Difference between revisions of "Australasia" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:LocationAustralasia.png|thumb|250px|right|Australasia]]
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[[Image:LocationAustralasia.png|thumb|300px|right|Australasia]]
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'''Australasia''' is a term used to describe a [[region]] of [[Oceania]]. The physical countries, islands or regions that comprise Australasia vary greatly, ranging from ''Australasia(Australia and New Zealand)''<ref>''Commonwealth Encyclopedia Britanica.'' [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9056698/Oceania#57409.hook Oceania], Retrieved September 23, 2007.</ref> to ''Australasia, islands of the South Pacific, including Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and adjacent islands. The term is sometimes used to include all of Oceania (Oceania, in fact, contains four major traditions: Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Australia.).''<ref> Australasia. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Retrieved September 22, 2007, from Answers.com Web site: http://www.answers.com/topic/australasia</ref> The most common and widely accepted definition for Australasia is [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and the island of [[New Guinea]], which consist of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and Papua Barat (formerly West Irian Jaya) and the independent country of [[Papua New Guinea]].
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'''Australasia''' is a term used to describe a region within [[Oceania]]. The physical countries, islands or regions that comprise Australasia vary greatly depending upon the sources cited. The most commonly used include:
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* the nations of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]
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The term was coined by [[Charles de Brosses]] in ''Histoire des navigations aux terres australes'' ([[1756]]). He derived it from the [[Latin language|Latin]] for "south of [[Asia]]" and differentiated the area from [[Polynesia]] (to the east) and the southeast Pacific (''[[Magellanica]]''). It is also distinct from [[Micronesia]] (to the northeast).
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* islands of the [[South Pacific]], including Australia, New Zealand, [[New Guinea]], and adjacent islands  
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* all of Oceania including the regions of [[Polynesia]], [[Melanesia]], [[Micronesia]], and Australia
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:However, the most common and widely accepted definition for Australasia is  
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::*Australia
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::*New Zealand  
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::*the island of New Guinea, which consist of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and Papua Barat (formerly West Irian Jaya) and the independent country of [[Papua New Guinea]].
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{{toc}}
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The term was coined by Charles de Brosses in ''Histoire des navigations aux terres australes'' (1756). He derived it from the Latin for "south of [[Asia]]" and differentiated the area from [[Polynesia]] (to the east) and the southeast Pacific (''Magellanica''). It is also distinct from [[Micronesia]] (to the northeast). Although de Brosses grouped the region together using a singular term, the isolation of the main areas has resulted in several separate and unique islands or areas within the region he called Australasia.
  
 
==Physical geography==
 
==Physical geography==
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Physiographically, Australasia includes the Australian landmass (including [[Tasmania]]), New Zealand, and [[New Guinea]]. The independant country of Papua New Guinea also includes approximately 600 offshore islands.  
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[[Image:Map_of_Australia.png|200px|thumb|right|Map of Australia.]]
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[[Image:New_guinea_map.png|200px|right|thumb|Map of New Guinea. ]]
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[[Image:New_Zealand_map.PNG|200px|right|thumb|Map of New Zealand. ]]
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Physiographically, Australasia includes the [[Australia]]n landmass (including [[Tasmania]]), [[New Zealand]], and [[New Guinea]]. The independent country of [[Papua New Guinea]] also includes approximately 600 offshore islands.  
  
 
===Australia===
 
===Australia===
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[[Image:Map_of_Australia.png|200px|right|Map of Australia. ]]
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The name "Australia" is derived from the Latin ''Australis,'' meaning "of the South." Most of [[Australia]] lies on the southern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, flanked by the [[Indian Ocean]] to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. Peripheral territories lie on the Eurasian Plate to the northwest, the Philippine Plate to the north, and in the [[Pacific Ocean]] – including numerous marginal seas – atop the Pacific Plate to the north and east. Australia has a total landmass of 3,074,740 square mile (7,686,850 square kilometer) on the Indo-Australian Plate, slightly smaller than the contiguous 48 states of the [[United States]], and 15,970 miles (25,760 kilometers) of coastline. Tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of [[Gondwana]]. Much of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Only the southeast and southwest corners of the continent have a temperate climate and moderately fertile [[soil]]. As the majority of Australia is [[desert]] or semi-arid, erosion has heavily weathered its surface, resulting it one of the flattest countries in the world. Australia also has the oldest and least fertile soils, and is the driest inhabited continent.
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[[Image:New_guinea_map.png|200px|right|Map of New Guinea. ]]
 
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[[Image:New_Zealand_map.PNG|200px|right|Map of New Zealand. ]]
 
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The name "Australia" is derived from the Latin Australis, meaning "of the South". Most of Australia lies on the southern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, flanked by the [[Indian Ocean]] to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. Peripheral territories lie on the Eurasian Plate to the northwest, the Philippine Plate to the north, and in the Pacific Ocean – including numerous marginal seas – atop the Pacific Plate to the north and east. Australia has a total landmass of 7,686,850 square kilometer (3,074,740 square mile) on the Indo-Australian Plate, slightly smaller than the contiguous 48 states of the United States, and 25,760 kilometers (15,970 miles) of coastline. Tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Much of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Only the southeast and southwest corners of the continent have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil.   The majority of Australia is desert or semi-arid erosion has heavily weathered Australia's surface, resulting it one of the flattest countries in the world. Australia also has the oldest and least fertile soils, and is the driest inhabited continent.
 
  
 
===New Guinea===
 
===New Guinea===
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"Nueva Guinea" was the original name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545. He noted the resemblance of the people to those he had seen earlier along the Guinea coast of Africa. The name was later anglacised to New Guinea.
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"Nueva Guinea" was the original name coined by the Spanish explorer [[Yñigo Ortiz de Retez]] in 1545. He noted the resemblance of the people to those he had seen earlier along the [[Guinea]]n coast of [[Africa]]. The name was later anglicized to ''New Guinea.''
  
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New Guinea's landmass is about 309,000 square miles (800,000 square km). The island of New Guinea is part of the Australian Plate, known as Sahul, and once formed part of the super-continent Gondwana. Sahul separated from Antarctica about 96 million years ago after Gondwana began to break up approximately 140 million years ago. New Guinea moved into the tropics, as it drifted north. The origin of most New Guinean and Australian fauna are closely linked.
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[[New Guinea]]'s landmass is about 309,000 square miles (800,000 square km). The island of New Guinea is part of the Australian Plate, known as Sahul, and once formed part of the super-continent Gondwana. Sahul separated from [[Antarctica]] about 96 million years ago after Gondwana began to break up (approximately 140 million years ago). New Guinea moved into the tropics as it drifted north. The origin of most New Guinean and Australian fauna are closely linked.
  
 
===New Zealand===
 
===New Zealand===
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The name "New Zealand" originated from Dutch cartographers, who originally named the islands ''Nova Zeelandia'', after the Dutch province of Zeeland. James Cook, the British explorer, subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.
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The name "New Zealand" originated from [[Netherlands|Dutch]] cartographers, who originally named the islands ''Nova Zeelandia,'' after the Dutch province of Zeeland. [[James Cook]], the British explorer, subsequently anglicized the name to [[New Zealand]].
  
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New Zealand consists of two main islands, North Island and South Islands, (Te-Ika-a-Maui and Te Wai Pounamu in Māori) and a number of smaller islands. The total landmass is 268,680 square kilometres (103,738 sq mi), with approximately 15,134 km (9,404 mi) of coastline. The larger South Island is divided along its length by the Southern Alps, with Aoraki/Mount Cook at 3754 metres (12,320 ft) its highest peak. The North Island is less mountainous, but is marked by volcanism including the active Mount Ruapehu (2797 m / 9177 ft).  
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New Zealand consists of two main islands, North Island and South Island, (Te-Ika-a-Maui and Te Wai Pounamu in Māori) and a number of smaller islands. The total landmass is 103,738 sq miles (268,680 square km), with approximately 9,404 miles (15,134 km) of coastline. The larger South Island is divided along its length by the Southern Alps, with Aoraki/Mount Cook at 12,320 ft (3754 meters) its highest peak. The North Island is less mountainous, but is marked by volcanism including the active Mount Ruapehu (2797 m / 9177 ft).  
  
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New Zealand is part of the continent of Zealandia which is 93% submerged and approximately half the size of Australia. Approximately 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements pulled Zealandia apart.
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New Zealand is part of the continent of Zealandia which is 93 percent submerged and approximately half the size of Australia. Approximately 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements pulled Zealandia apart.
  
 
==Human geography==
 
==Human geography==
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[[Geopolitics|Geopolitically]], Australasia is most often used as a term for Australia and New Zealand together, in the absence of another word limited to those two countries. There are many organizations whose names are prefixed with "(Royal) Australasian Society" that are limited to just Australia and New Zealand. [[Image:Australasian Olympic Flag.svg|thumb|100px|Australasian Olympic Flag]]In the past, Australasia has been used as a name for combined Australia/New Zealand sporting teams. Examples include tennis between 1905 and 1913, when Australia and New Zealand combined its best players to compete in the Davis Cup international tournament (and won it in 1907, 1908, 1909 and 1911). Australasia also competed at the Summer Olympic Games of 1908, where they earned 1x GOLD (Rugby Union), 2 x SILVER and 2 x BRONZE medals, and again at the 1912 Summer Olympic Games, where they earned 2 x GOLD (Both Swimming), 3 x SILVER and 3 x BRONZE medals.
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[[Geopolitics|Geopolitically]], Australasia is most often used as a term for Australia and New Zealand together, in the absence of another word limited to those two countries. There are many organizations whose names are prefixed with "(Royal) Australasian Society" that are limited to just Australia and New Zealand.  
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[[Image:Australasian Olympic Flag.svg|thumb|left|200px|Australasian Olympic Flag]]
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Anthropologists, although disagreeing on details, generally support theories that call for a Southeastern Asian origin of indigenous island peoples in Australasia and neighboring subregions.
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In the past, Australasia has been used as a name for combined Australia/New Zealand sporting teams. Examples include tennis between 1905 and 1913, when Australia and New Zealand combined its best players to compete in the Davis Cup international tournament (and won it in 1907, 1908, 1909 and 1911). Australasia also competed at the Summer [[Olympic Games]] of 1908, where they earned 1x GOLD (Rugby Union), 2 x SILVER and 2 x BRONZE medals, and again at the 1912 Summer Olympic Games, where they earned 2 x GOLD (both swimming), 3 x SILVER and 3 x BRONZE medals.
  
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The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.<ref>Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. Radiocarbon 44:455–72 </ref> These first Australians were the current Indigenous Australians (Aborigines) ancestors. They were mostly hunter-gatherers and arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day South-East Asia.
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[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]], although disagreeing on details, generally support theories that call for a Southeastern Asian origin of indigenous island peoples in Australasia and neighboring subregions. The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.<ref>R. Gillespie, "Dating the first Australians" ''Radiocarbon'' 44 (2002): 455–472. </ref> These first Australians were the current Indigenous Australians' (Aborigines) ancestors. They were mostly [[hunter-gatherer]]s and arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day [[Southeast Asia]].
  
 
==Ecological geography==
 
==Ecological geography==
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[[Image:Australasia.png|thumb|The Australasia Ecozone]]
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[[Image:Australasia.png|thumb|250px|The Australasia Ecozone]]
  
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The '''Australasian ecozone''' is an [[ecozone|ecological region]] that is coincident, but not synonymous (by some definitions), with the [[geography|geographic]] [[region]] of [[Australasia]]. The ecozone includes [[Australia]], the island of [[New Guinea]] (including [[Papua New Guinea]] and the [[Indonesia]]n province of [[Papua (Indonesia)|Papua]]), and the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago, including the island of [[Sulawesi]], the Moluccan islands (the Indonesian provinces of [[Maluku]] and [[North Maluku]]) and islands of [[Lombok]], [[Sumbawa]], [[Sumba]], [[Flores]], and [[Timor]], often known as the Lesser Sundas. The Australasian ecozone also includes several Pacific island groups, including the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], [[Vanuatu]], the [[Solomon Islands]], and [[New Caledonia]]. [[New Zealand]] and its surrounding islands are a distinctive sub-region of the Australasian ecozone. The rest of Indonesia is part of the [[Indomalaya]]n ecozone.  
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The '''Australasian ecozone''' is an [[ecology|ecological]] region that is coincident, but not synonymous (by some definitions), with the geographic region of Australasia. The ecozone includes [[Australia]], the island of [[New Guinea]] (including [[Papua New Guinea]] and the [[Indonesia]]n province of Papua), and the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago, including the island of Sulawesi, the Moluccan islands (the Indonesian provinces of Maluku and North Maluku) and islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, [[Sumba]], [[Flores]], and [[Timor]], often known as the Lesser Sundas. The Australasian ecozone also includes several Pacific island groups, including the Bismarck Archipelago, [[Vanuatu]], the [[Solomon Islands]], and [[New Caledonia]]. [[New Zealand]] and its surrounding islands are a distinctive sub-region of the Australasian ecozone. The rest of Indonesia is part of the Indomalayan ecozone.  
  
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From a biological point of view, Australasia is a distinct region with a common evolutionary history and a great many unique plants and animals, some of them common to the entire area, others specific to particular parts but sharing a common ancestry. The long isolation of Australasia from other continents allowed it to evolve relatively independently, and makes it home to many unique families of plants and animals.
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From a [[biology|biological]] point of view, Australasia is a distinct region with a common evolutionary history and a great many unique [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s, some of them common to the entire area, others specific to particular parts but sharing a common ancestry. The long isolation of Australasia from other continents allowed it to evolve relatively independently, which makes it home to many unique families of plants and animals.
  
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Australia and New Guinea are distinguished by their [[marsupial]] [[mammal]]s, including [[kangaroo]]s, [[possum]]s, and [[wombat]]s. The last remaining [[monotreme]] mammals, the [[echidna]]s and the [[platypus]], are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to Australasia. Prior to the arrival of humans about 50,000 years ago, only about one-third of Australasian mammal species were [[placental]].  
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Australia and New Guinea are distinguished by their [[marsupial]] [[mammal]]s, including [[kangaroo]]s, [[possum]]s, and [[wombat]]s. The last remaining [[monotreme]] mammals, the [[echidna]]s and the [[platypus]], are endemic to Australasia. Prior to the arrival of [[human]]s about 50,000 years ago, only about one-third of Australasian mammal species were placental.  
  
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The boundary between Australasia and Indomalaya follows the [[Wallace Line]], named after the naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] who noted the differences in mammal and bird fauna between the islands either side of the line. The Islands to the west of the line, including [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Bali]], [[Borneo]], and the [[Philippines]] share a similar fauna with East Asia, including [[tiger]]s, [[rhinoceros]], and [[ape]]s. During the [[ice age]]s, sea levels were lower, exposing the continental shelf that links these islands to one another and to Asia, and allowed Asian land animals to inhabit these islands. Similarly, Australia and New Guinea are linked by a shallow continental shelf, and were linked by a land bridge during the ice ages. A group of Australasian islands east of the Wallace line, including Sulawesi, Halmahera, Lombok, Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, and Timor, is separated by deep water from both the southeast Asian continental shelf and the Australia-New Guinea continental shelf. These islands are called [[Wallacea]], and contain relatively few Australian or Asian mammals. While most land mammals found it difficult to cross the Wallace Line, many plant, bird, and reptile species were better able to make the crossing.
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The boundary between Australasia and Indomalaya follows the Wallace Line, named after the naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] who noted the differences in mammal and [[bird]] fauna between the islands either side of the line. The Islands to the west of the line, including [[Java]], [[Bali]], [[Borneo]], and the [[Philippines]] share a similar fauna with [[East Asia]], including [[tiger]]s, [[rhinoceros]], and [[ape]]s. During the [[ice age]]s, sea levels were lower, exposing the continental shelf that links these islands to one another and to [[Asia]], and allowed Asian land animals to inhabit these islands. Similarly, Australia and New Guinea are linked by a shallow continental shelf, and were linked by a land bridge during the ice ages. A group of Australasian islands east of the Wallace Line, including Sulawesi, Halmahera, Lombok, Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, and Timor, is separated by deep water from both the southeast Asian continental shelf and the Australia-New Guinea continental shelf. These islands are called Wallacea, and contain relatively few Australian or Asian mammals. While most land mammals found it difficult to cross the Wallace Line, many plant, bird, and [[reptile]] species were better able to make the crossing.
  
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Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia are all portions of the ancient supercontinent of [[Gondwana]], which started to break into smaller continents in the [[Cretaceous]] era, 130-65 million years ago. New Zealand broke away first, more than 80 million years ago, and Australia finally broke free from [[Antarctica]] about 45 million years ago. All the Australasian lands are home to the [[Antarctic flora]], descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including the [[conifer|coniferous]] [[podocarpaceae|podocarps]] and ''[[Araucaria]]'' pines, and the broadleafed [[southern beech]] (''Nothofagus''), and proteas (''[[Proteaceae]]'').
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Australia, New Zealand, and [[New Caledonia]] are all portions of the ancient supercontinent of [[Gondwana]], which started to break into smaller continents in the [[Cretaceous]] era, 130-65 million years ago. New Zealand broke away first, more than 80 million years ago, and Australia finally broke free from [[Antarctica]] about 45 million years ago. All the Australasian lands are home to the Antarctic flora, descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including the [[conifer|coniferous]] podocarps and ''Araucaria'' [[pine]]s, and the broadleafed southern beech (''Nothofagus''), and proteas (''Proteaceae'').
  
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As Australia moved north into the desert latitudes, the continent became hotter and drier, and the soils poorer and leached of nutrients, causing the old Antarctic flora to retreat to the humid corners of the continent in favor new drought and fire tolerant flora, dominated by the ''[[Eucalyptus]],[[casuarinaceae|Casuarina]]'', and ''[[Acacia]]'' trees, and by grasses and scrub where the rainfall was too scarce to support trees. Presently Australia is the smallest continent, and also the driest continent and the flattest (lowest in elevation) continent.
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As Australia moved north into the desert latitudes, the continent became hotter and drier, and the soils poorer and leached of nutrients, causing the old Antarctic flora to retreat to the humid corners of the continent in favor of new drought and fire tolerant flora, dominated by the ''[[Eucalyptus]], Casuarina,'' and ''[[Acacia]]'' trees, and by grasses and scrub where the [[rain]]fall was too scarce to support trees. Presently Australia is the smallest continent, and also the driest continent and the flattest (lowest in elevation) continent.
  
 
===Geology===
 
===Geology===
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The present distribution of Australasian plants and animals is partially a result of the geologic history of its land masses. Several of the land masses in the ecoregion are fragments of the ancient continent of [[Gondwana]], while a number of smaller islands are of more recent volcanic or tectonic origin, and were never part of Gondwana.
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The present distribution of Australasian [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s is partially a result of the geologic history of its land masses. Several of the land masses in the ecoregion are fragments of the ancient continent of [[Gondwana]], while a number of smaller islands are of more recent volcanic or tectonic origin, and were never part of Gondwana.
  
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New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania, collectively known as [[Australia-New Guinea]], '''Sahul''', or '''Meganesia''', are connected by a shallow continental shelf, and together form the largest fragment of [[Gondwana]]. The shallow continental shelf that presently separates the islands has served as a land bridge when sea levels were lower, most recently during the last [[ice age]]. New Guinea shares many families of birds and marsupial mammals with Australia. As the [[Indo-Australian Plate]], which contains India, Australia, and the [[Indian Ocean]] floor in between, moved north, it collided with the [[Eurasian Plate]], and the collision of the two plates pushed up the [[Himalayas]], the Indonesian islands, and New Guinea's Central Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorial [[glacier]]s. New Guinea and Wallacea are part of the humid tropics, and many Indomalayan rainforest plants spread across the narrow straits from Asia, mixing together with the old Australian and Antarctic floras. Some botanists consider New Guinea and Wallacea to be part of the [[floristic province]] of '''[[Malesia]]''', together with the other Indonesian islands and the [[Malay Peninsula]], although Malesia is now mostly used to refer to only the Indomalayan side of the Wallace Line.
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New Guinea, Australia, and [[Tasmania]], collectively known as Australia-New Guinea, '''Sahul''', or '''Meganesia''', are connected by a shallow continental shelf, and together form the largest fragment of Gondwana. The shallow continental shelf that presently separates the islands has served as a land bridge when sea levels were lower, most recently during the last [[ice age]]. New Guinea shares many families of birds and marsupial mammals with Australia. As the Indo-Australian Plate, which contains [[India]], Australia, and the [[Indian Ocean]] floor in between, moved north, it collided with the Eurasian Plate, and the collision of the two plates pushed up the [[Himalayas]], the Indonesian islands, and New Guinea's Central Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorial [[glacier]]s. New Guinea and Wallacea are part of the humid tropics, and many Indomalayan [[rainforest]] plants spread across the narrow straits from [[Asia]], mixing together with the old Australian and Antarctic floras. Some botanists consider New Guinea and Wallacea to be part of the floristic province of '''Malesia''', together with the other Indonesian islands and the [[Malay Peninsula]], although Malesia is now mostly used to refer to only the Indomalayan side of the Wallace Line.
  
 
New Zealand and New Caledonia are the other former fragments of Gondwana in the region.
 
New Zealand and New Caledonia are the other former fragments of Gondwana in the region.
  
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The island groups north and east of New Guinea and New Caledonia, including [[Bismarck Archipelago]], [[Admiralty Islands]], [[Solomon Islands]] and [[Vanuatu]], were pushed up by the collision of the Australian plate with other oceanic plates. These islands, collectively known as the [[East Melanesian Islands]], were colonized by plants and some animals from New Guinea and New Caledonia, and are considered part of the Australasian ecozone based on those affinities. Further north and east are the Pacific island groups of [[Micronesia]], [[Fiji]], and [[Polynesia]], which are also of relatively recent volcanic origin, and constitute the separate [[Oceania ecozone]], although they share many ecological affinities with Australasia.
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The island groups north and east of New Guinea and New Caledonia, including [[Bismarck Archipelago]], [[Admiralty Islands]], [[Solomon Islands]] and [[Vanuatu]], were pushed up by the collision of the Australian plate with other oceanic plates. These islands, collectively known as the East Melanesian Islands, were colonized by plants and some animals from New Guinea and New Caledonia, and are considered part of the Australasian [[ecozone]] based on those affinities. Further north and east are the Pacific island groups of [[Micronesia]], [[Fiji]], and [[Polynesia]], which are also of relatively recent volcanic origin, and constitute the separate Oceania ecozone, although they share many ecological affinities with Australasia.
  
 
===Fauna===
 
===Fauna===
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Bats were the only mammals of New Zealand until the arrival of humans. Birds adapted to ecological niches, such as grazers, insectivores, and large predators that have elsewhere been taken by mammals. New Zealand remained in the cool and humid latitudes, and lost many plant and animal families that were intolerant of its cool climate, including the araucarias and most proteas, as well as [[crocodile]]s and [[turtle]]s.
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[[Bat]]s were the only mammals of New Zealand until the arrival of humans. Birds adapted to ecological niches, such as grazers, insectivores, and large predators that have elsewhere been taken by mammals. New Zealand remained in the cool and humid latitudes, and lost many plant and animal families that were intolerant of its cool climate, including the araucarias and most proteas, as well as [[crocodile]]s and [[turtle]]s.
  
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Large [[reptiles]], including crocodiles and huge [[monitor lizard]]s (family Varanidae), like the [[Komodo Dragon]] (''Varanus komodoensis''), are ecologically important predators in Australia, New Guinea, and Wallacea.
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Large [[reptile]]s, including crocodiles and huge monitor [[lizard]]s (family Varanidae), like the [[Komodo Dragon]] (''Varanus komodoensis''), are ecologically important predators in Australia, New Guinea, and Wallacea.
  
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There are 13 endemic [[bird]] families, including [[emu]]s, [[cassowary|cassowaries]], [[kiwi]], [[kagu]], [[cockatoo]]s, [[birds of paradise]], and [[honeyeater]]s
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There are 13 endemic [[bird]] families, including [[emu]]s, cassowaries, kiwi, kagu, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and honeyeaters.
  
 
===Human impact===
 
===Human impact===
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The arrival of humans to Australia and New Guinea 50-60,000 years ago brought [[dog]]s ([[dingo]]s) to Australia, and dogs and [[pig]]s to New Guinea. Pigs and [[rat]]s arrived on New Zealand with the first [[Polynesia]]n settlers 800 years ago. The arrival of the first humans coincided with the extinction of much of the native [[megafauna]] (see [[Holocene extinction event]]). The arrival of Europeans brought a whole host of new animals and plants, including [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[rabbit]]s and [[fox|foxes]], to Australasia, which have further disrupted the native ecologies; a great many Australasian plants and animals are presently endangered.
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The arrival of humans to Australia and New Guinea 50-60,000 years ago brought [[dog]]s (dingos) to Australia, and dogs and [[pig]]s to New Guinea. Pigs and [[rat]]s arrived on New Zealand with the first [[Polynesia]]n settlers 800 years ago. The arrival of the first humans coincided with the extinction of much of the native megafauna ([[Holocene]] extinction event). The arrival of Europeans brought a whole host of new animals and plants, including [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[rabbit]]s and [[fox|foxes]], to Australasia, which have further disrupted the native ecologies; a great many Australasian plants and animals are presently endangered.
  
 
==Economics==
 
==Economics==
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Au
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Most of Australasia has a prosperous, Western-style mixed economy, with relatively high per capita GDPs and substantial [[natural resource]]s including [[bauxite]], [[coal]], [[iron ore]], [[copper]], [[tin]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[uranium]], [[nickel]], [[tungsten]], mineral sands, [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[diamond]]s, [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]], and [[limestone]]. Although the other economies are flourishing, in March 2006 the United Nations Committee for Development Policy recommended that Papua New Guinea's designation of developing country to be downgraded to least-developed country because of protracted economic and social stagnation.  
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Australia has a prosperous, Western-style mixed economy, with a per capita GDP slightly higher than those of the UK, Germany and France in terms of purchasing power parity. The country was ranked third in the United Nations' 2006 Human Development Index and sixth in The Economist worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. The absence of an export-oriented manufacturing industry has been considered a key weakness of the Australian economy. More recently, rising prices for Australia's commodity exports and increasing tourism have made this criticism less relevant. Nevertheless, Australia has the world's fourth largest current account deficit in absolute terms (in relative terms it is more than 7% of GDP). This is considered problematic by some economists, especially as it has coincided with the high terms of trade and low interest rates that make the cost of servicing the foreign debt low.[34]
 
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The Hawke Government started the process of economic reform by floating the Australian dollar in 1983, and partially deregulating the financial system.[35] The Howard government has continued the process of microeconomic reform, including a partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry.[36] The indirect tax system was substantially reformed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% Goods and Services Tax, which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that characterises Australia's tax system.
 
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As of January 2007, there were 10,033,480 people employed, with an unemployment rate of 4.6%.[37] Over the past decade, inflation has typically been 2–3% and base interest rates 5–6%. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69% of GDP.[38] Agriculture and natural resources comprise 3% and 5% of GDP but contribute substantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets include Japan, China, the US, South Korea and New Zealand.[39]
 
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NZ
 
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New Zealand has a modern, prosperous, [[developed economy]] with an estimated [[GDP]] of $106 billion ([[As of 2006|2006]]). The country has a high [[standard of living]] with GDP per capita estimated at $26,000.<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/nz.html CIA: NZ]</ref> It has also been measured in other forms, including being ranked 20th on the 2006 [[Human Development Index]] and 15th in ''[[The Economist]]'s'' 2005 world-wide quality-of-life index.<ref name="Economist QoL">{{cite web |url=http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf |title=The Economist Intelligence Unit's quality-of-life index |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-03-13 |work=The World in 2005 |publisher=[[The Economist]] |pages=4}}</ref>. In addition the 2007 [[Mercer Quality of Living Survey]] ranked Auckland on its 5th place and Wellington on the 12th place in the world.<ref>[http://www.mercerhr.com/referencecontent.jhtml?idContent=1128060 Highlights from the 2007 Quality of Living Survey]</ref>
 
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The [[Tertiary sector of industry|tertiary sector]] is the largest sector in the economy (67.6% of GDP), followed by the [[Secondary sector of industry|secondary sector]] (27.8% of GDP) and the [[Primary sector of industry|primary sector]] (4.7% of GDP).<ref name="CIA"/>
 
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New Zealand is a country heavily dependent on trade, particularly in agricultural products, and exports account for almost 28% of its [[Output (economics)|output]].<ref name="CIA"/> This makes New Zealand particularly vulnerable to international commodity prices and global [[Recession|economic slowdowns]]. Its principal export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry. These make up about half of the country's exports. Its major export partners are Australia 21.4%, US 14.1%, Japan 10.6%, China 5.1%, UK 4.7% (2005).<ref name="CIA"/>
 
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Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy. Tourism contributes $12.8 billion (or 8.9%) to New Zealand’s total GDP and supports nearly 200,000 full-time equivalent jobs (9.9% of the total workforce in New Zealand).<ref>Key Tourism Statistics http://www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/6A3DA5F7-2CAD-4618-B610-EFC861876A8F/23069/KeyTourismStatisticsAug2007.pdf</ref> Tourists to New Zealand are expected to increase at a rate of 4% annually over the next 6 years.<ref>2007 - 2013 Tourism Forecasts Summary http://www.tourismresearch.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/6A3DA5F7-2CAD-4618-B610-EFC861876A8F/23070/SummaryForecasts.pdf</ref>
 
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===Recent economic history===
 
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Historically New Zealand enjoyed a high standard of living which relied on its strong relationship with the United Kingdom, and the resulting stable market for its commodity exports. New Zealand's economy was also built upon on a narrow range of primary products, such as wool, meat and dairy products. High demand for these products - such as the [[New Zealand wool boom]] of 1951 created sustained periods of economic prosperity. However, in 1973 the United Kingdom joined the [[European Community]] which effectively ended this particularly close economic relationship between the two countries. During the 1970's other factors such as the [[oil shock|oil crises]] undermined the viability of the New Zealand economy; which for periods before 1973 had achieved levels of living standards exceeding both Australia and Western Europe.<ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/NR/rdonlyres/BFAF3D1F-F28C-4F32-97F4-B2D94F0BDCD5/69631/3_308_StandardOfLiving_Comparison.pdf 1966 Encyclopedia of New Zealand - standard of living comparison table]</ref>
 
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But these events led to a protracted and very severe [[economic crisis]], during which living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand was the lowest in per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank. <ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n16_v46/ai_15779198 Up from down under; National Review article]</ref>
 
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Since 1984, successive governments have engaged in major [[macroeconomic]] restructuring, transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist and regulated economy to a liberalised [[free-trade]] economy. These changes are commonly known as [[Rogernomics]] and [[Ruthanasia]] after [[Finance Minister (New Zealand)|Finance Ministers]] [[Roger Douglas]] and [[Ruth Richardson]]. A recession began after the [[Black Monday (1987)|1987 share market crash]] and this and the reforms caused unemployment to reach 10% in the early 1990s. However the economy recovered and New Zealand’s unemployment rate is now the second lowest of the twenty-seven OECD nations with comparable data (3.7%)<ref>[http://www.stats.govt.nz/top-20-stats.htm 20 most requested statistics]</ref>.
 
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The current government's economic objectives are centred on pursuing free-trade agreements and building a "[[knowledge economy]]". In 2004, the government began discussing a free trade agreement with the [[People's Republic of China]], one of the first countries to do so. Ongoing economic challenges for New Zealand include a current account deficit of 8.5% of GDP<ref>[http://www.stats.govt.nz/products-and-services/media-releases/balance-of-payments-intl-investment-position/balance-payments-international-investment-position-mar07qtr-mr.htm Annual Current Account Deficit Narrows]</ref>, slow development of non-commodity exports and tepid growth of labour productivity. New Zealand has experienced a series of "[[brain drain]]s" since the 1970s<ref>Davenport, Sally. "[http://www.sntnet.or.kr/jsps/theme/data/answer.pdf Panic and panacea: brain drain and science and technology human capital policy]" ''Research Policy'' 33 (2004) 617 – 630. Accessed [[2007-04-24]].</ref> as well educated youth left permanently for Australia, Britain or the United States. "Kiwi lifestyle" and family/[[whanau]] factors motivates some of the expatriates to return, while career, culture, and economic factors tend to be predominantly 'push' components, keeping these people overseas.<ref>Duncan J.R. Jackson et al. "Exploring the Dynamics of New Zealand's Talent Flow" ''New Zealand Journal of Psychology'' Vol. 34, 2005; Inkson, K. et al, "The New Zealand Brain Drain: Expatriate views." ''University of Auckland Business Review'' (2004). 6(2), 29-39.</ref> In recent years, however, a reverse brain drain brought in educated professionals from poor countries, as well as Europe, as permanent settlers.<ref> R. Winkelmann, "The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s" ''The International Migration Review'' (2000). 34:33-58; Bain (2006) p. 44.</ref>
 
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NG
 
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Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by rugged terrain, the high cost of developing infrastructure, serious law and order problems and the system of land title, which makes identifying the owners of land for the purpose of negotiating appropriate agreements problematic. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for 85% of the population. [[Mineral]] deposits, including [[Petroleum|oil]], [[copper]], and [[gold]], account for 72% of export earnings. Former Prime Minister [[Mekere Morauta|Sir Mekere Morauta]] tried to restore integrity to state institutions, stabilize the [[Papua New Guinea Kina|kina]], restore stability to the national budget, privatize public enterprises where appropriate, and ensure ongoing peace on [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]] following the 1997 agreement which ended Bougainville's secessionist unrest. The Morauta government had considerable success in attracting international support, specifically gaining the backing of the [[IMF]] and the [[World Bank]] in securing development assistance loans. Significant challenges face the current Prime Minister [[Michael Somare|Sir Michael Somare]], including gaining further investor confidence, continuing efforts to privatize government assets, and maintaining the support of members of Parliament. The third quarter (September, 2004) Reserve Bank Report by the Governor of Bank of PNG showed positive economic stance by the Government, with inflation at zero. However, in March 2006 the United Nations Committee for Development Policy called for Papua New Guinea's designation of developing country to be downgraded to least-developed country because of protracted economic and social stagnation.
 
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Natural resources: bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, gold, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, mineral sands, lead, zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleum 
 
  
 +
The absence of export-oriented manufacturing industries throughout the area has been considered a key weakness of the Australasian economy; however rising prices for the regions commodity exports and increasing tourism have minimized the effect of this lack of export manufacturing. Large current account deficit, in relation to the GDP, are common throughout the area. The service sector of the economy, including [[tourism]], [[education]], and financial services, comprises 69 percent of GDP.
  
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Natural resources: natural gas, iron ore, sand, coal, timber, hydropower, gold, limestone 
+
Australasia is a region heavily dependent on trade, particularly in [[mineral]]s and [[agriculture|agricultural]] products with tourism also playing a significant role in the region's economy. Unlike most of the regions natural resources, access to Papua New Guinea's resources has been hampered by rugged terrain, the high cost of developing infrastructure and serious [[Crime|law and order]] problems.
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Natural resources: gold, copper, silver, natural gas, timber, oil, fisheries''
 
  
 
==Demographics==
 
==Demographics==
 +
The total population of Australasia was estimated at approximately 33 million in mid-2007 with Australia accounting for just under 20.5 million. Major ethnic groups include [[Caucasian]], Asian, [[Maori]], [[Aborigine]], [[Pacific Island]]er, [[Melanesia]]n, Papuan, [[Negrito]], [[Micronesia]]n, [[Polynesia]]n  and [[Indonesia]]n. Life expectancy at birth ranges from 65.6 years in New Guinea to 80.6 years in Australia. Literacy at 15 years of age ranges from 99 percent in Australia and New Zealand to 57.3 percent in Papua New Guinea with Western New Guineas literacy rate at 90.4 percent.
  
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The total population of Australasia was estimated at approximately 33 million in mid 2007 with Australia accounting for just under 20.5 million. Major ethnic groups include Caucasian, Asian, Maori, Pacific Islander, Melanesian, Papuan, Negrito, Micronesian, Polynesian  and Indonesian. Life expectancy at birth ranges from 65.6 years in New Guinea to 80.6 years in Australia. Literacy at 15 years of age ranges from 99% in Australia and New Zealand to 57.3% in Papua New Guinea with Western New Guineas literacy rate at 90.4%.
+
The major language of Australasia is [[English language|English]], spoken by over 20 million Australasian inhabitants, however, other major languages include Maori, Melanesian Pigin, Bahasa Indonesia, and many local dialects. Inhabitants of New Guinea alone speak over 820 different languages accounting for over ten percent of the worlds languages. In addition to English and Maori, [[Sign Language]] is one of New Zealand's official languages.  
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The major language of Australasia is English, spoken by over 20 million Australasian inhabitants, however, other major languages include Maori, Melanesian Pigin   Bahasa Indonesia, and many local dialects. Inhabitants of New Guinea alone speak over 820 different languages accounting for over 10% of the worlds languages. In addition to English and Maori, Sign Language is one of New Zealands official languages.  
 
  
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Major religious beliefs in Australasia include Catholic, Anglican, other Christian, Buddhist, Muslim, Hindu, and local indigenous beliefs.
+
Major [[religion|religious]] beliefs in Australasia include [[Catholicism]], [[Anglican Church|Anglican]], other [[Christian]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Muslim]], [[Hindu]], and local indigenous beliefs.
  
 
==Culture==
 
==Culture==
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''Since 1788, the primary basis of Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic, although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the environment and indigenous culture. Over the past 50 years, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture (particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbours. The vigour and originality of the arts in Australia — literature, cinema, opera, music, painting, theatre, dance, and crafts — have achieved international recognition.
+
As with most things in Australasia, there are many different [[culture]]s common, and often unique, to the region. These vary from the Anglo-Celtic influenced culture that has freely evolved with distinctly Australian and New Zealand features to the West Papuan culture that has been forcibly repressed under the forty years of [[Indonesia]]n rule since 1963.  
  
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Australia has a long history of visual arts, starting with the cave and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples. From the time of European settlement, a common theme in Australian art has been the Australian landscape, seen in the works of Arthur Streeton, Arthur Boyd and Albert Namatjira, among others. The traditions of indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the Dreamtime. Australian Aboriginal music, dance and art have a palpable influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. Australia has an active tradition of music, ballet and theatre; many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government's Australia Council. There is a symphony orchestra in each capital city, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, first made prominent by the renowned diva Dame Joan Sutherland; Australian music includes classical, jazz, and many popular genres.
+
In 2001, Papua Province was granted autonomy by the Indonesian government, thereby allowing the development of indigenous industries and arts venues. In March 2003, John Rumbiak, the famous West Papuan [[human rights]] investigator, cautioned that Papuan culture "''will be extinct,''" within 10 to 20 years if the present rate of assimilation in the region continues. <ref>Martin Flanagan, [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/02/26/1046064103643.html The exile who fights for the rights of all Papuans] ''The Age Company Ltd'', February 27, 2003. Retrieved October 19, 2007. </ref> The Indonesian government responded that the special autonomy arrangement specifically addresses the ongoing preservation of Papua culture, and that the transmigration program was ''"designed specifically to help the locals through knowledge transfer"''. <ref>Trini G. Sualang, [http://www.kbri-canberra.org.au/letoe/2003/030303b.htm Papua culture is not at risk] ''The Age Company Ltd'', March 3, 2003. Retrieved October 19, 2007. </ref>
 +
[[File:Ubirr rock art.JPG|thumb|right|260px|[[Rock art]] in [[Kakadu National Park]] near [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] ]]
 +
While Australian culture has a long history of visual arts, beginning with the [[cave painting|cave]] and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples, the New Zealand and New Guinea cultures have undergone distinct changes since the arrival of [[Europe]]ans; and in particular the introduction of Christianity in the early 19th century.
  
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Australian literature has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as embodied in early literature, resonates with modern Australia and its perceived emphasis on egalitarianism, mateship, and anti-authoritarianism. In 1973, Patrick White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the 20th century. Australian English is a major variety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard English.
+
Each region still has an indigenous culture that influences everyday life in the particular country. Australia has the Aboriginal culture that largely transmits their traditions orally and their traditions are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the Dreamtime. The Dreaming signifies both the ancient time of creation and the present day reality of Dreaming. There are many different groups, each with their own individual culture, belief structure, and language. These cultures have overlapped and evolved over time. The Rainbow Serpent is a major Ancestral being for many Australian Aboriginal people, whereas Baiame or Bunjil are regarded as the primary creator-spirits in Southeast Australia. Dingo Dreaming is a significant Ancestor in the interior regions of Australia.<ref>Munya Andrews. ''The Seven Sisters of the Pleiades'' (Spinifex Press, 2005), 428.</ref> The Yowie and Bunyip are also well known ancestral beings.  
  
 +
Australian Aboriginal [[music]], [[dance]], and [[art]] continue to have an influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. A common theme in Australian art has been the Australian landscape, as evidenced by the works of Arthur Streeton, Arthur Boyd, Albert Namatjira, Pro Hart and others.
 
   
 
   
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Australian rules football was developed in Victoria in the late 1850s and is played at amateur and professional levels. It is the most popular spectator sport in Australia, in terms of annual attendances and club memberships.Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multicultural SBS), three commercial television networks, several pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Australia's film industry has achieved critical and commercial successes. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. According to Reporters Without Borders in 2006, Australia was in 35th position on a list of countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (19th) and the United Kingdom (27th) but ahead of the United States. This low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia; in particular, most Australian print media are under the control of News Corporation and John Fairfax Holdings.
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[[Image:MaoriWardanceKahuroa.jpg|thumb|right|260px|The [[haka]] is a traditional genre of [[Māori]] dance. This depiction of a haka as a war dance dates from ca. 1845.]]
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+
In New Zealand’s [[Māori]] culture, the marae (a sacred place used for both religious and social purposes) continues to play an important role in communal and family life. As in traditional times, karakia (incantations and prayers) are habitually performed by Māori today to ensure the favorable outcome of important undertakings, but today the [[prayer]]s used are generally [[Christian]]. Māori still value their connections to [[Polynesia]], and regard their allegiance to tribal groups a vital part of personal identity. [[Māori]] kinship roles still resemble those of other Polynesian peoples. Recently, Māori culture has enjoyed a resurgence with the increasing popularity of  the tradition-based arts of kapa haka (song and dance), carving and weaving, and the [[architecture]] of the marae maintains strong links to traditional forms. The Māori language (Te Reo Māori) previously was only used in a few remote areas, but is currently undergoing a renaissance, thanks in part to Māori language immersion schools and a Māori television channel. Despite the fact that ''te reo'' is an official language equal to English in New Zealand, this is the only nationwide television channel to have the majority of its prime-time content delivered in Māori.
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Sport plays an important part in Australian culture, assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities.[39] At an international level, Australia has particularly strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball, rugby league, rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing and swimming. Nationally, other popular sports include Australian rules football, horse racing, football (soccer) and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games of the modern era, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia hosted the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and has ranked among the top five medal-takers since 2000. Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982 and 2006 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held regularly in Australia include the Australian Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, annual international cricket matches and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and elite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest rating television programmes include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football (various codes) competitions.[51]
 
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ontemporary New Zealand has a diverse culture with influences from [[Anglo-Celtic]], [[United States|American]], [[Australian]] and [[Māori]] cultures, along with those of other European cultures and &ndash; more recently &ndash; non-Māori [[Polynesian]] and [[Asian]] cultures. Large festivals in celebration of [[Diwali]] and [[Chinese New Year]] are held in [[Auckland]] and [[Wellington]], as is the world's largest Polynesian festival, [[Pasifika]]. Cultural links between New Zealand and the United Kingdom are maintained by a common language, sustained migration from the United Kingdom and the fact that many young New Zealanders spend time in the United Kingdom on their "[[overseas experience]]" (OE). The [[music of New Zealand]] and [[cuisine of New Zealand]] are similar to that of Britain and the United States, although both have some distinct New Zealand and Pacific qualities.
 
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[[Māori culture]] has undergone considerable change since the arrival of Europeans; in particular the introduction of [[Christianity]] in the early 19th century brought about fundamental change in everyday life. Nonetheless the perception that most Māori now live similar lifestyles to their [[Pākehā]] neighbours is a superficial one. In fact, Māori culture has significant differences, for instance the important role which the [[marae]] continues to play in communal and family life. As in traditional times, karakia are habitually performed by Māori today to ensure the favorable outcome of important undertakings, but today the prayers used are generally Christian. Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of personal identity, and [[Hawaiian kinship|Māori kinship roles]] resemble those of other Polynesian peoples. As part of the resurgence of Māori culture that came to the fore in the late 20th century, the tradition-based arts of [[kapa haka]] (song and dance), carving and weaving are widely practiced, and the architecture of the marae maintains strong links to traditional forms. Māori also value their connections to Polynesia, as attested by the increasing popularity of [[Outrigger canoe racing|waka ama]] (outrigger canoe racing), which is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific. A revived traditional Māori ball sport, [[ki-o-rahi]], is increasingly popular in New Zealand, and in 2005 was introduced into 31,000 American schools as part of a physical activity initiative.<ref name="ki-o-rahi">{{cite news |first=Renee |last=Jones |title=McDonald's adopts obscure Maori ball game |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10349245 |work=New Zealand Herald |date=[[2005-10-08]] |accessdate=2007-04-09}}</ref>
 
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Use of the Māori language ([[Te Reo Māori]]) as a living, community language remained only in a few remote areas in the post-war years, but is currently undergoing a renaissance, thanks in part to Māori language immersion schools and a [[Māori Television]] channel. This is the only nationwide television channel to have the majority of its prime-time content delivered in Māori, despite the fact that te reo is an official language equal to English.
 
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Although films have been made in New Zealand since the 1920s, it was only from the 1970s that [[Cinema of New Zealand|New Zealand films]] began to be produced in significant numbers. Films such as [[Sleeping Dogs (film)|Sleeping Dogs]] and [[Goodbye Pork Pie]] achieved local success and launched the careers of actors and directors including [[Sam Neill]], [[Geoff Murphy]] and [[Roger Donaldson]]. In the early 1990s, New Zealand films such as [[Jane Campion]]'s [[Academy Award]]-winning film ''[[The Piano]]'', [[Lee Tamahori]]'s ''[[Once Were Warriors (film)|Once Were Warriors]]'' and [[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[Heavenly Creatures]]'' began to garner international acclaim. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Jackson filmed [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy]] in New Zealand, using a mostly New Zealand crew and many New Zealand actors in minor parts. Many non-New Zealand productions, primarily from [[Hollywood]] but also from [[Bollywood]], have been made in New Zealand. Film industry insiders are divided on whether this benefits or harms the New Zealand film industry; however some New Zealand actors, such as [[Lucy Lawless]] ([[Xena]]) have clearly benefited from these overseas productions.
 
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{{Main|Culture of Papua New Guinea}}
 
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[[Image:Papua New Guinean.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Resident of Bago-bago, an island in the southeast of Papua New Guinea]]
 
  
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The culture of Papua New Guinea is multi-faceted and complex. It is estimated that more than a thousand different cultural groups exist in PNG. Because of this diversity, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in [[art]], [[dance]], [[weapon]]ry, [[costume]]s, [[singing]], [[music]], [[architecture]] and much more.
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[[Image:Papua New Guinean.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Resident of Bago-bago, an island in the southeast of Papua New Guinea]]
 +
In Papua New Guinea the culture is multi-faceted and complex with in–excess of one thousand different cultural groups estimated to exist. This diversity results in many different styles of cultural expression, with different groups having created their own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costume, singing, music, wood carving, architecture among some of the more prevalent. Most of these different cultural groups have their own language and the people typically live in villages that are heavily dependant on subsistence farming. To supplement their diets, some tribes hunt and collect wild plants and yams. Great honor and respect are bestowed on those who become skilled at [[hunting]], [[farming]] and [[fishing]].  
  
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Most of these different cultural groups have their own language. People typically live in [[village]]s that rely on [[subsistence agriculture|subsistence farming]]. In some areas people hunt and collect wild plants (such as [[Yam (vegetable)|yam root]]s) to supplement their diets. Those who become skilled at hunting, farming and fishing earn a great deal of respect.
+
In some cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of golden-edged clam shells as a “bride price.” <ref> ''The Papua New Guinea Information Site''. [http://web.archive.org/web/19990210114159/www.datec.com.au/png/culture.htm Papua New Guinea; Arts, Customs and Traditions] Retrieved October 19, 2007. </ref> In other cultures, the “bride price” can be paid in lengths of shell money, pigs, cassowaries or cash. Elsewhere, bride price is unknown and it is brides who must pay a dowry.  
  
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On the [[Sepik]] river, there is a famous tradition of [[wood carving]], often in the form of plants or animals, representing [[ancestor]] spirits.
+
Many of the highland tribes still engage in colorful local rituals that are called "sing sings" where they will decorate themselves with paint, feathers, [[pearl]]s and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits.
  
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[[Sea shell]]s are no longer the [[currency]] of Papua New Guinea, as they were in some regions &mdash; sea shells were abolished as currency in 1933. However, this [[Tradition|heritage]] is still present in local [[convention (norm)|custom]]s; in some cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of [[golden-edged clam]] shells<ref>{{cite web |title=Papua New Guinea — culture |work=Datec Pty Ltd |url=http://web.archive.org/web/19990210114159/www.datec.com.au/png/culture.htm |accessdate=2005-12-16}} (Web archive)</ref> as a [[bride price]]. In other regions, bride price is paid in lengths of [[shell money]], [[pigs]], [[cassowaries]] or [[cash]]; elsewhere, bride price is unknown and it is brides who must pay [[dowry]].
+
== Notes ==
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People of the highlands engage in colourful local rituals that are called "sing sings". They paint themselves, and dress up with [[feather]]s, [[pearl]]s and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits. Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary [[battle]], is enacted at such a musical festival. (See also [[Music of Papua New Guinea]].)
 
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West Papuan culture was forcibly repressed under the forty years of Indonesian rule since 1963. Only in 2001 was Papua Province granted special autonomy by the Indonesian government, opening the possibility of developing indigenous cultural production and arts venues.
 
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However, in March 2003 John Rumbiak, West Papua's famous human rights investigator, stated that Papuan culture "will be extinct," within 10 to 20 years if the present rate of assimilation in the region continues.[10] The Indonesian government states that the special autonomy arrangement specifically addresses the ongoing preservation of Papua culture, and that the transmigration program was "designed specifically to help the locals through knowledge transfer".[11]
 
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In some parts of the highlands, the koteka is traditionally worn by males in ceremonial contexts. Despite government efforts to suppress it, the use of the koteka as everyday dress by Dani males in Western New Guinea is still very common.''
 
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== References ==
 
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*{{cite web | last = Richards | first = Kel | authorlink =  | coauthors =  | year = 2006 | url = http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1587644.htm | title = Australasia | work = Wordwatch | publisher = ABC News Radio | accessdate = 2006-09-30}}
 
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*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Australasia Australasia] [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition]]
 
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* [http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/maps/index.cfm Map of the ecozones]
 
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== References==
 +
* Andrews, Munya. ''The Seven Sisters of the Pleiades''. Spinifex Press, 2005. {{ASIN|B00E84HVT2}}
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* Baldick, Julian. ''Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan''. I.B.Tauris, 2013. ISBN 978-1780763668
 +
* ''Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition''. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Australasia Australasia] Retrieved October 19, 2007.
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* Richards, Kel. Australasia ''ABC News Radio'', 2006. 
 +
* ''World Wiildlife Fund''. [http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/maps/index.cfm Map of the Ecoregions] Retrieved October 19, 2007.
  
  
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[[Category:Oceania]]

Latest revision as of 05:58, 10 January 2023

Australasia

Australasia is a term used to describe a region within Oceania. The physical countries, islands or regions that comprise Australasia vary greatly depending upon the sources cited. The most commonly used include:

However, the most common and widely accepted definition for Australasia is
  • Australia
  • New Zealand
  • the island of New Guinea, which consist of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and Papua Barat (formerly West Irian Jaya) and the independent country of Papua New Guinea.

The term was coined by Charles de Brosses in Histoire des navigations aux terres australes (1756). He derived it from the Latin for "south of Asia" and differentiated the area from Polynesia (to the east) and the southeast Pacific (Magellanica). It is also distinct from Micronesia (to the northeast). Although de Brosses grouped the region together using a singular term, the isolation of the main areas has resulted in several separate and unique islands or areas within the region he called Australasia.

Physical geography

Map of Australia.
Map of New Guinea.
Map of New Zealand.

Physiographically, Australasia includes the Australian landmass (including Tasmania), New Zealand, and New Guinea. The independent country of Papua New Guinea also includes approximately 600 offshore islands.

Australia

The name "Australia" is derived from the Latin Australis, meaning "of the South." Most of Australia lies on the southern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Southern Ocean to the south. Peripheral territories lie on the Eurasian Plate to the northwest, the Philippine Plate to the north, and in the Pacific Ocean – including numerous marginal seas – atop the Pacific Plate to the north and east. Australia has a total landmass of 3,074,740 square mile (7,686,850 square kilometer) on the Indo-Australian Plate, slightly smaller than the contiguous 48 states of the United States, and 15,970 miles (25,760 kilometers) of coastline. Tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Much of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Only the southeast and southwest corners of the continent have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. As the majority of Australia is desert or semi-arid, erosion has heavily weathered its surface, resulting it one of the flattest countries in the world. Australia also has the oldest and least fertile soils, and is the driest inhabited continent.

New Guinea

"Nueva Guinea" was the original name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545. He noted the resemblance of the people to those he had seen earlier along the Guinean coast of Africa. The name was later anglicized to New Guinea.

New Guinea's landmass is about 309,000 square miles (800,000 square km). The island of New Guinea is part of the Australian Plate, known as Sahul, and once formed part of the super-continent Gondwana. Sahul separated from Antarctica about 96 million years ago after Gondwana began to break up (approximately 140 million years ago). New Guinea moved into the tropics as it drifted north. The origin of most New Guinean and Australian fauna are closely linked.

New Zealand

The name "New Zealand" originated from Dutch cartographers, who originally named the islands Nova Zeelandia, after the Dutch province of Zeeland. James Cook, the British explorer, subsequently anglicized the name to New Zealand.

New Zealand consists of two main islands, North Island and South Island, (Te-Ika-a-Maui and Te Wai Pounamu in Māori) and a number of smaller islands. The total landmass is 103,738 sq miles (268,680 square km), with approximately 9,404 miles (15,134 km) of coastline. The larger South Island is divided along its length by the Southern Alps, with Aoraki/Mount Cook at 12,320 ft (3754 meters) its highest peak. The North Island is less mountainous, but is marked by volcanism including the active Mount Ruapehu (2797 m / 9177 ft).

New Zealand is part of the continent of Zealandia which is 93 percent submerged and approximately half the size of Australia. Approximately 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements pulled Zealandia apart.

Human geography

Geopolitically, Australasia is most often used as a term for Australia and New Zealand together, in the absence of another word limited to those two countries. There are many organizations whose names are prefixed with "(Royal) Australasian Society" that are limited to just Australia and New Zealand.

Australasian Olympic Flag

In the past, Australasia has been used as a name for combined Australia/New Zealand sporting teams. Examples include tennis between 1905 and 1913, when Australia and New Zealand combined its best players to compete in the Davis Cup international tournament (and won it in 1907, 1908, 1909 and 1911). Australasia also competed at the Summer Olympic Games of 1908, where they earned 1x GOLD (Rugby Union), 2 x SILVER and 2 x BRONZE medals, and again at the 1912 Summer Olympic Games, where they earned 2 x GOLD (both swimming), 3 x SILVER and 3 x BRONZE medals.

Anthropologists, although disagreeing on details, generally support theories that call for a Southeastern Asian origin of indigenous island peoples in Australasia and neighboring subregions. The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.[1] These first Australians were the current Indigenous Australians' (Aborigines) ancestors. They were mostly hunter-gatherers and arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day Southeast Asia.

Ecological geography

The Australasia Ecozone

The Australasian ecozone is an ecological region that is coincident, but not synonymous (by some definitions), with the geographic region of Australasia. The ecozone includes Australia, the island of New Guinea (including Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian province of Papua), and the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago, including the island of Sulawesi, the Moluccan islands (the Indonesian provinces of Maluku and North Maluku) and islands of Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Flores, and Timor, often known as the Lesser Sundas. The Australasian ecozone also includes several Pacific island groups, including the Bismarck Archipelago, Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and New Caledonia. New Zealand and its surrounding islands are a distinctive sub-region of the Australasian ecozone. The rest of Indonesia is part of the Indomalayan ecozone.

From a biological point of view, Australasia is a distinct region with a common evolutionary history and a great many unique plants and animals, some of them common to the entire area, others specific to particular parts but sharing a common ancestry. The long isolation of Australasia from other continents allowed it to evolve relatively independently, which makes it home to many unique families of plants and animals.

Australia and New Guinea are distinguished by their marsupial mammals, including kangaroos, possums, and wombats. The last remaining monotreme mammals, the echidnas and the platypus, are endemic to Australasia. Prior to the arrival of humans about 50,000 years ago, only about one-third of Australasian mammal species were placental.

The boundary between Australasia and Indomalaya follows the Wallace Line, named after the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace who noted the differences in mammal and bird fauna between the islands either side of the line. The Islands to the west of the line, including Java, Bali, Borneo, and the Philippines share a similar fauna with East Asia, including tigers, rhinoceros, and apes. During the ice ages, sea levels were lower, exposing the continental shelf that links these islands to one another and to Asia, and allowed Asian land animals to inhabit these islands. Similarly, Australia and New Guinea are linked by a shallow continental shelf, and were linked by a land bridge during the ice ages. A group of Australasian islands east of the Wallace Line, including Sulawesi, Halmahera, Lombok, Flores, Sumba, Sumbawa, and Timor, is separated by deep water from both the southeast Asian continental shelf and the Australia-New Guinea continental shelf. These islands are called Wallacea, and contain relatively few Australian or Asian mammals. While most land mammals found it difficult to cross the Wallace Line, many plant, bird, and reptile species were better able to make the crossing.

Australia, New Zealand, and New Caledonia are all portions of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which started to break into smaller continents in the Cretaceous era, 130-65 million years ago. New Zealand broke away first, more than 80 million years ago, and Australia finally broke free from Antarctica about 45 million years ago. All the Australasian lands are home to the Antarctic flora, descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including the coniferous podocarps and Araucaria pines, and the broadleafed southern beech (Nothofagus), and proteas (Proteaceae).

As Australia moved north into the desert latitudes, the continent became hotter and drier, and the soils poorer and leached of nutrients, causing the old Antarctic flora to retreat to the humid corners of the continent in favor of new drought and fire tolerant flora, dominated by the Eucalyptus, Casuarina, and Acacia trees, and by grasses and scrub where the rainfall was too scarce to support trees. Presently Australia is the smallest continent, and also the driest continent and the flattest (lowest in elevation) continent.

Geology

The present distribution of Australasian plants and animals is partially a result of the geologic history of its land masses. Several of the land masses in the ecoregion are fragments of the ancient continent of Gondwana, while a number of smaller islands are of more recent volcanic or tectonic origin, and were never part of Gondwana.

New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania, collectively known as Australia-New Guinea, Sahul, or Meganesia, are connected by a shallow continental shelf, and together form the largest fragment of Gondwana. The shallow continental shelf that presently separates the islands has served as a land bridge when sea levels were lower, most recently during the last ice age. New Guinea shares many families of birds and marsupial mammals with Australia. As the Indo-Australian Plate, which contains India, Australia, and the Indian Ocean floor in between, moved north, it collided with the Eurasian Plate, and the collision of the two plates pushed up the Himalayas, the Indonesian islands, and New Guinea's Central Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorial glaciers. New Guinea and Wallacea are part of the humid tropics, and many Indomalayan rainforest plants spread across the narrow straits from Asia, mixing together with the old Australian and Antarctic floras. Some botanists consider New Guinea and Wallacea to be part of the floristic province of Malesia, together with the other Indonesian islands and the Malay Peninsula, although Malesia is now mostly used to refer to only the Indomalayan side of the Wallace Line.

New Zealand and New Caledonia are the other former fragments of Gondwana in the region.

The island groups north and east of New Guinea and New Caledonia, including Bismarck Archipelago, Admiralty Islands, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, were pushed up by the collision of the Australian plate with other oceanic plates. These islands, collectively known as the East Melanesian Islands, were colonized by plants and some animals from New Guinea and New Caledonia, and are considered part of the Australasian ecozone based on those affinities. Further north and east are the Pacific island groups of Micronesia, Fiji, and Polynesia, which are also of relatively recent volcanic origin, and constitute the separate Oceania ecozone, although they share many ecological affinities with Australasia.

Fauna

Bats were the only mammals of New Zealand until the arrival of humans. Birds adapted to ecological niches, such as grazers, insectivores, and large predators that have elsewhere been taken by mammals. New Zealand remained in the cool and humid latitudes, and lost many plant and animal families that were intolerant of its cool climate, including the araucarias and most proteas, as well as crocodiles and turtles.

Large reptiles, including crocodiles and huge monitor lizards (family Varanidae), like the Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis), are ecologically important predators in Australia, New Guinea, and Wallacea.

There are 13 endemic bird families, including emus, cassowaries, kiwi, kagu, cockatoos, birds of paradise, and honeyeaters.

Human impact

The arrival of humans to Australia and New Guinea 50-60,000 years ago brought dogs (dingos) to Australia, and dogs and pigs to New Guinea. Pigs and rats arrived on New Zealand with the first Polynesian settlers 800 years ago. The arrival of the first humans coincided with the extinction of much of the native megafauna (Holocene extinction event). The arrival of Europeans brought a whole host of new animals and plants, including sheep, goats, rabbits and foxes, to Australasia, which have further disrupted the native ecologies; a great many Australasian plants and animals are presently endangered.

Economics

Most of Australasia has a prosperous, Western-style mixed economy, with relatively high per capita GDPs and substantial natural resources including bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, gold, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, mineral sands, lead, zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleum, timber, hydropower, and limestone. Although the other economies are flourishing, in March 2006 the United Nations Committee for Development Policy recommended that Papua New Guinea's designation of developing country to be downgraded to least-developed country because of protracted economic and social stagnation.

The absence of export-oriented manufacturing industries throughout the area has been considered a key weakness of the Australasian economy; however rising prices for the regions commodity exports and increasing tourism have minimized the effect of this lack of export manufacturing. Large current account deficit, in relation to the GDP, are common throughout the area. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69 percent of GDP.

Australasia is a region heavily dependent on trade, particularly in minerals and agricultural products with tourism also playing a significant role in the region's economy. Unlike most of the regions natural resources, access to Papua New Guinea's resources has been hampered by rugged terrain, the high cost of developing infrastructure and serious law and order problems.

Demographics

The total population of Australasia was estimated at approximately 33 million in mid-2007 with Australia accounting for just under 20.5 million. Major ethnic groups include Caucasian, Asian, Maori, Aborigine, Pacific Islander, Melanesian, Papuan, Negrito, Micronesian, Polynesian and Indonesian. Life expectancy at birth ranges from 65.6 years in New Guinea to 80.6 years in Australia. Literacy at 15 years of age ranges from 99 percent in Australia and New Zealand to 57.3 percent in Papua New Guinea with Western New Guineas literacy rate at 90.4 percent.

The major language of Australasia is English, spoken by over 20 million Australasian inhabitants, however, other major languages include Maori, Melanesian Pigin, Bahasa Indonesia, and many local dialects. Inhabitants of New Guinea alone speak over 820 different languages accounting for over ten percent of the worlds languages. In addition to English and Maori, Sign Language is one of New Zealand's official languages.

Major religious beliefs in Australasia include Catholicism, Anglican, other Christian, Buddhist, Muslim, Hindu, and local indigenous beliefs.

Culture

As with most things in Australasia, there are many different cultures common, and often unique, to the region. These vary from the Anglo-Celtic influenced culture that has freely evolved with distinctly Australian and New Zealand features to the West Papuan culture that has been forcibly repressed under the forty years of Indonesian rule since 1963.

In 2001, Papua Province was granted autonomy by the Indonesian government, thereby allowing the development of indigenous industries and arts venues. In March 2003, John Rumbiak, the famous West Papuan human rights investigator, cautioned that Papuan culture "will be extinct," within 10 to 20 years if the present rate of assimilation in the region continues. [2] The Indonesian government responded that the special autonomy arrangement specifically addresses the ongoing preservation of Papua culture, and that the transmigration program was "designed specifically to help the locals through knowledge transfer". [3]

Rock art in Kakadu National Park near Darwin

While Australian culture has a long history of visual arts, beginning with the cave and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples, the New Zealand and New Guinea cultures have undergone distinct changes since the arrival of Europeans; and in particular the introduction of Christianity in the early 19th century.

Each region still has an indigenous culture that influences everyday life in the particular country. Australia has the Aboriginal culture that largely transmits their traditions orally and their traditions are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the Dreamtime. The Dreaming signifies both the ancient time of creation and the present day reality of Dreaming. There are many different groups, each with their own individual culture, belief structure, and language. These cultures have overlapped and evolved over time. The Rainbow Serpent is a major Ancestral being for many Australian Aboriginal people, whereas Baiame or Bunjil are regarded as the primary creator-spirits in Southeast Australia. Dingo Dreaming is a significant Ancestor in the interior regions of Australia.[4] The Yowie and Bunyip are also well known ancestral beings.

Australian Aboriginal music, dance, and art continue to have an influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. A common theme in Australian art has been the Australian landscape, as evidenced by the works of Arthur Streeton, Arthur Boyd, Albert Namatjira, Pro Hart and others.

The haka is a traditional genre of Māori dance. This depiction of a haka as a war dance dates from ca. 1845.

In New Zealand’s Māori culture, the marae (a sacred place used for both religious and social purposes) continues to play an important role in communal and family life. As in traditional times, karakia (incantations and prayers) are habitually performed by Māori today to ensure the favorable outcome of important undertakings, but today the prayers used are generally Christian. Māori still value their connections to Polynesia, and regard their allegiance to tribal groups a vital part of personal identity. Māori kinship roles still resemble those of other Polynesian peoples. Recently, Māori culture has enjoyed a resurgence with the increasing popularity of the tradition-based arts of kapa haka (song and dance), carving and weaving, and the architecture of the marae maintains strong links to traditional forms. The Māori language (Te Reo Māori) previously was only used in a few remote areas, but is currently undergoing a renaissance, thanks in part to Māori language immersion schools and a Māori television channel. Despite the fact that te reo is an official language equal to English in New Zealand, this is the only nationwide television channel to have the majority of its prime-time content delivered in Māori.

Resident of Bago-bago, an island in the southeast of Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea the culture is multi-faceted and complex with in–excess of one thousand different cultural groups estimated to exist. This diversity results in many different styles of cultural expression, with different groups having created their own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costume, singing, music, wood carving, architecture among some of the more prevalent. Most of these different cultural groups have their own language and the people typically live in villages that are heavily dependant on subsistence farming. To supplement their diets, some tribes hunt and collect wild plants and yams. Great honor and respect are bestowed on those who become skilled at hunting, farming and fishing.

In some cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of golden-edged clam shells as a “bride price.” [5] In other cultures, the “bride price” can be paid in lengths of shell money, pigs, cassowaries or cash. Elsewhere, bride price is unknown and it is brides who must pay a dowry.

Many of the highland tribes still engage in colorful local rituals that are called "sing sings" where they will decorate themselves with paint, feathers, pearls and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits.

Notes

  1. ↑ R. Gillespie, "Dating the first Australians" Radiocarbon 44 (2002): 455–472.
  2. ↑ Martin Flanagan, The exile who fights for the rights of all Papuans The Age Company Ltd, February 27, 2003. Retrieved October 19, 2007.
  3. ↑ Trini G. Sualang, Papua culture is not at risk The Age Company Ltd, March 3, 2003. Retrieved October 19, 2007.
  4. ↑ Munya Andrews. The Seven Sisters of the Pleiades (Spinifex Press, 2005), 428.
  5. ↑ The Papua New Guinea Information Site. Papua New Guinea; Arts, Customs and Traditions Retrieved October 19, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Andrews, Munya. The Seven Sisters of the Pleiades. Spinifex Press, 2005. ASIN B00E84HVT2
  • Baldick, Julian. Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan. I.B.Tauris, 2013. ISBN 978-1780763668
  • Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. Australasia Retrieved October 19, 2007.
  • Richards, Kel. Australasia ABC News Radio, 2006.
  • World Wiildlife Fund. Map of the Ecoregions Retrieved October 19, 2007.


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