Difference between revisions of "Magic (Sorcery)" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:John William Waterhouse - Circe (The Sorceress).JPG|right|300 px|thumb|"The Sorceress" by [[John William Waterhouse]]]][[Image:John Dee evoking a spirit.jpg|right|300px|thumb|[[John Dee]] and [[Edward Kelley]] evoking a spirit: Elizabethans who claimed magical knowledge.]]
  
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[[Image:John William Waterhouse - Circe (The Sorceress).JPG|right|300 px|thumb|"The Sorceress" by [[John William Waterhouse]]]]
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'''Magic,''' sometimes known as '''sorcery,''' is a [[conceptual system]] that asserts human ability to control [[nature|the natural world]] (including events, objects, people, and physical phenomena) through  [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[paranormal]], or [[supernatural]] means. The term can also refer to the practices employed by a person asserting this influence, and to beliefs that explain various events and phenomena in such terms. In many cultures, magic is under pressure from, and in competition with, [[scientific]] and [[religious]] conceptual systems.
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'''''Magic''''' and '''''sorcery''''' are the influencing of events, objects, people and physical phenomena by [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[paranormal]] or [[supernatural]] means. The terms can also refer to the practices employed by a person to wield this influence, and to beliefs that explain various events and phenomena in such terms.
 
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==Examples==
 
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===Healing or harming others===
 
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* One of the most widespread magical procedures for healing, harming or otherwise influencing someone from a distance involves making an effigy of him or her from any  material. Actions performed on the effigy are believed to result in analogous effects upon the target person, so that, for example, a part of the effigy's body may be damaged in order to cause pain or disease in the same part of the target's body. This magical technique may be employed for maleficent or beneficent ends, and even for giving help to gods against malignant demons.<ref>Freud (1950, 79).</ref>
 
  
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* Another similar procedure by which an enemy can be injured is to gain possession of some of the enemy's hair, nails or other bodily by-products, or a piece of clothing, and treat these in some hostile way.<ref>Freud (1950, 81).</ref>
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Although an effort is sometimes made to differentiate sorcery from [[magic_(Illusion)|magic performed for entertainment value]] by referring to sorcery as "magick," this article will consistently use "magic" in referring to sorcery.  
  
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Although these magical actions may often prove effective, this can in many cases be explained by [[placebo]] or [[Nocebo#Ambiguity of anthropological usage|nocebo]], without requiring a paranormal explanation.
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Magic has been used throughout history, in attempts to heal or harm others, to influence the weather or crops, and as part of [[religion|religious]] practices like [[shamanism]] and [[paganism]]. While magic has been feared and condemned by those of certain [[faith]]s and questioned by [[science|scientists]], it has survived both in belief and practice. Practitioners continue to use it for [[good]] or [[evil]], as magic itself is neither; but only a tool that is used according to the purpose of the one who wields it. The efficacy of magic continues to be debated, as both religious adherents and scientists find difficulty understanding the source of its power.  
  
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===Fertility of earth===
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Fundamental to magic is unseen connections whereby things act on one another at a distance through invisible links.<ref>David Levi Strauss, [http://brooklynrail.org/2006/07/film/magic-and-images Magic and Images/Images and Magic,] ''The Brooklyn Rail.'' Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref> Magic is thus distinguished both from [[religion]] and [[science]]: From religion in that magic invokes spiritual powers without presuming any personal relationship with spiritual or divine beings, merely an ability or power to bring about particular results; and from science in that magic offers no empirical justification other than its efficacy, invoking a [[symbol]]ic, rather than actual, cause-effect relationship.
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In some cultures the fertility of the earth is magically promoted by a dramatic representation of human intercourse:
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{{toc}}
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While some deny any form of magic as authentic, those that practice it regard the influencing of events, objects, people, and physical phenomena through [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[paranormal]] or supernatural means as real. The fascination that [[magician]]s hold for the public reflects a longing to understand more than the external, physical aspects of the world and penetrate that which could give deeper meaning, the realm of spirit and magic.
  
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* In some parts of [[Java]], at the season when the bloom will soon be on the rice, the husband and his wife visit their fields by night and there engage in sexual intercourse to encourage the fertility of the rice by their example. There is a dread, however, that prohibited incestuous sexual relations may cause a failure of the crops and make the earth sterile.<ref>Freud (1950, 80), quoting Frazer (1911, '''2''', 98).</ref>
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== Etymology ==
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The word '''magic''' derives from [[Magus]] ([[Old Persian]] ''maguš''), one of the [[Zoroastrian]] [[astrology|astrologer]] priests of the [[Medes]]. In the Hellenistic period, [[Greek language|Greek]] μάγος ''(magos)'' could be used as an adjective, but an adjective μαγικός (''magikos,'' [[Latin]] ''magicus'') is also attested from the first century ([[Plutarchus]]), typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (''magike techne,'' Latin ''ars magica'') "magical art." The word entered the English language in the late fourteenth century from [[Old French]] ''magique''.
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==Origin==
 
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===Psychical history===
 
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[[James George Frazer]] associates the folly of magical observations to an internal dysfunction: "Men mistook the order of their ideas for the order of nature, and hence imagined that the control which they have, or seem to have, over their thoughts, permitted them to exercise a corresponding control over things."<ref>[[Freud]] (1950, 83), quoting Frazer (1911, '''1''', 420).</ref>
 
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Others, such as [[N. W. Thomas]]<ref>Thomas (1910&ndash;11).</ref> and [[Sigmund Freud]] have rejected this explanation. [[Freud]] explains that "the associated theory of magic merely explains the paths along which magic proceeds; it does not explain its true essence, namely the misunderstanding which leads it to replace the laws of nature by psychological ones"<ref>Freud (1950, 83).</ref> Freud empresentation is of a satisfied wish is quite comparable to children's play, which succeeds their earlier purely sensory technique of satisfaction. [...] As time goes on, the psychological accent shifts from the ''motives'' for the magical act on to the ''measures'' by which it is carried out&mdash;that is, on to the act itself. [...] It thus comes to appear as though it is the magical act itself which, owing to its similarity with the desired result, alone determines the occurrence of that result."<ref>Freud (1950, 84).</ref>
 
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(see also [[shamanism]])
 
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===Etymology===
 
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The word ''magic'' ultimately derives from [[Magus]] ([[Old Persian]] ''maguš''), one of the [[Zoroastrian]] astrologer priests of the [[Medes]]. In the Hellenistic period, [[Greek language|Greek]] μάγος (''magos'') could be used as an adjective, but an adjective μαγικός (''magikos'', Latin ''magicus'') is also attested from the [[1st century]] ([[Plutarchus]]), typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (''magike techne'', Latin ''ars magica'') "magical art." The word entered the English language in the late [[14th century]] from [[Old French]] ''magique''.
 
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Likewise, ''sorcery'' was taken in ca. 1300 from Old French ''sorcerie'', which is  from [[Vulgar Latin]] ''*sortiarius'', from ''sors'' "fate," apparently meaning "one who influences fate." ''Sorceress'' appears also in the late [[14th century]], while ''sorcerer'' is attested only from 1526.
 
  
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Likewise, ''sorcery'' was taken in c. 1300 from Old French ''sorcerie,'' which is from [[Vulgar Latin]] ''sortiarius,'' from ''sors'' "fate," apparently meaning "one who influences fate." ''Sorceress'' appears also in the late fourteenth century, while ''sorcerer'' is attested only from 1526.
  
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The Indo-European root of the word means “to be able, to have power”—really a verb of basic action and agency.
  
 
== History ==
 
== History ==
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
 
===Magic and early religion===
 
===Magic and early religion===
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{{see|Myth and ritual}}
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The belief that influence can be exerted on supernatural powers through [[sacrifice]] or [[invocation]] goes back to [[prehistory|prehistoric times]]. It is present in the [[ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[pyramid texts]] and the [[India]]n ''[[Veda]]s,'' specifically the ''[[Atharvaveda]]'' ("knowledge of magic formulas"), which contains a number of [[charm]]s, sacrifices, hymns, and uses of [[herb]]s. It addresses topics including [[constipation]], [[disease]], [[possession]] by [[demon]]s, and the glorification of the [[sun]].<ref>Maurice Bloomfield, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av.htm Hymns of the Atharva-Veda,] ''Sacred-texts.com.'' Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
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The belief that influence can be taken on supernatural powers, by [[prayer]], [[sacrifice]] or [[invocation]] goes back to [[prehistoric religion]], and is consequently present from the earliest records of a cultic nature, including the Egyptian [[pyramid texts]] and the Indian [[Vedas]], among which the [[Atharvaveda]] in particularly addresses magic in the classical sense, and the position of the Vedic [[Brahmins]], like that of any ancient priesthood, can be compared to that of magicians. <ref>magic in ancient India (page 51)</ref>
 
  
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===Classical antiquity ===
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The prototypical "[[magician]]s" were a class of [[priest]]s, the [[Persia]]n [[Magus|Magi]] of [[Zoroastrianism]], who were highly learned and advanced in knowledge and crafts. This knowledge was likely mysterious to others, giving the Magi a reputation for sorcery and [[alchemy]].<ref>Stephan Williamson, [http://www.efn.org/~opal/templeofthemagi.html The Real Magi (Wise Men) and the True Star of Bethlehem.] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref> The ancient Greek [[mystery religion]]s had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical [[papyrus|papyri]] have been recovered. Dating as early as the second century B.C.E., the scrolls contain early instances of spells, incantations, and magical words composed of long strings of [[vowel]]s, and self-identification with a deity (the chanting of "I am [deity]," for example.)
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Belief in various magical practices has waxed and waned in [[Europe]]an and Western [[history]], under pressure from either organised monotheistic religions or from [[scepticism]] about the reality of magic, and the ascendancy of [[scientism]].
 
  
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The prototypical "magicians" were a class of priests, the [[Magi]] of [[Zoroastrianism]], and their reputation together with that of [[Ancient Egypt]] shaped the [[hermeticism]] of [[Hellenistic religion]].
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The roots of European magical practice are often claimed to originate in such Greek or Egyptian magic, but other scholars contest this theory, arguing that European magic may have drawn from a generalized magical tradition, but not from Egyptian magic specifically.<ref>Laurel Holmstrom, [http://www.sonoma.edu/users/h/holmstrl/EGmagic.html Self-identification with Deity and Voces Magicae in Ancient Egyptian and Greek Magic.] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref> In Europe, the [[Celts]] played a large role in early European magical tradition. Living between 700 B.C.E. and 100 C.E.., Celtics known as [[Druid]]s served as priests, teachers, judges, [[astrology|astrologers]], healers, and more. Rituals were often connected with [[agriculture|agricultural]] events and aspects of nature; [[tree]]s in particular were sacred to the Celts. Over time, the Celtic beliefs and practices grew into what would become known as [[Paganism]], mixed with other Indo-European beliefs, and became part of a set of beliefs and practices that were known collectively as "[[witchcraft]]." These practices included the concoction of [[potion]]s and ointments, [[spell]] casting, as well as other works of magic.<ref>Magikal Melting Pot, [http://www.magickalmeltingpot.com/History History of Magick.] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
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The Greek [[mystery religion]]s had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical [[papyrus|papyri]], in [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], and [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]], have been recovered.  These sources contain early instances of much of the magical lore that later became part of Western cultural expectations about the practice of magic, especially [[ceremonial magic]]. They contain early instances of:
 
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*the use of "[[magic word]]s" said to have the power to command [[spirit]]s;
 
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*the use of [[wand]]s and other ritual tools;
 
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*the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits he is [[invocation|invoking]] or [[evocation|evoking]]; and
 
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*the use of mysterious [[symbol]]s or [[sigil (magic)|sigil]]s thought useful to invoke or evoke spirits.
 
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The use of [[Medium (spirituality)|spirit mediums]] is also documented in these texts; many of the spells call for a child to be brought to the magic circle to act as a conduit for messages from the spirits. The time of the Emperor [[Julian of Rome]], marked by a reaction against the influence of Christianity, saw a revival of magical practices associated with [[neo-Platonism]] under the guise of [[theurgy]].
 
  
 
===Middle Ages ===
 
===Middle Ages ===
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Medieval authors, under the control of the Church, confined their magic to compilations of wonderlore and collections of spells.  [[Albertus Magnus]] was credited, rightly or wrongly, with a number of such compilations.  Specifically Christianised varieties of magic were devised at this period.  During the early Middle Ages, the cult of [[relic]]s as objects not only of [[veneration]] but also of supernatural power arose.  Miraculous tales were told of the power of relics of the [[saint]]s to work [[miracle]]s, not only to heal the sick, but for purposes like swaying the outcome of a [[battle]].  The relics had become [[amulet]]s, and various [[church]]es strove to purchase scarce or valuable examples, hoping to become places of [[pilgrimage]]. As in any other economic endeavour, demand gave rise to supply.  Tales of the miracle-working relics of the saints were compiled later into quite popular collections like the ''[[Golden Legend]]'' of [[Jacobus de Voragine]] or the ''Dialogus miraculorum'' of [[Caesar of Heisterbach]].
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The [[Middle Ages]] were characterized by the ubiquitousness and power of the [[Catholic Church]]. In the beginning of Europe's conversion to [[Christianity]], religious practices and beliefs were often appropriated and Christianized; for example, Christian rites and formulas were combined with Germanic folk rituals to cure ailments. Christian [[relic]]s replaced [[amulet]]s, and tales were told of the miracles these relics wrought. Churches that housed these relics became places of [[pilgrimage]]. Magic coexisted, often uneasily, with Christian theology for much of the early Middle Ages.  
  
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There were other, officially proscribed varieties of Christianized magic.  The [[demonology]] and [[angel]]ology contained in the earliest [[grimoire]]s assume a life surrounded by Christian implements and sacred rituals.  The underlying [[theology]] in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with [[fasting]], [[prayer]]s, and [[sacrament]]s, so that by using the holy names of [[God]] in the sacred languages, he could use divine power to coërce [[demon]]s into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals. Not surprisingly, the Church disapproved of these rites.
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By the fifteenth century, magicians were persecuted, as magical rites and beliefs were considered [[heresy]], a distortion of Christian rites to do the [[Devil]]'s work. [[Magician]]s were accused of ritualistic baby-killing and of having gained magical powers through pacts with the Devil.<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Magic.</ref>
  
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In the [[13th century]], [[astrology]] had some great names: in [[England]] [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]], in [[Europe]] the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Guido Bonatti]] from [[Forlì]].
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Despite this widespread condemnation of magical practice, a great number of magic formulas and books from the Middle Ages suggest that magic was widely practiced. Charms, amulets, [[divination]], [[astrology]], and the magical use of herbs and animals existed, as well as higher forms of magic such as [[alchemy]], [[necromancy]], [[astral]] magic, and more advanced forms of astrology. Magic also played a role in [[literature]]; most notably in the [[Arthurian romances]], where the magician [[Merlin]] advised [[King Arthur]].<ref>Ibid.</ref> [[Grimoires]], books of magical knowledge, like ''[[The Sworn Book of Honorius]],'' provided instructions on the [[conjuring]] and command of [[demon]]s, among other information.
  
 
===Renaissance ===
 
===Renaissance ===
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{{see|Alchemy}}
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The [[Renaissance]] saw a resurgence in [[occultism]], which was saturated with the teachings of [[hermeticism]], which, along with [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neo-Platonism]], has formed the basis of most Western occult practices.<ref>Stephan Hoeller, [http://www.gnosis.org/hermes.htm On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages,] ''Gnosis.org''. Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref> [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]], a [[Germany|German]] born in 1486, was widely known for his books on magic and occultism. Most famous for his work ''De Occulta Philosophia'' ''(Occult Philosophy)'', Agrippa was an opportunist who mixed with royalty, founded secret societies, and went to debtor's prison. Even before his death, stories circulated about his prowess as a black magician, some of which were used by [[Goethe]] as inspiration for the title character of his play ''Faust''.<ref>''Occultopedia,'' [http://www.occultopedia.com/a/agrippa.htm Agrippa Von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius.] Retrieved July 24, 2007.</ref>
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[[Renaissance]] [[humanism]] saw a resurgence in [[hermeticism]] and [[Neo-Platonic]] varieties of ceremonial magic.  The Renaissance and the [[Industrial Revolution]], on the other hand, saw the rise of [[scientism]], in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the [[Ptolemaic theory]] of the universe assumed by astrology, the development of the [[germ theory]] of disease, that restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Tensions roused by the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Reformation]] led to an upswing in [[witch-hunt|witch-hunting]], especially in [[Germany]], [[England]], and [[Scotland]]; but ultimately, the new [[theology]] of Protestantism proved a worse foe to magic by undermining belief in the sort of [[ritual]]ism that allowed religious rites to be re-purposed towards earthly, magical ends. Scientism, more than religion, proved to be magic's deadliest foe.
 
  
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=== Magic and Romanticism ===
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[[Image:Barbara Radziwill ZjawaBarbary 19th century.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Pan Twardowski]] summoning the ghost of [[Barbara Radziwiłłówna]] for King [[Sigismund Augustus]], by [[Wojciech Gerson]].]] With the [[Industrial Revolution]], on the other hand, there was the rise of [[scientism]], in such forms as the substitution of [[chemistry]] for [[alchemy]], the dethronement of the [[Ptolemaic theory]] of the universe assumed by [[astrology]], and the development of the [[germ theory]] of [[disease]]. These developments both restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Additionally, tensions roused by the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Reformation]] led to an upswing in [[witch-hunt|witch-hunting]], especially in [[Germany]], [[England]], and [[Scotland]].
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From 1756 to 1781, [[Jacob Philadelphia]] performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout [[Europe]] and [[Russia]]. Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]]'s experiments with his [[Odic force]] appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the [[nineteenth century]], where [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and other offshoots of [[Romanticism]] cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European [[colonialism]], which put Westerners in contact with [[India]] and [[Egypt]], re-introduced exotic beliefs to Europeans at this time. [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Egyptian mythology]] frequently feature in nineteenth century magical texts. The late [[19th century]] spawned a large number of [[magical organization]]s, including the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], the [[Theosophical Society]], and specifically magical variants on [[Freemasonry]]. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Algernon Blackwood]], and [[Arthur Machen]] to its banner.
 
  
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=== Magic in the twentieth century ===
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===Magic in the twentieth century===
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A further revival of interest in magic was heralded by the repeal, in [[England]], of the last [[Witchcraft Act]] in 1951. This was the cue for [[Gerald Gardner]] to publish his first non-fiction book ''Witchcraft Today'', in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a [[witch]]-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe. Gardner combined magic and [[religion]] in a way that was later to cause people to question [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]]'s boundaries between the two subjects.
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The twentieth century saw a dramatic revival of magical interest, particularly with the advent of [[neopaganism]]. [[Aleister Crowley]] wrote a number of works on magic and the occult, including the well known ''Book of the Law,'' which introduced Crowley's concept of "[[Thelema]]." The [[philosophy]] of Thelema is centered around one's "True Will;" one attempts to achieve the proper life course or innermost nature through magic. Thelemites follow two main laws: "Do what thou wilt," and "Love is the law, love under will." Crowley also advocated ritual and [[astral travel]], as well as keeping a "magical record," or diary of magical ceremonies.<ref>''Thelemapedia: The Encyclopedia of Thelema and Magick.''</ref> Crowley was also a member of the magical fraternity [[The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], an organization that had a great deal of influence on western occultism and ceremonial magic.
  
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Gardner's newly publicized religion, and many others, took off in the atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s, when the [[counterculture]] of the [[hippie]]s also spawned another period of renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices.  The various branches of [[Neopaganism]] and other [[Earth religion]]s that have been publicized since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion. Following the trend of magic associated with counterculture, some [[feminism|feminists]] launched an independent revival of [[goddess worship]]. This brought them into contact with the [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] tradition of magical religion, and deeply influenced that tradition in return.
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===The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn===
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In 1888, [[freemasonry|freemasons]] William Westcott, William Woodman, and Samuel Mathers founded [[The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], a secret organization that was to be highly influential on the western practice of magic. The Golden Dawn was very organized, with [[ritual]]s and defined hierarchy, and attempted to structure a functional system of magic. Members, particularly Mathers, spent a great deal of time translating medieval [[grimoire]]s, writing material that combined [[ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] magic, Greco-Egyptian magic, and [[Jewish]] magic into a single working system. The Order taught [[astral travel]], [[scrying]], alchemy, astrology, the [[Tarot]], and [[geomancy]].<ref>''The Mystica,'' [http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/hermetic_order_of_the_golden_dawn.html Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
  
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Some people in the West believe in or practice various forms of magic. The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], [[Aleister Crowley]], and their followers are most often credited with the resurgence of magical tradition in the [[English language|English]] speaking world of the [[20th century]]. Other, similar movements took place at roughly the same time, centered in [[France]] and [[Germany]].  Most Western traditions acknowledging the natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], or the [[Goddess]] have derived at least in part from these magical groups, and are considered [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]]. Long-standing indigenous traditions of magic are regarded as [[Paganism|Pagan]].
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Members attempted to develop their [[personality]] through their higher self, with the goal of achieving god-like status, through the manipulation of energies by the will and imagination. As might be expected, the large egos of many members created arguments, schisms, and alleged magical battles between Mathers and the [[Aleister Crowley]]. In 1903, [[William Butler Yeats]] took over leadership, renaming the group "The Holy Order of the Golden Dawn" and giving the group a more [[Christian]]-inspired philosophy. By 1914, however, there was little interest, and the organization was closed down.<ref>''Mysterious Britain,'' [http://www.mysteriousbritain.co.uk/occult/golden_dawn.html The Golden Dawn.] Retrieved July 24, 2007.</ref>
  
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[[Aleister Crowley]] preferred the spelling [[Magick|''magick'']], defining it as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will." By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as [[ritual magic]]. In ''Magick in Theory and Practice'', Chapter XIV, Crowley says:
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===Witchcraft and the New Age===
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In 1951, [[England]] repealed the last of the [[Witchcraft Acts]], which had previously made it against the law to practice witchcraft in the country. [[Gerald Gardner]], often referred to as the "father of modern witchcraft," published his first non-fiction book on magic, entitled ''Witchcraft Today,'' in 1954, which claimed modern witchcraft is the surviving remnant of an ancient Pagan religion. Gardner's novel inspired the formation of covens, and "[[Gardnerian Wicca]]" was firmly established.<ref>George Knowles, [http://www.controverscial.com/Gerald%20Brosseau%20Gardner.htm Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964).] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
  
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:''What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose.''
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The atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s was conducive to the revival of interest in magic; the [[hippie]] [[counterculture]] sparked renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices such as astrology. Various branches of [[Neopaganism]] and other [[Earth religion]]s combined magic with religion, and influenced each other. For instance, [[feminism|feminists]] launched an independent revival of [[goddess worship]], both influencing and being influenced by Gardnerian Wicca. Interest in magic can also be found in the [[New Age]] movement. Traditions and beliefs of different branches of neopaganism tend to vary, even within a particular group. Most focus on the development of the individual practitioner, not a need for strongly defined universal traditions or beliefs.
  
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Western magical traditions include ceremonial magic, as well as [[Wicca]] and some other [[Neopagan]] religions. Definitions and uses of magic tend to vary even within magical traditions.
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==Magicians==
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A magician is a person who practices the art of [[magic]], producing desired effects through the use of [[spell]]s, [[charm]]s, and other means. Magicians often claim to be able to manipulate [[supernatural]] entities or the forces of [[nature]]. Magicians have long been a source of fascination, and can be found in literature throughout most of history.
  
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Wicca is one of the more famous traditions within Neopaganism, a magical religion of [[witchcraft]] with influences including the Golden Dawn and Crowley. Ruickbie (2004:193-209) shows that Wiccans and Witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the general result upon the practitioner is a positive one.
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===Magicians in legend and popular culture===
  
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The belief in Magic is often considered [[Superstition|superstitious]], although some magical practices rely on widely accepted psychological principles and are only intended to promote internal personal changes within the practitioner themselves. Visualization techniques, for instance, widely used by magicians, are also used in fields such as clinical psychology and sports training.
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[[Image:Galligantus - Project Gutenberg eText 17034.jpg|left|thumb|"The giant Galligantua and the wicked old magician transform the duke's daughter into a white hind." by [[Arthur Rackham]]; an evil wizard from the [[fairy tale]] ''Jack the Giant Killer''.]]
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Wizards, magicians, and practitioners of magic by other titles have appeared in [[myth]]s, [[folktale]]s, and [[literature]] throughout recorded history, as well as modern [[fantasy]] and [[role-playing game]]s. They commonly appear as both mentors and villains, and are often portrayed as wielding great power. While some magicians acquired their skills through study or [[apprenticeship]], others were born with magical abilities.  
  
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== Theories of magic ==
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Some magicians and wizards now understood to be fictional, such as the figure of [[Merlin]] from the [[Arthurian legend]]s, were once thought of as actual historical figures. While modern audiences often view magicians as wholly fictional, characters such as the witches in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''Macbeth'' and wizards like [[Prospero]] from ''The Tempest,'' were often historically considered to be as real as cooks or kings.
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
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{{cquote|O Thou thunderbolt of Science, that flashest from the dark clouds of Magic! I adore Thee, Evoe! I adore Thee, IAO!|30px|30px|[[J. F. C. Fuller]], ''The Treasure House of Images''}}
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Wizards, who are often depicted with long, flowing white hair and beards, pointy hats, and robes covered with "sigils" (symbols created for a specific magical purpose), are often featured in often featured in fantasy novels and role-playing games. The wizard Gandalf in [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s ''Lord of the Rings'' trilogy is a well-known example of a magician who plays the role of mentor, much like the role of the wizard in [[medieval]] chivalric [[Romance (genre)|romance]]. Other witches and magicians can appear as villains, as hostile to the [[hero]] as [[ogre]]s and other monsters.<ref>Northrop Frye, ''Anatomy of Criticism'' (Princeton University Press, 2000). ISBN 0691069999</ref> Wizards and magicians often have specific props, such as a [[wand]], [[staff]], or [[crystal ball]], and may also have a [[familiar animal]] (an animal believed to be possessed of magic powers) living with them.
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A survey of writings by believers in magic shows that adherents believe that it may work by one or more of these basic principles:
 
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* '''Natural forces that cannot be detected by science''' at present, and in fact may not be detectable at all.  These magical forces are said to exist in addition to and alongside the four [[fundamental forces]] of nature: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], the [[strong force]] and the [[weak force]].
 
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* '''Intervention of spirits''' similar to these hypothetical natural forces, but with their own consciousness and intelligence. Believers in [[spirit]]s will often describe a whole [[cosmos]] of beings of many different kinds, sometimes organized into a [[hierarchy]].
 
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* A '''mystical power''', such as [[mana]] or [[numen]], that exists in all things. Sometimes this power is contained in a magical object, such as a stone, charm, or [[dehk]], which the magician can manipulate.
 
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* '''Manipulation of the Elements''' by using the will of the magician and/or with symbols or objects representative of the element(s). Western practitioners typically use the [[Classical elements]] of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire.
 
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* '''Manipulation of symbols'''. Adherents of [[magical thinking]] believe that symbols can be used for more than representation: they can magically take on a physical quality of the phenomenon or object that they represent. By manipulating symbols (as well as [[sigils]]), one is said to be able to manipulate the reality that this symbol represents. 
 
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* The principles of '''[[sympathetic magic]]''' of Sir [[James George Frazer]], explicated in his ''[[The Golden Bough]]'' (third edition, 1911-1915). These principles include the "law of similarity" and the "law of contact" or "contagion."  These are systematized versions of the manipulation of symbols.  Frazer defined them this way:
 
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::''If we analyse the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not.'' [http://www.bartleby.com/196/5.html]
 
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* '''Concentration or meditation'''. A certain amount of focusing or restricting the mind to some imagined object (or will), according to [[Aleister Crowley]], produces mystical attainment or "an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object." (Book Four, Part 1: Mysticism) Magic, as defined previously, seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object (or Will), thereby producing said attainment. For example, if one wishes to concentrate on a God, one might memorize a system of correspondences (perhaps chosen arbitrarily, as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes) and then make every object that one sees "correspond" to said God.
 
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:[[Aleister Crowley]] wrote that ''." . . the exaltation of the mind by means of magickal practices leads (as one may say, in spite of itself) to the same results as occur in straightforward [[Yoga]]."''  Crowley's [[magick]] thus becomes a form of mental, mystical, or spiritual discipline, designed to train the mind to achieve greater concentration.  Crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick, suggesting a connection with the first principle in this list. However, he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding mental or mystical attainment as "black magick."
 
  
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* '''The magical power of the subconscious mind'''. To believers who think they need to convince their [[subconscious mind]] to make the changes they want, all spirits and energies are projections and [[symbol]]s that make sense to the subconscious. A variant of this belief is that the subconscious is capable of contacting spirits, who in turn can work magic.
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[[Image:Ring40.jpg|right|thumb|Illustration by [[Arthur Rackham]] to [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''Siegfried'': [[Wotan]] visiting Mime]]
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There are significantly fewer female magicians or wizards in fiction. Female practitioners of magic are often called [[witch]]es, a term that generally denotes a lesser degree of schooling and type of magic, and often carries with it a negative connotation. Females who practice high level magic are sometimes referred to as enchantresses, such as [[Morgan le Fay]], half-sister to [[King Arthur]]. In contrast to the dignified, elderly depiction of wizards, enchantresses are often described as young and beautiful, although their youth is generally a magical illusion.
  
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* A mysterious '''interconnection in the cosmos''' that connects and binds all things, above and beyond the natural forces, or in some cases though to be an as-yet undiscovered or unquantifiable natural force.
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==Types of magical rites==
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The best-known type of magical practice is the [[spell]], a [[ritual]]istic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability, or downright [[fraud]].  
  
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*''"The Oneness in All''"; based on the fundamental concepts of [[monism]] and [[Non-duality]], this philosophy holds that Magic is little more than the application of one's own inherent unity with the Universe. The central idea is that on realizing that the Self is limitless, one may live as such, seeking to preserve the Balance of Nature and live as a servant/extension thereof.
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[[Image:John William Waterhouse - The Crystal Ball.JPG|right|thumb|"The Crystal Ball" by [[John William Waterhouse]]: using material for magical purposes; besides the crystal, a book and a wand.]]
  
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Many more theories exist. Practitioners will often mix these concepts, and sometimes even invent some themselves. In the contemporary current of [[chaos magic]] in particular, it is not unusual to believe that any concept of magic works.
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Another well-known magical practice is [[divination]], which seeks to reveal information about the past, present, or future. Varieties of divination include: [[Astrology]], [[Cartomancy]], [[Chiromancy]], [[Dowsing]], [[Fortune telling]], [[Geomancy]], [[I Ching]], [[Omen]]s, [[Scrying]], and [[Tarot]]. [[Necromancy]], the practice of summoning the dead, can also be used for divination, as well as an attempt to command the spirits of the dead for one's own purposes.
  
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Key principles of utilizing Magic are often said to be Concentration and Visualization. Many of those who cast spells attain a mental state called the "[[Trance]] State" to enable the spell. The Trance State is often described as an emptying of the mind, akin to [[meditation]].
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Varieties of magic are often organized into categories, based on their technique or objective. British anthropologist [[Sir James Frazer]] described two categories of "sympathetic" magic: contagious and homeopathic. "Homeopathic" or "imitative" magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; attempting to harm a person by harming a [[photograph]] of said person is an example of homeopathic magic. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence; contagious magic is thought to work on the principle that conjoined parts remain connected on a magical plane, even when separated by long distances. Frazer explained the process:
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<blockquote>If we analyze the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not.<ref>Sir James George Frazer, [http://www.bartleby.com/196/5.html Sympathetic Magic: The Principles of Magic,] ''The Golden Bough.'' Retrieved May 22, 2007.</ref></blockquote>
  
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== Magic, ritual and religion ==
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Contagious magic often uses body parts, such as hair, nail trimmings, and so forth, to work magic spells on a person. Often the two are used in conjunction: [[Voodoo]] dolls, for example, use homeopathic magic, but also often incorporate the hair or nails of a person into the doll. Both types of magic have been used in attempts to harm an enemy, as well as attempts to heal.
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{{see|Magic and religion|Myth and ritual}}
 
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
  
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Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious [[ritual]]s and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, [[magical thinking]].  
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Another common set of categories given to magic is that of High and Low Magic. High magic, also called ceremonial magic, has the purpose of bringing the magician closer to the [[divine]]. Low magic, on the other hand, is more practical, and often has purposes involving [[money]], [[love]], and [[health]]. Low magic has often been considered to be more rooted in [[superstition]], and often was linked with [[witchcraft]].<ref>Catherine Beyer, [http://wicca.timerift.net/ceremonial_magic.shtml Definition: Ceremonial Magic,] ''Wicca for the Rest of Us.'' Retrieved May 22, 2007.</ref>
  
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Related to both magic and [[prayer]] is religious [[supplication]].  This involves a prayer, or even a [[sacrifice]] to a supernatural being or god.  This god or being is then asked to intervene on behalf of the person offering the prayer.
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==The working of magic==
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Practitioners of magic often have a variety of items that are used for magical purposes. These can range from the staff or wand, which is often used in magical rites, to specific items called for by a certain spell or charm (the stereotypical "eye of newt," for example). Knives, [[symbol]]s like the [[circle]] or [[pentacle]], and [[altar]]s are often used in the performance of magical rites.  
  
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The difference, in theory, is that prayer requires the assent of a deity with an independent will, who can deny the request.  Magic, by contrast is thought to be effective:
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Depending on the magical tradition, the time of day, position of the [[star]]s, and direction all play a part in the successful working of a spell or rite. Magicians may use techniques to cleanse a space before performing magic, and may incorporate protective charms or [[amulet]]s.  
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*by virtue of the operation itself;
 
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*or by the strength of the magician's will;
 
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*or because the magician believes he can command the spiritual beings addressed by his spells. 
 
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In practice, when prayer doesn't work, it means that the god has chosen not to hear nor grant it; when magic fails, it is because of some defect in the casting of the spell itself. It is no wonder that magic tends to be more formulaic and less ''extempore'' than prayer.  Ritual is the magician's failsafe, the key to any hope for success, and the explanation for failure.
 
  
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A possible exception is the practice of [[word of faith]], where it is often held that it is the exercise of faith ''in itself'' that brings about a desired result.
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The purpose of magic depends on the type of magic, as well as the individual magician. Some, like [[Aleister Crowley]], used magic to elevate the [[self]] and to join the [[human being|human]] with the [[divinity|divine]]. The use of magic is often connected with a desire for power and the importance of the self, particularly in the case of wizards and [[occultism|occultist]] magicians. Other groups, like [[Wicca]]ns, tend to be more concerned with the relation of the practitioner to the earth and the spiritual and physical worlds around them.
  
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== Varieties of magical practice ==
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==Magical beliefs==
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
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Practitioners of magic attribute the workings of magic to a number of different causes. Some believe in an undetectable, magical, natural force that exists in addition to forces like [[gravity]]. Others believe in a [[hierarchy]] of intervening [[spirit]]s, or mystical powers often contained in magical objects. Some believe in manipulation of the elements ([[fire]], [[air]], [[earth]], [[water]]); others believe that the manipulation of [[symbol]]s can alter the reality that the symbols represent.
  
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The best-known type of magical practice is the '''spell''', a [[ritual]]istic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability or downright fraud.  
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Aleister Crowley defined magic (or as he preferred, "magick") as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will." By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as [[ritual magick]], explaining the process:
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<blockquote>What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose.<ref>Aleister Crowley, ''Magick in Theory and Practice'' (Book Sales, 1992). ISBN 1555217664</ref></blockquote>
  
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Another well-known magical practice is '''[[divination]]''', which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future.  Varieties of divination include: [[Astrology]], [[Augur]]y, [[Cartomancy]], [[Chiromancy]], [[Dowsing]], [[Fortune telling]], [[Geomancy]], [[I Ching]], [[Omen]]s, [[Scrying]] and [[Tarot]].
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Many, including Crowley, have believed that concentration or [[meditation]] can produce mental or mystical attainment; he likened the effect to that which occurred in "straightforward" [[Yoga]]. In addition to concentration, visualization is often used by practitioners of magic; some spells are cast while the practitioner is in a [[trance]] state. The power of the subconscious mind and the interconnectedness of all things are also concepts often found in magical thinking.
  
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'''[[Necromancy]]''' is another practice involving the summoning of and conversation with spirits of the dead (''necros''). This is sometimes done simply to commune with deceased loved ones; it can also be done to gain information from the spirits, as a type of divination; or to command the aid of those spirits in accomplishing some goal, as part of casting a spell.
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==Magical traditions in religion==
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Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many [[religion|religious]] [[ritual]]s and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, [[magical thinking]]. The repetition of [[prayer]] may seem closely related to the repetition of a charm or spell, however there are important differences. Religious beliefs and rituals may involve prayer or even [[sacrifice]] to a [[deity]], where the deity is petitioned to intervene on behalf of the supplicant. In this case, the deity has the choice: To grant or deny the request. Magic, in contrast, is effective in and of itself. In some cases, the magical rite itself contains the power. In others, the strength of the magician's will achieves the desired result, or the ability of the magician to command spiritual beings addressed by his/her spells. The power is contained in the magician or the magical rites, not a deity with a free will.
  
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Varieties of magic can also be categorised by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorisation distinguishes between '''contagious''' magic and '''sympathetic''' magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; [[voodoo doll]]s are an example.
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[[Image:Pentagram_circumscribed.svg|thumb|left|The [[pentagram]] within a circle; a symbol used by many [[Wicca]]ns.]]
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While magic has been often practiced in its own right, it has also been a part of various religions. Often, religions like [[Voodoo]], [[Santeria]], and [[Wicca]] are mischaracterized as nothing more than forms of magic or sorcery. Magic is a part of these religions but does not define them, similar to how [[prayer]] and [[fasting]] may be part of other religions.  
  
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Other common categories given to magic include High and Low Magic (the appeal to divine powers or spirits respectively, with goals lofty or personal as accords the type of magic). Manifest and Subtle magic typically refers to magic of legend rather than what many individuals who practise the [[Occult]] claim to use as magic, where Manifest magic is magic that immediately appears with a result, and Subtle magic being magic that gradually and intangibly alters the world.
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Magic has long been a associated with the practices of [[animism]] and [[shamanism]]. Shamanic contact with the [[spiritual world]] seems to be almost universal in tribal communities, including [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] tribes in [[Australia]], [[Maori]] tribes in [[New Zealand]], [[rainforest]] tribes in [[South America]], bush tribes in [[Africa]], and ancient [[Paganism|Pagan]] tribal groups in [[Europe]]. Ancient [[cave painting]]s in [[France]] are widely speculated to be early magical formulations, intended to produce successful hunts. Much of the [[Babylon]]ian and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.  
  
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Academic historian [[Richard Kieckhefer]] divides the category of spells into [[psychology|psychological]] magic, which seeks to influence other people's minds to do the magician's will, such as with a love spell, and [[illusion]]ary magic, which seeks to conjure the manifestation of various wonders. A spell that conjured up a banquet, or that conferred [[invisibility]] on the magician, would be examples of illusionary magic. Magic that causes objective physical change, in the manner of a [[miracle]], is not accommodated for in Kieckhefer's categories.
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Traditional or folk magic is handed down from generation to generation. Not officially associated with any religion, folk magic includes practices like the use of [[horseshoe]]s for luck, or [[charm]]s to ward off evil spirits. Folk magic traditions are often associated with specific cultures. [[Hoodoo]], not to be confused with [[Voodoo]], is associated with African Americans, and incorporates the use of herbs and spells. [[Pow-wow]] is folk magic generally practiced by the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]], which includes charms, herbs, and the use of [[hex signs]].  
  
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=== Magical traditions ===
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While some organized religions embrace magic, others consider any sort of magical practice evil. [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], for example, both denounce divination and other forms of magic as originating with the [[Devil]]. Contrary to much of magical practice, these religions advocate the submission of the will to a higher power ([[God]]).
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Another method of classifying magic is by "[[tradition]]s," which in this context typically refer to complexes of magical belief and practice associated with various cultural groups and lineages of transmission. Some of these traditions are highly specific and culturally circumscribed.  Others are more [[eclectic]] and [[syncretism|syncretistic]].  These traditions can compass both divination and spells.  
 
  
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When dealing with magic in terms of "traditions," it is a common misconception for outsiders to treat any religion in which clergy members make amulets and talismans for their congregants as a "tradition of magic," even though what is being named is actually an organized religion with clergy, laity, and an order of liturgical service. This is most notably the case when Voodoo, Palo, Santeria, Taoism, Wicca, and other contemporary religions and [[folk religion]]s  are mischaracterized as forms of "magic" or even "sorcery."
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==Magic in theories of cultural evolution==
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[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] have studied belief in magic in relationship to the development of [[culture]]s. The study of magic is often linked to the study of the development of [[religion]] in the hypothesized evolutionary progression from magic to religion to [[science]]. British [[ethnology|ethnologists]] [[Edward Burnett Tylor]] and [[James George Frazer]] proposed that belief in magic preceded religion.<ref>Barthelemy Comoe-Krou, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1310/is_1991_May/ai_10840021 Play and the Sacred in Africa—People at Play,] ''UNESCO Courier.'' Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref>
  
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Examples of magical, folk-magical, and religio-magical traditions include:
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In 1902, [[Marcel Mauss]] published the anthropological classic ''A General Theory of Magic,'' a study of magic throughout various cultures. Mauss declared that, in order to be considered magical, a belief or act must be held by most people in a given society. In his view, magic is essentially traditional and social: “We held that sacred things, involved in sacrifice, did not constitute a system of propagated illusions, but were social, consequently real.”<ref>David Levi Strauss, [http://brooklynrail.org/2006/07/film/magic-and-images Magic and Images/Images and Magic,] ''The Brooklyn Rail.'' Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref>
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*[[Alchemy]]
 
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*[[Animism]]
 
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*[[Catholicism|Catholicism (Exorcism)]]
 
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*[[Druid|Druidry]]
 
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*[[Hermeticism]]
 
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*[[Mantra|Mantrik Hinduism]]
 
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*[[Witchcraft]]
 
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*[[Kabbala]]
 
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*[[Nagualism]]
 
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*[[New Age]]
 
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*[[Obeah]]
 
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*[[Reiki]]
 
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*[[Santería]]
 
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*[[Satanism]]
 
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*[[Shamanism]]
 
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*[[Taoism]]
 
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*[[Voodoo]]
 
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*[[Wicca]]
 
  
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==Magic in animism and folk religion==
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[[Sigmund Freud]]'s 1913 work, ''Totem and Taboo'', is an application of [[psychoanalysis]] to the fields of [[archaeology]], anthropology, and the study of religion. Freud pointed out striking parallels between the cultural practices of native tribal groups and the behavior patterns of [[neurosis|neurotics]]. In his third essay, entitled "Animism, Magic and the Omnipotence of Thoughts," Freud examined the [[animism]] and [[narcissism|narcissistic]] phase associated with a primitive understanding of the universe and early [[libido|libidinal]] development. According to his account, a belief in magic and sorcery derives from an overvaluation of physical acts whereby the structural conditions of [[mind]] are transposed onto the world. He proposed that this overvaluation survives in both primitive people and neurotics. The animistic mode of thinking is governed by an "omnipotence of thoughts," a [[projection (psychology)|projection]] of inner mental life onto the external world. This imaginary construction of reality is also discernible in [[obsession|obsessive]] thinking, [[delusional disorder]]s and [[phobia]]s. Freud commented that the omnipotence of such thoughts has been retained in the magical realm of [[art]].
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Appearing from aboriginal tribes in [[Australia]] and [[Maori]] tribes in [[New Zealand]] to [[rainforest]] tribes in [[South America]], bush tribes in [[Africa]] and ancient [[Paganism|Pagan]] tribal groups in [[Europe]] and the [[British Isles]], some form of shamanic contact with the spirit world seems to be nearly universal in the early development of human communities.  The ancient cave paintings in [[France]] are widely speculated to be early magical formulations, intended to produce successful hunts.  Much of the [[Babylon]]ian and [[Egypt]]ian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.
 
  
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Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed into kings and bureaucrats, so too were shamans and adepts devolved into priests and a priestly caste.
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The well-known anthropologist [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] wrote ''The Role of Magic and Religion'' in 1913, describing the role magic plays in societies. According to Malinowski, magic enables simple societies to enact control over the natural environment; a role that is filled by [[technology]] in more complex and advanced societies. He noted that magic is generally used most often for issues concerning [[health]], and almost never used for domestic activities such as [[fire]] or basket making.<ref>Michael Arbuthnot, [http://www.teamatlantis.com/yucatan_test/research_magic_religion.html Article Review: The Role of Magic and Religion.] Retrieved June 15, 2007.</ref>
  
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This shift is by no means in nomenclature alone.  While the [[shaman]]'s task was to negotiate between the tribe and the spirit world, on behalf of the tribe, as directed by the collective will of the tribe, the [[priest]]'s role was to transfer instructions from the deities to the city-state, on behalf of the deities, as directed by the will of those deities. This shift represents the first major usurpation of power by distancing magic from those participating in that magic.  It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, [[Persians]], [[Aztecs]] and [[Mayans]].
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Cultural anthropologist [[Edward E. Evans-Pritchard]] wrote the well-known ''Witchcraft: Oracles and Magic among the Azande'' in 1937. His approach was very different from that of Malinowski. In 1965, Evans-Pritchard published his seminal work ''Theories of Primitive Religion,'' where he argued that anthropologists should study cultures "from within," entering the minds of the people they studied, trying to understand the background of why people believe something or behave in a certain way. He claimed that believers and non-believers approach the study of religion in vastly different ways. Non-believers, he noted, are quick to come up with [[biology|biological]], [[sociology|sociological]], or [[psychology|psychological]] theories to explain religious experience as illusion, whereas believers are more likely to develop theories explaining religion as a method of conceptualizing and relating to reality. For believers, religion is a special dimension of reality. The same can be said of the study of magic.
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== Magic in Hinduism ==
 
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It has been  often stated that [[Hindu]] [[India]] is a land of magic, both supernatural and mundane. Hinduism is one of the few religions that has sacred texts like the [[Vedas]] that discuss both white and black magic. The [[Atharva Veda]] is a veda that deals with [[mantra]]s that can be used for both good and bad. The word [[mantrik]] in India literally means "magician" since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells, and curses which can be used for or against forms of magic. Many [[ascetics]] after long periods of [[penance]] and [[meditation]] are alleged to attain a state where they may utilize supernatural powers. However, many say that they choose not to use them and instead focus on transcending beyond physical power into the realm of spirituality. Many [[siddhar]]s are said to have performed [[miracle]]s that would ordinarily be impossible to perform.
 
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== Magic and monotheism ==
 
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
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=== In Judaism and Christianity ===
 
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{{further|[[Kabbalah]], [[Christian views on witchcraft]]}}
 
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Officially, [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] characterize magic as forbidden [[witchcraft]], and have often prosecuted practitioners of it with varying degrees of severity. Other trends in monotheistic thought have dismissed all such manifestations as trickery and illusion, nothing more than dishonest gimmicks. When "witchcraft" is believed, its power may be blamed on the manipulation of demons or evil spirits to work the witch's will.  European witch-hunter lore popularly stated that magic was only possible through a pact with Satan himself, or one of his agents.  The incriminating signs of witchery, as seen in the [[Malleus Maleficarum]], were many and varied; therefore, it is difficult to tell how many condemned "witches" actually practiced magic or paganism.
 
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=== In Islam ===
 
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[[Muslims]], followers of the religion of [[Islam]], do commonly believe in magic, and explicitly forbid the practice of it (Sihr). Sihr translates as sorcery or black magic from Arabic. Many Muslims believe that the devils taught sorcery to mankind:
 
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:''And they follow that which the devils falsely related against the kingdom of Solomon.  [[Solomon]] disbelieved not; but the [[devil]]s disbelieved, teaching mankind sorcery and that which was revealed to the two angels in [[Babel]], Harut and Marut. Nor did they (the two [[angel]]s) teach it to anyone till they had said: We are only a temptation, therefore disbelieve not (in the guidance of [[Allah]]). And from these two (angels) people learn that by which they cause division between man and wife; but they injure thereby no-one save by Allah's leave. And they learn that which harmeth them and profiteth them not. And surely they do know that he who trafficketh therein will have no (happy) portion in the Hereafter; and surely evil is the price for which they sell their souls, if they but knew.'' ([[Qur'an|al-Qur'an]] 2:102)
 
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However, whereas performing ''miracles'' in Islamic thought and belief are reserved for only Messengers (al-Rusul - those Prophets who came with a new Revealed Text) and Prophets (al-Anbiyaa - those Prophets who came to continue the specific law and Revelation of a previous Messenger) ; supernatural acts are also believed to be performed by Awliyaa - the spiritually accomplished, through Ma'rifah - and referred to as Karaamaat (extraordinary acts). Disbelief in the miracles of the Prophets is considered an act of disbelief; belief in the miracles of any given pious individual is not. Neither are regarded as magic, but as signs of Allah at the hands of those close to Him that occur by His will and His alone. Contrary to recent writings on the topic, Islamic esoterica, or Tasawwuf (also called Sufism), does not originate in the teachings of the Greek, Persian or Roman spiritual traditions spreading into Islamic thought with Muslim conquest{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. ''Tasawwuf '' is based on the cognizance of Allah - al-Ma'rifah - and like ''Fiqh'', was codified by the learned as time passed and the Muslim masses became less knowledgeable about their faith and thus thoght to have required a codified method (Manhaj) of following it in their day-to-day lives. As is said by the 'Ulamaa; 'Tasawwuf was once a reality without a name and is now a name without reality' - referring to what they saw as the general moral decay and growing ignorance of Muslims of spirituality.
 
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Some people, especially during the Middle Ages, believed in topics such as [[Magic carpet|flying carpets]] and the esoteric sciences such as [[alchemy]] and [[astrology]], where a student under the proper master could obtain this knowledge. The [[Persian Empire|Persian]] scientist [[Biruni]], for example, is said to have been famed for his knowledge of using astrology to foretell the near future with [[astrolabe]]s.
 
  
 +
==Magic as good or evil==
 +
Magic and magicians are often represented as [[evil]] and manipulative. Part of this may have to do with the historical [[demon]]ization of magic and [[witchcraft]], or, more simply, people's fear of what they do not understand. Many make a distinction between "black" magic and "white" magic; black magic being practiced for selfish, evil gains, and white magic for good. Others prefer not to use these terms, as the term "black magic" implies that the magic itself is evil. They note that magic can be compared to a tool, which can be put towards evil purposes by evil men, or beneficial purposes by good people. An axe is simply an axe; it can be used to kill, or it can be used to chop firewood and provide heat for a mother and her child.
  
 +
While there have been practitioners of magic that have attempted to use magic for selfish gain or to harm others, most practitioners of magic believe in some form of [[karma]]; whatever energy they put out into the world will be returned to them. [[Wicca]]ns, for example, often believe in the [[Rule of Three]]; whatever one sends out into the world will be returned three times. Malicious actions or spells, then, would then hurt the sender more than the recipient. [[Voodoo]] dolls, often represented as a means of hurting or even killing an enemy, are often used for healing and good luck in different areas of one's life.
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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<references/>
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  discussion of different citation methods and how to generate
 
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  footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and  <reference /> tags
 
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{{reflist}}
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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<div class="references-small">
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* Clifton, Dan Salahuddin. 1998. ''Myth Of The Western Magical Tradition''. ISBN 0393001431
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* Crowley, Aleister. 1991. ''Magick Without Tears''. New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1561840181
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* Crowley, Aleister. 1989. ''The Holy Books of Thelema''. Weiser Books. ISBN 0877286868
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* de Givry, Grillot. 1954. ''Witchcraft, Magic, and Alchemy''. Frederick Pub.
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* [[James Frazer|Frazer, J. G.]] (1911). ''The Magic Art'' (2 vols.) (''The Golden Bough'', 3rd ed., Part II). London.
+
* Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1937. ''Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande.'' Clarendon Press.
−
 
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* Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1965. ''Theories of Primitive Religion.'' Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198231318
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* {{cite book |last=Clifton |first=Dan Salahuddin|authorlink=Dan Salahuddin Clifton|title=[[Myth Of The Western Magical Tradition]] |year=1998 |publisher=C&GCHE|id=ISBN 0-393-00143-1 }}
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* Frazer, J. G. 1911. ''The Golden Bough.'' London.
−
 
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* Freud, Sigmund. [1913] 2001. ''Totem and Taboo''. Routledge. ISBN 041525387X
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* [[Grillot de Givry|de Givry, Grillot]] (1954). ''Witchcraft, Magic, and Alchemy'', trans. J. Courtney Locke. Frederick Pub.  
+
* Hutton, Ronald. 2001. ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft''. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-285449-6
−
+
* Hutton, Ronald. 2003. ''Witches, Druids, and King Arthur''. Hambledon. ISBN 1-85285-397-2
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* [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton, Ronald]] (2001). ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft''. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-285449-6.
+
* Kampf, Erich. 1894. ''The Plains of Magic.'' Konte Publishing.  
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+
* Kiekhefer, Richard. 1998. ''Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century''. Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 0-271-01751-1.  
−
* Hutton, Ronald (2003). ''Witches, Druids, and King Arthur''. Hambledon. ISBN 1-85285-397-2
+
* Malinowski, Bronislaw. 1992. ''Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays''. Waveland Press. ISBN 0881336572
−
 
+
* Mauss, Marcel. [1902] 2001. ''General Theory of Magic''. Routledge. ISBN 0415253969
−
* Kampf, Erich (1894). ''The Plains of Magic.'' Konte Publishing.
+
* Martin, Philip. ''The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest''. ISBN 0-87116-195-8
−
 
+
* Regardie, Israel. 2002. ''Golden Dawn: The Original Account of the Teachings, Rites & Ceremonies of the Hermetic Order''. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0875426638
−
* [[Richard Kiekhefer|Kiekhefer, Richard]] (1998). ''Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century''. Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 0-271-01751-1.  
+
* Ruickbie, Leo. 2004. ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows''. Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7
−
 
+
* Thomas, N. W. 1911. "Magic." ''Encyclopedia Britannica.''  
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* [[Leo Ruickbie|Ruickbie, Leo]] (2004). ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows''. Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7.
+
* Wrede, Patricia. "Magic and Magicians." ''Fantasy Worldbuilding Questions''
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* Thomas, N. W. (1910&ndash;11). "Magic." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 11th ed., '''vol. 26''', p. 337.
 
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</div>
 
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==External links==
 
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved November 5, 2022.
 +
* [http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html "Magical Thinking"] ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11197b.htm "Occult Art, Occultism"] ''Catholic Encyclopedia''
 +
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm "Witchcraft"] ''Catholic Encyclopedia''
  
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11197b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Occult Art, Occultism"]
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{{Credits|Magic_(paranormal)|125935766|Magic_(paranormal)|176450609|Magician_(paranormal)|110640950|Magician_(fantasy)|125967066|}}
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Witchcraft"]
 
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* [http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry for Magical Thinking]
 
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{{Credits|Magic_(paranormal)|125935766|}}
 

Latest revision as of 10:49, 9 March 2023


"The Sorceress" by John William Waterhouse
John Dee and Edward Kelley evoking a spirit: Elizabethans who claimed magical knowledge.

Magic, sometimes known as sorcery, is a conceptual system that asserts human ability to control the natural world (including events, objects, people, and physical phenomena) through mystical, paranormal, or supernatural means. The term can also refer to the practices employed by a person asserting this influence, and to beliefs that explain various events and phenomena in such terms. In many cultures, magic is under pressure from, and in competition with, scientific and religious conceptual systems.

Although an effort is sometimes made to differentiate sorcery from magic performed for entertainment value by referring to sorcery as "magick," this article will consistently use "magic" in referring to sorcery.

Magic has been used throughout history, in attempts to heal or harm others, to influence the weather or crops, and as part of religious practices like shamanism and paganism. While magic has been feared and condemned by those of certain faiths and questioned by scientists, it has survived both in belief and practice. Practitioners continue to use it for good or evil, as magic itself is neither; but only a tool that is used according to the purpose of the one who wields it. The efficacy of magic continues to be debated, as both religious adherents and scientists find difficulty understanding the source of its power.

Fundamental to magic is unseen connections whereby things act on one another at a distance through invisible links.[1] Magic is thus distinguished both from religion and science: From religion in that magic invokes spiritual powers without presuming any personal relationship with spiritual or divine beings, merely an ability or power to bring about particular results; and from science in that magic offers no empirical justification other than its efficacy, invoking a symbolic, rather than actual, cause-effect relationship.

While some deny any form of magic as authentic, those that practice it regard the influencing of events, objects, people, and physical phenomena through mystical, paranormal or supernatural means as real. The fascination that magicians hold for the public reflects a longing to understand more than the external, physical aspects of the world and penetrate that which could give deeper meaning, the realm of spirit and magic.

Etymology

The word magic derives from Magus (Old Persian maguš), one of the Zoroastrian astrologer priests of the Medes. In the Hellenistic period, Greek μάγος (magos) could be used as an adjective, but an adjective μαγικός (magikos, Latin magicus) is also attested from the first century (Plutarchus), typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (magike techne, Latin ars magica) "magical art." The word entered the English language in the late fourteenth century from Old French magique.

Likewise, sorcery was taken in c. 1300 from Old French sorcerie, which is from Vulgar Latin sortiarius, from sors "fate," apparently meaning "one who influences fate." Sorceress appears also in the late fourteenth century, while sorcerer is attested only from 1526.

The Indo-European root of the word means “to be able, to have power”—really a verb of basic action and agency.

History

Magic and early religion

The belief that influence can be exerted on supernatural powers through sacrifice or invocation goes back to prehistoric times. It is present in the Egyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda ("knowledge of magic formulas"), which contains a number of charms, sacrifices, hymns, and uses of herbs. It addresses topics including constipation, disease, possession by demons, and the glorification of the sun.[2]

The prototypical "magicians" were a class of priests, the Persian Magi of Zoroastrianism, who were highly learned and advanced in knowledge and crafts. This knowledge was likely mysterious to others, giving the Magi a reputation for sorcery and alchemy.[3] The ancient Greek mystery religions had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical papyri have been recovered. Dating as early as the second century B.C.E., the scrolls contain early instances of spells, incantations, and magical words composed of long strings of vowels, and self-identification with a deity (the chanting of "I am [deity]," for example.)

The roots of European magical practice are often claimed to originate in such Greek or Egyptian magic, but other scholars contest this theory, arguing that European magic may have drawn from a generalized magical tradition, but not from Egyptian magic specifically.[4] In Europe, the Celts played a large role in early European magical tradition. Living between 700 B.C.E. and 100 C.E., Celtics known as Druids served as priests, teachers, judges, astrologers, healers, and more. Rituals were often connected with agricultural events and aspects of nature; trees in particular were sacred to the Celts. Over time, the Celtic beliefs and practices grew into what would become known as Paganism, mixed with other Indo-European beliefs, and became part of a set of beliefs and practices that were known collectively as "witchcraft." These practices included the concoction of potions and ointments, spell casting, as well as other works of magic.[5]

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages were characterized by the ubiquitousness and power of the Catholic Church. In the beginning of Europe's conversion to Christianity, religious practices and beliefs were often appropriated and Christianized; for example, Christian rites and formulas were combined with Germanic folk rituals to cure ailments. Christian relics replaced amulets, and tales were told of the miracles these relics wrought. Churches that housed these relics became places of pilgrimage. Magic coexisted, often uneasily, with Christian theology for much of the early Middle Ages.

By the fifteenth century, magicians were persecuted, as magical rites and beliefs were considered heresy, a distortion of Christian rites to do the Devil's work. Magicians were accused of ritualistic baby-killing and of having gained magical powers through pacts with the Devil.[6]

Despite this widespread condemnation of magical practice, a great number of magic formulas and books from the Middle Ages suggest that magic was widely practiced. Charms, amulets, divination, astrology, and the magical use of herbs and animals existed, as well as higher forms of magic such as alchemy, necromancy, astral magic, and more advanced forms of astrology. Magic also played a role in literature; most notably in the Arthurian romances, where the magician Merlin advised King Arthur.[7] Grimoires, books of magical knowledge, like The Sworn Book of Honorius, provided instructions on the conjuring and command of demons, among other information.

Renaissance

The Renaissance saw a resurgence in occultism, which was saturated with the teachings of hermeticism, which, along with Gnosticism and Neo-Platonism, has formed the basis of most Western occult practices.[8] Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa, a German born in 1486, was widely known for his books on magic and occultism. Most famous for his work De Occulta Philosophia (Occult Philosophy), Agrippa was an opportunist who mixed with royalty, founded secret societies, and went to debtor's prison. Even before his death, stories circulated about his prowess as a black magician, some of which were used by Goethe as inspiration for the title character of his play Faust.[9]

Pan Twardowski summoning the ghost of Barbara Radziwiłłówna for King Sigismund Augustus, by Wojciech Gerson.

With the Industrial Revolution, on the other hand, there was the rise of scientism, in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe assumed by astrology, and the development of the germ theory of disease. These developments both restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Additionally, tensions roused by the Protestant Reformation led to an upswing in witch-hunting, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland.

Magic in the twentieth century

The twentieth century saw a dramatic revival of magical interest, particularly with the advent of neopaganism. Aleister Crowley wrote a number of works on magic and the occult, including the well known Book of the Law, which introduced Crowley's concept of "Thelema." The philosophy of Thelema is centered around one's "True Will;" one attempts to achieve the proper life course or innermost nature through magic. Thelemites follow two main laws: "Do what thou wilt," and "Love is the law, love under will." Crowley also advocated ritual and astral travel, as well as keeping a "magical record," or diary of magical ceremonies.[10] Crowley was also a member of the magical fraternity The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, an organization that had a great deal of influence on western occultism and ceremonial magic.

The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn

In 1888, freemasons William Westcott, William Woodman, and Samuel Mathers founded The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a secret organization that was to be highly influential on the western practice of magic. The Golden Dawn was very organized, with rituals and defined hierarchy, and attempted to structure a functional system of magic. Members, particularly Mathers, spent a great deal of time translating medieval grimoires, writing material that combined Egyptian magic, Greco-Egyptian magic, and Jewish magic into a single working system. The Order taught astral travel, scrying, alchemy, astrology, the Tarot, and geomancy.[11]

Members attempted to develop their personality through their higher self, with the goal of achieving god-like status, through the manipulation of energies by the will and imagination. As might be expected, the large egos of many members created arguments, schisms, and alleged magical battles between Mathers and the Aleister Crowley. In 1903, William Butler Yeats took over leadership, renaming the group "The Holy Order of the Golden Dawn" and giving the group a more Christian-inspired philosophy. By 1914, however, there was little interest, and the organization was closed down.[12]

Witchcraft and the New Age

In 1951, England repealed the last of the Witchcraft Acts, which had previously made it against the law to practice witchcraft in the country. Gerald Gardner, often referred to as the "father of modern witchcraft," published his first non-fiction book on magic, entitled Witchcraft Today, in 1954, which claimed modern witchcraft is the surviving remnant of an ancient Pagan religion. Gardner's novel inspired the formation of covens, and "Gardnerian Wicca" was firmly established.[13]

The atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s was conducive to the revival of interest in magic; the hippie counterculture sparked renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices such as astrology. Various branches of Neopaganism and other Earth religions combined magic with religion, and influenced each other. For instance, feminists launched an independent revival of goddess worship, both influencing and being influenced by Gardnerian Wicca. Interest in magic can also be found in the New Age movement. Traditions and beliefs of different branches of neopaganism tend to vary, even within a particular group. Most focus on the development of the individual practitioner, not a need for strongly defined universal traditions or beliefs.

Magicians

A magician is a person who practices the art of magic, producing desired effects through the use of spells, charms, and other means. Magicians often claim to be able to manipulate supernatural entities or the forces of nature. Magicians have long been a source of fascination, and can be found in literature throughout most of history.

Magicians in legend and popular culture

"The giant Galligantua and the wicked old magician transform the duke's daughter into a white hind." by Arthur Rackham; an evil wizard from the fairy tale Jack the Giant Killer.

Wizards, magicians, and practitioners of magic by other titles have appeared in myths, folktales, and literature throughout recorded history, as well as modern fantasy and role-playing games. They commonly appear as both mentors and villains, and are often portrayed as wielding great power. While some magicians acquired their skills through study or apprenticeship, others were born with magical abilities.

Some magicians and wizards now understood to be fictional, such as the figure of Merlin from the Arthurian legends, were once thought of as actual historical figures. While modern audiences often view magicians as wholly fictional, characters such as the witches in Shakespeare's Macbeth and wizards like Prospero from The Tempest, were often historically considered to be as real as cooks or kings.

Wizards, who are often depicted with long, flowing white hair and beards, pointy hats, and robes covered with "sigils" (symbols created for a specific magical purpose), are often featured in often featured in fantasy novels and role-playing games. The wizard Gandalf in J.R.R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings trilogy is a well-known example of a magician who plays the role of mentor, much like the role of the wizard in medieval chivalric romance. Other witches and magicians can appear as villains, as hostile to the hero as ogres and other monsters.[14] Wizards and magicians often have specific props, such as a wand, staff, or crystal ball, and may also have a familiar animal (an animal believed to be possessed of magic powers) living with them.

Illustration by Arthur Rackham to Richard Wagner's Siegfried: Wotan visiting Mime

There are significantly fewer female magicians or wizards in fiction. Female practitioners of magic are often called witches, a term that generally denotes a lesser degree of schooling and type of magic, and often carries with it a negative connotation. Females who practice high level magic are sometimes referred to as enchantresses, such as Morgan le Fay, half-sister to King Arthur. In contrast to the dignified, elderly depiction of wizards, enchantresses are often described as young and beautiful, although their youth is generally a magical illusion.

Types of magical rites

The best-known type of magical practice is the spell, a ritualistic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability, or downright fraud.

"The Crystal Ball" by John William Waterhouse: using material for magical purposes; besides the crystal, a book and a wand.

Another well-known magical practice is divination, which seeks to reveal information about the past, present, or future. Varieties of divination include: Astrology, Cartomancy, Chiromancy, Dowsing, Fortune telling, Geomancy, I Ching, Omens, Scrying, and Tarot. Necromancy, the practice of summoning the dead, can also be used for divination, as well as an attempt to command the spirits of the dead for one's own purposes.

Varieties of magic are often organized into categories, based on their technique or objective. British anthropologist Sir James Frazer described two categories of "sympathetic" magic: contagious and homeopathic. "Homeopathic" or "imitative" magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; attempting to harm a person by harming a photograph of said person is an example of homeopathic magic. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence; contagious magic is thought to work on the principle that conjoined parts remain connected on a magical plane, even when separated by long distances. Frazer explained the process:

If we analyze the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not.[15]

Contagious magic often uses body parts, such as hair, nail trimmings, and so forth, to work magic spells on a person. Often the two are used in conjunction: Voodoo dolls, for example, use homeopathic magic, but also often incorporate the hair or nails of a person into the doll. Both types of magic have been used in attempts to harm an enemy, as well as attempts to heal.

Another common set of categories given to magic is that of High and Low Magic. High magic, also called ceremonial magic, has the purpose of bringing the magician closer to the divine. Low magic, on the other hand, is more practical, and often has purposes involving money, love, and health. Low magic has often been considered to be more rooted in superstition, and often was linked with witchcraft.[16]

The working of magic

Practitioners of magic often have a variety of items that are used for magical purposes. These can range from the staff or wand, which is often used in magical rites, to specific items called for by a certain spell or charm (the stereotypical "eye of newt," for example). Knives, symbols like the circle or pentacle, and altars are often used in the performance of magical rites.

Depending on the magical tradition, the time of day, position of the stars, and direction all play a part in the successful working of a spell or rite. Magicians may use techniques to cleanse a space before performing magic, and may incorporate protective charms or amulets.

The purpose of magic depends on the type of magic, as well as the individual magician. Some, like Aleister Crowley, used magic to elevate the self and to join the human with the divine. The use of magic is often connected with a desire for power and the importance of the self, particularly in the case of wizards and occultist magicians. Other groups, like Wiccans, tend to be more concerned with the relation of the practitioner to the earth and the spiritual and physical worlds around them.

Magical beliefs

Practitioners of magic attribute the workings of magic to a number of different causes. Some believe in an undetectable, magical, natural force that exists in addition to forces like gravity. Others believe in a hierarchy of intervening spirits, or mystical powers often contained in magical objects. Some believe in manipulation of the elements (fire, air, earth, water); others believe that the manipulation of symbols can alter the reality that the symbols represent.

Aleister Crowley defined magic (or as he preferred, "magick") as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will." By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as ritual magick, explaining the process:

What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose.[17]

Many, including Crowley, have believed that concentration or meditation can produce mental or mystical attainment; he likened the effect to that which occurred in "straightforward" Yoga. In addition to concentration, visualization is often used by practitioners of magic; some spells are cast while the practitioner is in a trance state. The power of the subconscious mind and the interconnectedness of all things are also concepts often found in magical thinking.

Magical traditions in religion

Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious rituals and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, magical thinking. The repetition of prayer may seem closely related to the repetition of a charm or spell, however there are important differences. Religious beliefs and rituals may involve prayer or even sacrifice to a deity, where the deity is petitioned to intervene on behalf of the supplicant. In this case, the deity has the choice: To grant or deny the request. Magic, in contrast, is effective in and of itself. In some cases, the magical rite itself contains the power. In others, the strength of the magician's will achieves the desired result, or the ability of the magician to command spiritual beings addressed by his/her spells. The power is contained in the magician or the magical rites, not a deity with a free will.

The pentagram within a circle; a symbol used by many Wiccans.

While magic has been often practiced in its own right, it has also been a part of various religions. Often, religions like Voodoo, Santeria, and Wicca are mischaracterized as nothing more than forms of magic or sorcery. Magic is a part of these religions but does not define them, similar to how prayer and fasting may be part of other religions.

Magic has long been a associated with the practices of animism and shamanism. Shamanic contact with the spiritual world seems to be almost universal in tribal communities, including Aboriginal tribes in Australia, Maori tribes in New Zealand, rainforest tribes in South America, bush tribes in Africa, and ancient Pagan tribal groups in Europe. Ancient cave paintings in France are widely speculated to be early magical formulations, intended to produce successful hunts. Much of the Babylonian and Egyptian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.

Traditional or folk magic is handed down from generation to generation. Not officially associated with any religion, folk magic includes practices like the use of horseshoes for luck, or charms to ward off evil spirits. Folk magic traditions are often associated with specific cultures. Hoodoo, not to be confused with Voodoo, is associated with African Americans, and incorporates the use of herbs and spells. Pow-wow is folk magic generally practiced by the Pennsylvania Dutch, which includes charms, herbs, and the use of hex signs.

While some organized religions embrace magic, others consider any sort of magical practice evil. Christianity and Islam, for example, both denounce divination and other forms of magic as originating with the Devil. Contrary to much of magical practice, these religions advocate the submission of the will to a higher power (God).

Magic in theories of cultural evolution

Anthropologists have studied belief in magic in relationship to the development of cultures. The study of magic is often linked to the study of the development of religion in the hypothesized evolutionary progression from magic to religion to science. British ethnologists Edward Burnett Tylor and James George Frazer proposed that belief in magic preceded religion.[18]

In 1902, Marcel Mauss published the anthropological classic A General Theory of Magic, a study of magic throughout various cultures. Mauss declared that, in order to be considered magical, a belief or act must be held by most people in a given society. In his view, magic is essentially traditional and social: “We held that sacred things, involved in sacrifice, did not constitute a system of propagated illusions, but were social, consequently real.”[19]

Sigmund Freud's 1913 work, Totem and Taboo, is an application of psychoanalysis to the fields of archaeology, anthropology, and the study of religion. Freud pointed out striking parallels between the cultural practices of native tribal groups and the behavior patterns of neurotics. In his third essay, entitled "Animism, Magic and the Omnipotence of Thoughts," Freud examined the animism and narcissistic phase associated with a primitive understanding of the universe and early libidinal development. According to his account, a belief in magic and sorcery derives from an overvaluation of physical acts whereby the structural conditions of mind are transposed onto the world. He proposed that this overvaluation survives in both primitive people and neurotics. The animistic mode of thinking is governed by an "omnipotence of thoughts," a projection of inner mental life onto the external world. This imaginary construction of reality is also discernible in obsessive thinking, delusional disorders and phobias. Freud commented that the omnipotence of such thoughts has been retained in the magical realm of art.

The well-known anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski wrote The Role of Magic and Religion in 1913, describing the role magic plays in societies. According to Malinowski, magic enables simple societies to enact control over the natural environment; a role that is filled by technology in more complex and advanced societies. He noted that magic is generally used most often for issues concerning health, and almost never used for domestic activities such as fire or basket making.[20]

Cultural anthropologist Edward E. Evans-Pritchard wrote the well-known Witchcraft: Oracles and Magic among the Azande in 1937. His approach was very different from that of Malinowski. In 1965, Evans-Pritchard published his seminal work Theories of Primitive Religion, where he argued that anthropologists should study cultures "from within," entering the minds of the people they studied, trying to understand the background of why people believe something or behave in a certain way. He claimed that believers and non-believers approach the study of religion in vastly different ways. Non-believers, he noted, are quick to come up with biological, sociological, or psychological theories to explain religious experience as illusion, whereas believers are more likely to develop theories explaining religion as a method of conceptualizing and relating to reality. For believers, religion is a special dimension of reality. The same can be said of the study of magic.

Magic as good or evil

Magic and magicians are often represented as evil and manipulative. Part of this may have to do with the historical demonization of magic and witchcraft, or, more simply, people's fear of what they do not understand. Many make a distinction between "black" magic and "white" magic; black magic being practiced for selfish, evil gains, and white magic for good. Others prefer not to use these terms, as the term "black magic" implies that the magic itself is evil. They note that magic can be compared to a tool, which can be put towards evil purposes by evil men, or beneficial purposes by good people. An axe is simply an axe; it can be used to kill, or it can be used to chop firewood and provide heat for a mother and her child.

While there have been practitioners of magic that have attempted to use magic for selfish gain or to harm others, most practitioners of magic believe in some form of karma; whatever energy they put out into the world will be returned to them. Wiccans, for example, often believe in the Rule of Three; whatever one sends out into the world will be returned three times. Malicious actions or spells, then, would then hurt the sender more than the recipient. Voodoo dolls, often represented as a means of hurting or even killing an enemy, are often used for healing and good luck in different areas of one's life.

Notes

  1. ↑ David Levi Strauss, Magic and Images/Images and Magic, The Brooklyn Rail. Retrieved June 15, 2007.
  2. ↑ Maurice Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-Veda, Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  3. ↑ Stephan Williamson, The Real Magi (Wise Men) and the True Star of Bethlehem. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  4. ↑ Laurel Holmstrom, Self-identification with Deity and Voces Magicae in Ancient Egyptian and Greek Magic. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  5. ↑ Magikal Melting Pot, History of Magick. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  6. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Magic.
  7. ↑ Ibid.
  8. ↑ Stephan Hoeller, On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages, Gnosis.org. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  9. ↑ Occultopedia, Agrippa Von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius. Retrieved July 24, 2007.
  10. ↑ Thelemapedia: The Encyclopedia of Thelema and Magick.
  11. ↑ The Mystica, Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  12. ↑ Mysterious Britain, The Golden Dawn. Retrieved July 24, 2007.
  13. ↑ George Knowles, Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964). Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  14. ↑ Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton University Press, 2000). ISBN 0691069999
  15. ↑ Sir James George Frazer, Sympathetic Magic: The Principles of Magic, The Golden Bough. Retrieved May 22, 2007.
  16. ↑ Catherine Beyer, Definition: Ceremonial Magic, Wicca for the Rest of Us. Retrieved May 22, 2007.
  17. ↑ Aleister Crowley, Magick in Theory and Practice (Book Sales, 1992). ISBN 1555217664
  18. ↑ Barthelemy Comoe-Krou, Play and the Sacred in Africa—People at Play, UNESCO Courier. Retrieved June 15, 2007.
  19. ↑ David Levi Strauss, Magic and Images/Images and Magic, The Brooklyn Rail. Retrieved June 15, 2007.
  20. ↑ Michael Arbuthnot, Article Review: The Role of Magic and Religion. Retrieved June 15, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Clifton, Dan Salahuddin. 1998. Myth Of The Western Magical Tradition. ISBN 0393001431
  • Crowley, Aleister. 1991. Magick Without Tears. New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1561840181
  • Crowley, Aleister. 1989. The Holy Books of Thelema. Weiser Books. ISBN 0877286868
  • de Givry, Grillot. 1954. Witchcraft, Magic, and Alchemy. Frederick Pub.
  • Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1937. Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande. Clarendon Press.
  • Evans-Pritchard, E.E. 1965. Theories of Primitive Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198231318
  • Frazer, J. G. 1911. The Golden Bough. London.
  • Freud, Sigmund. [1913] 2001. Totem and Taboo. Routledge. ISBN 041525387X
  • Hutton, Ronald. 2001. The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-285449-6
  • Hutton, Ronald. 2003. Witches, Druids, and King Arthur. Hambledon. ISBN 1-85285-397-2
  • Kampf, Erich. 1894. The Plains of Magic. Konte Publishing.
  • Kiekhefer, Richard. 1998. Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century. Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 0-271-01751-1.
  • Malinowski, Bronislaw. 1992. Magic, Science and Religion and Other Essays. Waveland Press. ISBN 0881336572
  • Mauss, Marcel. [1902] 2001. General Theory of Magic. Routledge. ISBN 0415253969
  • Martin, Philip. The Writer's Guide to Fantasy Literature: From Dragon's Lair to Hero's Quest. ISBN 0-87116-195-8
  • Regardie, Israel. 2002. Golden Dawn: The Original Account of the Teachings, Rites & Ceremonies of the Hermetic Order. Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0875426638
  • Ruickbie, Leo. 2004. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows. Robert Hale. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7
  • Thomas, N. W. 1911. "Magic." Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Wrede, Patricia. "Magic and Magicians." Fantasy Worldbuilding Questions

External links

All links retrieved November 5, 2022.

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