Ancient Philosophy

History of Western philosophy
Pre-Socratic philosophy
Ancient philosophy
Medieval philosophy
Renaissance philosophy
17th century philosophy
18th-century philosophy
19th century philosophy
20th century philosophy
Postmodern philosophy
Contemporary philosophy
See also:
Eastern philosophy
Indian philosophy
Iranian philosophy
Chinese philosophy
Korean philosophy
Christian philosophy
Islamic philosophy
Jewish philosophy

Ancient philosophy encompasses various philosophical traditions in ancient worlds. The primary ones include ancient Greek philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Indian philosophy, and Iranian philosophy. These philosophies are deeply rooted in religious traditions, and have comprehensive outlook in contrast to modern and contemporary philosophy which tend to have narrower areas of studies and methodologies.

In the Western tradition, ancient philosophy was developed primarily by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The concept, however, includes Per-Socratics, Hellenistic philosophy, and philosophies in the Roman periods. Ancient philosophy is divided by the following Medieval philosophy which developed by Christianity and Islam.

In other traditions such as China and India, there is a continuity of thought since antiquity.

General characteristics

Ancient philosophy encompasses a variety of thoughts emerged in various intellectual traditions at their earliest stage of development. Since philosophy includes, as its primary component, a rational self-refection and conceptualization of thoughts, not all thoughts are considered as philosophy although the distinction and demarcation between philosophy and thoughts remain vague. Any thought that has a high degree of rational self-reflection and conceptualization is generally included in a domain of philosophy. Ancient philosophy is included in ancient history as its integral part.

Major philosophies include: ancient Greek and Roman philosophy in the West, approximately ranging from sixth century B.C.E. through the third century C.E.; Chinese philosophy including Yin-yang philosophy, Taoism, Confucianism; Indian philosophy including Upanishads and vedic tradtions, Jainism, Buddhist philosophy, and Hindu philosophy; and ancient Iranian philosophy including Zoroastrianism.

Each philosophy has some distinct characteristics which reflect intellectual climates, problematics, issues, and approaches built upon unique conditions of each intellectual tradition. In spite of its diversity, there are some common element across those various philosophies.

First, ancient philosophy tends to have a comprehensive perspective which includes diverse elements such as myth, religious beliefs, ethics, literature, cosmology, and theories of nature. Synthetic characteristic of ancient philosophy shows a contract to Modern and contemporary philosophies. Modern and contemporary philosophies tend to focus on specific, often narrower, areas as their subject matters and their approaches are accompanied with clearer methodological awareness. Because of its synthetic character, thought process in ancient philosophy also differs from that of modern philosophy. For example, Pre-Socratics in ancient Greek philosophy presented their metaphysical arguments in a poetic verse and their arguments are directed to religious-ethical themes such as divine justice and salvation of the soul. They whole arguments are often fused into their cosmology, cosmogony, and explanation about natural phenomena. In ancient Chinese philosophy, their metaphysics is also fused into natural philosophy, ethics, and often extended to political philosophy. It is quite difficult to discern one component of philosophy from another in ancient philosophy due to its comprehensive integration. To interpret ancient philosophy, readers must first to understand their framework of thought, which is quite different from those of modern and contemporary philosophy. Readers need to pay more adequate concern for hermeneutics in interpreting ancient philosophy than reading modern and contemporary works.

Second. In contrast to modern and contemporary philosophy, ancient philosophy is often deeply rooted in religious traditions. Modern and contemporary philosophy tend to develop philosophy as an autonomous discipline and detach it from religious traditions. This tendency is most evident in the development of modern and contemporary western philosophy, which is the main stream of philosophy. For example, Indian philosophy is deeply rooted in Upanishad, Vedas, Hinduism, and others. Even Plato's philosophy is built within the framework that presupposes such beliefs as immortality of the soul, redemption, and divine justice.

Western philosophy

Ancient philosophy in the West refers philosophies from approximately sixth century B.C.E. to about the third century C.E. encompassing from Pre-Socratics to Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and philosophies in Hellenistic and Roman periods.

The pinnacle of Ancient philosophy is Greek classic philosophies by Plato and Aristotle. These two philosophers defined the problematic, philosophical vocabularies, methodologies, and types of discourses in regard to philosophy as a discipline and they gave the definite influence on subsequent developments of philosophy thought the history. Their philosophies are far more comprehensive than other philosophers in antiquity. A number of philosophers who were prior to or contemporary to Socrates are called as such because they are viewed as predecessors of Socrates. This division itself is an indication of the importance of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Hellenistic and Roman philosophers also developed their thoughts under strong influences of these classic philosophers.

Presocratic philosophers

• Milesian School

Thales (624-546 B.C.E.)

Anaximander (610-546 B.C.E.)

Anaximenes (585-525 B.C.E.)

• Pythagoreans

Pythagoras (582-507 B.C.E.)

Alcmaeon of Croton

Archytas (428-347 B.C.E.)

• Heraclitus (535-475 B.C.E.)

• Pluralist School

Empedocles (490-430 B.C.E.)

Anaxagoras (500-428 B.C.E.)

Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder) (5th century B.C.E.)

• Eleatics

Parmenides (515-450 B.C.E.)

Zeno of Elea (490-430 B.C.E.)

Diogenes of Apollonia (460-? B.C.E.)

Philolaus (480-405 B.C.E.)

Melissus of Samos (470-? B.C.E.)

Xenophanes (570-480 B.C.E.)

• Atomists

Leucippus (first half of 5th century B.C.E.)

Democritus (460-370 B.C.E.)

Metrodorus of Chios (4th century B.C.E.)

• Pherecydes of Syros (6th century B.C.E.)

• Sophists

Gorgias (483-375 B.C.E.)

Protagoras (481-420 B.C.E.)

Antiphon (480-411 B.C.E.)

Prodicus (465/450-after 399 B.C.E.)

Hippias (middle of the 5th century B.C.E.)

Thrasymachus (459-400 B.C.E.)

Callicles

Critias

Lycophron

Classical Greek philosophers

• Socrates (469-399 B.C.E.)
• Euclid of Megara (450-380 B.C.E.)
• Antisthenes (445-360 B.C.E.)
• Aristippus (435-356 B.C.E.)
• Plato (428-347 B.C.E.)
• Speusippus (407-339 B.C.E.)
• Diogenes of Sinope (400-325 B.C.E.)
• Xenocrates (396-314 B.C.E.)
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
• Stilpo (380-300 B.C.E.)
• Theophrastus (370-288 B.C.E.)

Hellenistic philosophy

• Pyrrho (365-275 B.C.E.)
• Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.)
• Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331–278 B.C.E.)
• Zeno of Citium (333-263 B.C.E.)
• Cleanthes (331-232 B.C.E.)
• Timon (320-230 B.C.E.)
• Arcesilaus (316-232 B.C.E.)
• Menippus (3rd century B.C.E.)
• Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.C.E.)
• Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.E.)
• Carneades (214-129 B.C.E.)
• Kleitomachos (187-109 B.C.E.)
• Metrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century B.C.E.)
• Philo of Larissa (160-80 B.C.E.)
• Posidonius (135-51 B.C.E.)
• Antiochus of Ascalon (130-68 B.C.E.)
• Aenesidemus (1st century B.C.E.)
• Philo of Alexandria (30 B.C.E. - 45 C.E.)
• Agrippa (1st century C.E.)

Hellenistic schools of thought

• Cynicism
• Epicureanism
• Hedonism
• Eclecticism
• Neo-Platonism
• Skepticism
• Stoicism
• Sophism

Philosophers during Roman times

• Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.)
• Lucretius (94-55 B.C.E.)
• Seneca (4 B.C.E. - 65 C.E.)
• Musonius Rufus (30 C.E. - 100 C.E.)
• Plutarch (45-120 C.E.)
• Epictetus (55-135 C.E.)
• Marcus Aurelius (121-180 C.E.)
• Clement of Alexandria (150-215 C.E.)
• Alcinous (2nd century AD)
• Sextus Empiricus (3rd century C.E.)
• Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century C.E.)
• Ammonius Saccas (3rd century C.E.)
• Plotinus (205-270 C.E.)
• Porphyry (232-304 C.E.)
• Iamblichus (242-327 C.E.)
• Themistius (317-388 C.E.)
• Augustine of Hippo (354-430 C.E.)
• Proclus (411-485 C.E.)
• Philoponus of Alexandria (490-570 C.E.)
• Damascius (462-540 C.E.)
• Boethius (472-524 C.E.)
• Simplicius of Cilicia (490-560 C.E.)

Chinese philosophy

Yin-Yang philosophy is probably the oldest among classic Chinese philosophy. It is a comprehensive metaphysics built upon the principle of Yin and Yang, which encompasses both natural phenomena and human affairs. Centuries later, it was applied to various areas and disciplines including medical science, nutrition theory, art, martial art, and others.

Practical orientation is a distinctive characteristics of Chinese philosophy and it has guided its entire tradition since antiquity. Unlike western philosophy, there is a continuity of thought from ancient to contemporary. Ancient philosophy which guided the entire tradition include Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. These philosophies are all deeply rooted in or fused into religious and ethical thoughts.

• Chinese philosophy—Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism
• Buddhist philosophy arose in India but contributions to it were also made in China, Japan, and Korea.
• Eastern philosophy

Indian philosophy

Vedic philosophy

Indian philosophy begins with the Vedas where questions related to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic Hymn of Creation the poet says:

"Whence all creation had its origin, he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not, he, who surveys it all from highest heaven, he knows—or maybe even he does not know."

In the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (Purusha). This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma. Nature (prakriti) is taken to have three qualities (sattva, rajas, and tamas).

• Vedas
• Upanishads
• Hindu philosophy

Classical Indian philosophy

In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were:

• What is the ontological nature of consciousness?
• How is cognition itself experienced?
• Is mind (chit) intentional or not?
• Does cognition have its own structure?

The Six schools of Indian philosophy are:

• Nyaya
• Vaisheshika
• Samkhya
• Yoga
• Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)
• Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)

Other traditions of Indian philosophy include:

• Hindu philosophy
• Buddhist philosophy
• Jain philosophy
• Sikh philosophy
• Carvaka (atheist) philosophy

Some ancient philosophers:

• Asanga (c. 300), exponent of the Yogacara
• Bhartrihari (c 450–510 C.E.), early figure in Indic linguistic theory
• Bodhidharma (c. 440–528 C.E.), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism
• Chanakya (c.350 - c.275 B.C.E.) , author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshashila University
• Dignāga (c. 500), one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic.
• Gautama Buddha (563 B.C.E. - 483 B.C.E.), founder of Buddhist school of thought
• Gotama (c. 2nd–3rd century C.E.), wrote the Nyaya Sutras, considered to be the foundation of the Nyaya school.
• Kanada (c. 600 B.C.E.), founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave theory of atomism
• Jaimini, author of Purva Mimamsa Sutras
• Kapila (c. 500 B.C.E.), proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy
• Nagarjuna (c. 150 - 250 C.E.), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
• Panini (520–460 B.C.E.), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi
• Patañjali (between 200 B.C.E. and 400 C.E.), developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga Sutras.
• Pingala (c. 500 B.C.E.), author of the Chandas shastra
• Syntipas (c. 100 B.C.E.), author of The Story of the Seven Wise Masters.
• Tiruvalluvar (between 100 B.C.E. and 300 C.E.), author of Thirukkural, one of the greatest ethical works in Tamil language
• Vasubandhu (c. 300 C.E.), one of the main founders of the Indian Yogacara school.
• Vyasa, author of several important works in Hindu philosophy
• Yajnavalkya (c. 800 B.C.E.), linked to philosophical teachings of the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, and the apophatic teaching of 'neti neti' etc.

Old Iranian philosophy

While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view on the role of man in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great is widely seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought.

• Zoroastrianism
  • Zarathustra
  • Avesta
  • Gathas
• Mazdakism
• Manichaeism

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Armstrong, A. H. The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy. London: Cambridge U.P., 1967.
• Brumbaugh, Robert Sherrick. The Philosophers of Greece. New York: Crowell, 1964.
• Burnet, John. Early Greek Philosophy. London: A. & C. Black, 1930.
• Duquesne University.Ancient Philosophy. Pittsburgh, PA: Dept. of Philosophy, Duquesne University, 1980.
• Frede, Michael. Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987. ISBN 9780816612758
• Gill, Mary Louise, and Pierre Pellegrin. A Companion to Ancient Philosophy. Blackwell companions to philosophy, 31. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub, 2006. ISBN 9780631210610
• Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Cambridge: University Press, 1962.
• Hadot, Pierre. What Is Ancient Philosophy? Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 9780674007338
• Kenny, Anthony. Ancient Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2004. ISBN 9780198752721
• Marietta, Don E. Introduction to Ancient Philosophy. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1998. ISBN 9780585190419
• Peterman, John E. On Ancient Philosophy. Wadsworth philosophical topics. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2008. ISBN 0534595723
• Reale, Giovanni, and John R. Catan. A History of Ancient Philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985. ISBN 9780791405161

External links

All links retrieved November 11, 2008.

• Ancient philosophy, various papers, basically on Greek Philosophy.
• Greek philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of philosophy.

General Philosophy Sources

• Philosophy Sources on Internet EpistemeLinks
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Guide to Philosophy on the Internet
• Paideia Project Online
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Project Gutenberg

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