to erase the name of God. However, since this is in English, it is often considered unnecessary since only the Hebrew name is considered God's actual name, but since God is God's name in English, it is often done out of a sign of respect and just an extra precaution. There is a dispute to the degree of holiness that the word "God" is. The common rabbinic opinion on whether this applies only to Hebrew names of God—or to the English word "God" as well—is that "God" written in any language other than Hebrew has no holiness and can be erased. So while considered unnecessary, it is still often written with a hyphen as to give the Name proper respect. It is considered necessary by some, a minhag (custom) by most, and not done at all by others. Most Orthodox Jews and many Jews in general will write G-d in this manner. The Orthodox Jewish information website, Aish.com, uses God instead of G-d. They cite the reason that many users coming to the Aish HaTorah website are unfamilar with Judaism and would be initially unfamilar with the spelling G-d, so since it is not required that G-d is written, only preferred, they do not do it. According to their website, spelling it G-d is not according to halacha (Jewish law), so according to "leading Torah scholars," non-Hebrew names can be erased.[2] Other Jewish websites, such as Chabad.org, spell it G-d, and this is the version commonly found on most Jewish publications.

British folklore

A partial coincidence with this list appears in a medieval verbal charm from British folk medicine:

† El † Elye † Sabaoth

† Adonay † Alpha † Omega † Messias

† Pastor † Agnus † Fons

Kabbalistic use

The seventy-two names.

The system of cosmology of the Kabbalah explains the significance of the names. One of the most important names is that of the En Sof אין סוף ("Infinite" or "Endless"), who is above the Sefirot.

The forty-two-lettered name contains the combined names אהיה יהוה אדוני הויה, that when spelled in letters it contains 42 letters. The equivalent in value of YHWH (spelled הא יוד הא וו = 45) is the forty-five-lettered name.

The seventy-two-lettered name is based from three verses in Exodus (14:19-21) beginning with "Vayyissa," "Vayyabo," "Vayyet," respectively. Each of the verses contains 72 letters, and when combined they form 72 names, known collectively as the Shemhamphorasch.

The kabbalistic book Sefer Yetzirah explains that the creation of the world was achieved by the manipulation of the sacred letters that form the names of God. Much in the same way, a golem is created using all permutations of God's name.

Laws of writing divine names

The Psalms in Hebrew and Latin. Manuscript on parchment, 12th century.

According to Jewish tradition, the sacredness of the divine names must be recognized by the professional scribe who writes the Scriptures, or the chapters for the tefillin and the mezuzah. Before transcribing any of the divine names he prepares mentally to sanctify them. Once he begins a name he does not stop until it is finished, and he must not be interrupted while writing it, even to greet a king. If an error is made in writing it, it may not be erased, but a line must be drawn round it to show that it is canceled, and the whole page must be put in a genizah (burial place for scripture) and a new page begun.

The tradition of seven divine names

According to Jewish tradition, the number of divine names that require the scribe's special care is seven: El, Elohim, Adonai, YHWH, Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh, Shaddai, and Tzevaot.

However, Rabbi Jose considered Tzevaot a common name (Soferim 4:1; Yer. R. H. 1:1; Ab. R. N. 34). Rabbi Ishmael held that even Elohim is common (Sanh. 66a). All other names, such as "Merciful," "Gracious," and "Faithful," merely represent attributes that are common also to human beings (Sheb. 35a).

See also

• Alaha
• Baal Shem
• Names given to the divine
• 99 Names of God in the Qur'an
• Names of God
• Ten Commandments

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Driver, S. R., W. Sanday, and John Wordsworth. "Recent Theories on the Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton", in Studies in Biblical and Patristic Criticism, or, Studia Biblica Et Ecclesiastica. Piscataway, N.J.: Gorgias Press, 2006. ISBN 1593334656
• Mansoor, Menahem. The Dead Sea Scrolls; A College Textbook and a Study Guide. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964.
• Albright, William Foxwell. The Names Shaddai and Abram. Journal of Biblical Literature, 54 (1935): 173–210
• Harris, R. Laird, Gleason Leonard Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody Press, 1980. ISBN 0802486312
• Hoffman, Joel M. In the Beginning A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: New York University Press, 2004.ISBN 0814736548
• Joffe, Laura. 2001. "THE ELOHISTIC PSALTER: WHAT, HOW AND WHY?" Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament. 15, no. 1: 142-169. ISSN 09018328
• Kearney, Richard. The God Who May Be A Hermeneutics of Religion. Indiana series in the philosophy of religion. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001. ISBN 0253339987
• Kretzmann, Paul E. Popular Commentary of the Bible The Old Testament. St. Louis: Concordia Pub. House, 1923. OCLC 4130752
• Shaller, John, "The Hidden God" in The Wauwatosa Theology, vol. 2, pp. 169-187, Milwaukee, Wis: Northwestern Pub. House, 1997. ISBN 0810007460
• Stern, David H. Jewish New Testament Commentary A Companion Volume to the Jewish New Testament. Clarksville, Md: Jewish New Testament Publications, 1992.
• Strong, James. Exhaustive concordance of the Bible. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1890. OCLC 63150837
• Tov, Emanuel. 2002. "Copying of a Biblical Scroll". Journal of Religious History. 26, no. 2: 189-209. ISSN 00224227
• Vriezen, Theodorus Christiaan. The Religion of Ancient Israel. London: Lutterworth Press, 1967. OCLC 2734424

External links

All links retrieved November 27, 2007.

• A Christian Discussion of the pronunciation of YHWH, including a new theory that explains all theophoric elements
• God's names in Jewish thought and in the light of Kabbalah
• Explanation on why not to spell out God's name.
• The Name of God as Revealed in Exodus 3:14 - an explanation of its meaning.
• Bibliography on Divine Names in the Dead Sea Scrolls
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Names of God

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