Difference between revisions of "Goguryeo" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Goguryeo''' was an ancient kingdom located in southern [[Manchuria]] (which today consists of southern [[Northeast China]]), southern [[Primorsky Krai|Russian Marintime province]], and the northern and central parts of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. It was one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], along with [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]], and it is also considered an important regional kingdom in Manchuria by the [[People's Republic of China]]. It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula as well as the foreign affairs of associated polities in [[China]] and [[Japan]].
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{{Goguryeo Infobox}}
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The [[Samguk Sagi]], a 12th century CE [[Goryeo]] text, indicate that Goguryeo was founded in 37 B.C.E. by [[Jumong]], a prince from [[Buyeo]], although there is archaeological evidence that suggests Goguryeo culture was in existence since the 2nd century B.C.E. around the fall of [[Gojoseon]], an earlier kingdom that also occupied southern Manchuria and northern Korea. It was a major regional power of [[East Asia]] until it was defeated by a Silla-[[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] alliance in 668 C.E. After its defeat, it was later divided between the [[Tang Dynasty]], [[Unified Silla]] and [[Balhae]]; some of the territory might have also been taken by the [[Khitan people|Khitan]], still in tribal form at this point.
 
  
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The ancient kingdom '''Goguryeo''', occupying southern [[Manchuria]] (present-day [[northeast China]]), southern [[Primorsky Krai|Russian Maritime province]], and the northern and central parts of the [[Korean peninsula]], was one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], along with [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]], for nearly seven centuries at the beginning of the first millennium. Considered an important regional kingdom in Manchuria by the [[People's Republic of China]], Goguryeo actively participated in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and as well conducted foreign affairs with associated polities in [[China]] and [[Yamato period|Japan]].
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The '[[Samguk Sagi]], a twelfth-century C.E. [[Goryeo]] text, puts Goguryeo's founding at 37 B.C.E. by [[Jumong]], a prince from [[Buyeo (state)|Buyeo]]. Archaeological evidence suggests Goguryeo [[culture]] existed since the second century B.C.E., around the fall of [[Gojoseon]], an earlier kingdom that also occupied southern Manchuria and northern Korea. Goguryeo, a major regional power of [[East Asia]], fell in defeat to a Silla-[[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] alliance in 668 C.E. After suffering defeat, Goguryeo was divided between the Tang Dynasty, [[Unified Silla]], and [[Balhae]]. The tribal state of [[Khitan]] in Manchuria may have also taken some of the territory.
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{{History of Korea}}{{History of Manchuria}}
 
==History==
 
==History==
 
===Founding===
 
===Founding===
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According to the ''[[Samguk Sagi]]'', a prince from the kingdom of Eastern Buyeo, named Jumong, fled after a power struggle with other princes of the Buyeo court <ref>'Mark E. Byington, "A History of the Puyo State, it's History and Legacy" 2003 PhD dissertation for the department of East Asian History, Harvard University, p. 234'</ref> and founded the Goguryeo state in 37 B.C.E. in a region called [[Jolbon|Jolbon Buyeo]], usually thought to be located in the middle [[Yalu River|Yalu]] and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current [[China]]-[[North Korea]] border. Some scholars believe that Goguryeo may have been founded in the 2nd century B.C.E. <ref>'Daniel Kane, postdoctoral student, Korean History Department, University of Hawaii, personal web site http://www2.hawaii.edu/~dkane/Puyo.htm</ref>  In the geographic monographs of the ''[[Han Shu]]'', the word Goguryeo or "高句麗" was first mentioned in 113 B.C.E. as a region under the jurisdiction of the [[Xuantu]] commandary. <ref>'Christopher I. Beckwith, "Koguryo, The Language Of Japan's Continental Relatives,"  2004 Brill Academic Publishers, page 33'</ref> In the ''[[First Canonical Book of the Tang Dynasty|Old Book of Tang]]'', it is recorded that [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 B.C.E.., a group of [[Yemaek]] tribes, which may have included Goguryeo, made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the [[Amnok River]] valley. <ref>'Mark E. Byington, "A History of the Puyo State, it's History and Legacy," p. 194'</ref>  
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According to the [[Samguk Sagi]], a prince from the kingdom of Eastern Buyeo, named Jumong, fled after a power struggle with other princes of the Buyeo court <ref>Mark E. Byington, “A history of the Puyŏ State, its People, and its Legacy,” PhD Thesis (Harvard University, May 2003), 234. </ref> and founded the Goguryeo state in 37 B.C.E. in a region called [[Jolbon|Jolbon Buyeo]], usually thought to be located in the middle of the [[Yalu River|Yalu]] and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current [[China]]-[[North Korea]] border. Some scholars believe that Goguryeo may have been founded in the second century B.C.E. <ref>Daniel Kane, [http://www2.hawaii.edu/~dkane/Puyo.htm VI. Puyo-Koguryo], ''Bibliography of Ancient Korea and the'' Samguk sagi. Retrieved November 16, 2007.</ref>  
  
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However, the weight of textual evidence from the [[First Canonical Book of the Tang Dynasty|Old]] and [[Second Canonical Book of the Tang Dynasty|New Histories of Tang]], the Samguk Sagi, the [[Nihon Shoki]] as well as other ancient sources would support a 37 B.C.E. or "middle" 1st century B.C.E. foundation date for Goguryeo. Archeological evidence would support centralized groups of Yemaek tribes in the 2nd century B.C.E., but there is no direct evidence that would suggest these Yemaek groups were known as or would identify themselves as Goguryeo.  The first mention of Goguryeo as a group type associated with Yemaek tribes would be a reference in the ''Han Shu'' that discusses a Goguryo revolt in 12 C.E., where they break away from Xuantu influence <ref>'Mark E. Byington, "A History of the Puyo State, it's History and Legacy," p. 233'</ref>.
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The first mention of the word Goguryeo or "高句麗" appeared in the geographic monographs of the ''[[Han Shu]],'' stating that the nation's founding as 113 B.C.E. as a region under the jurisdiction of the [[Xuantu]] commandery.<ref>Christopher I. Beckwith, ''Koguryo: The Language of Japan's Continental Relatives,'' Brill's Japanese Studies Library, vol. 21 (Boston: Brill, 2004 ISBN 9789004139497), 33. </ref> The ''[[First Canonical Book of the Tang Dynasty|Old Book of Tang]]'' states that [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 B.C.E., a group of [[Dongye|Yemaek]] tribes (a people that made up the original Goguryeo stock), which may have included Goguryeo, made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the [[Amnok River]] valley. <ref> Byington, "A history of the Puyo State," 194.</ref>  
  
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At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of Buyeo and Yemaek people, as Buyeo leadership may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms (Rhee 1992:192-193).
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The weight of documentary evidence from the [[First Canonical Book of the Tang Dynasty|Old]] and [[Second Canonical Book of the Tang Dynasty|New Histories of Tang]], the Samguk Sagi, the [[Nihon Shoki]], as well as other ancient sources support a 37 B.C.E. or "middle"-first-century B.C.E. foundation date for Goguryeo. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence supports the claim that centralized groups of Yemaek tribes settled in the second century B.C.E., although a lack of direct evidence suggests that those Yemaek groups had little or no concept of themselves as Goguryeo. The ''Han Shu'' has the first mention of Goguryeo as a group type associated with Yemaek tribes, referring to a Goguryeo revolt in 12 C.E., where they break away from Xuantu influence.<ref>Ibid., 233.</ref> During that time, the Goguryeo ruler, given the title of "marquis" (侯) by the Xuantu administrators, began calling himself the Chinese title of "wang" (王) or king.
  
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====Jumong (Dongmyeongseong)====
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The leadership from Buyeo appears to have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms, leading some to conclude that the founding people of Goguryeo came from a blend of the Buyeo and Yemaek people.<ref>Song Nai Rhee, “Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State,” in ''Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites,'' ed. C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee (Washington State University, 1993 ISBN 0-87422-092-0), 191–196.</ref> The [[San Guo Zhi]], in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians," states that the Buyeo and Yemaek people came from the same ethnic line and spoke a common language.<ref>Peter H. Lee and William Theodore De Bary, ''Sources of Korean Tradition: Introduction to Asian Civilizations'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997 ISBN 9780231105668), 7–11. </ref>
  
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Goguryeo was founded by [[Jumong]], who migrated south from Buyeo. <ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref> [[Jumong]] is a Korean name transcribed in [[hanja]] as 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모). Although his family name is recorded as Go (meaning "high" in Hanja), this is thought to be a posthumous change from the original family name of Hae, the royal surname of Buyeo.
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====Jumong and the Foundation Myth====
  
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Jumong is said to be descended from [[Hae Mosu]], the son of the Sun-god  (''hae'' in modern Korean means sun). According to legend, Jumong left [[Dongbuyeo]] ("Eastern Buyeo") for [[Jolbon|Jolbon Buyeo]], where he married the daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a group of his followers from his native country.  
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The [[Gwanggaeto Stele|Stele]] of [[Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo|Great King Gwanggaeto]] states that [[Jumong]] existed in the fourth century C.E., the earliest mention of Jumong. Jumong is the Korean transcription of the [[hanja]] 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모). The Stele proclaims Jumong the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo, the son of the king of Buyeo and the river deity Habaek.<ref>Ibid., 24–25. </ref> The [[Samguk Sagi]] and [[Samguk Yusa]] paint additional details and name Jumong's mother as Yuhwa. The Samguk Yusa described Jumong's biological father, [[Hae Mosu]], as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince."<ref> Ilyon, ''Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea,'' trans. Tae Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1972), 45. </ref>
  
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Goguryeo maintained a close early relationship with Dongbuyeo until it was absorbed into Goguryeo. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 B.C.E., Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 B.C.E., and North [[Okjeo]] in 28 B.C.E. <ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref>
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The Samguk Sagi presents Hae Mosu as a sky deity who had seduced Yuhwa. Later, the King of Buyeo gave refuge to Yuhwa in the Buyeo court and adopted Jumong as his own son, making Jumong a prince of Buyeo. According to the story, Jumong, very talented, especially in [[archery]] and [[Equestrianism|equestrian]] arts, made the crown prince jealous. The crown prince had plans to have Jumong killed and upon learning of the plot, Jumong fled Buyeo.<ref> Ibid., 46.</ref> The Stele and later Korean sources disagree on which of the Buyeo states Jumong came from. The Stele records that he came from North Buyeo and the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa report he came from [[Dongbuyeo|East Buyeo]]. Jumong eventually journeyed to the [[Jolbon|Jolbon Buyeo]] confederacy, where he married the daughter of the ruler and subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of followers from his native country.
  
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===Centralisation===
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Jumong received the surname, Hae (解), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk Yusa, Jumong changed his surname to Ko (高), in conscious reflection of his divine parentage.<ref> Ibid., 46–47</ref> Legend records that Jumong conquered the tribal states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 B.C.E., Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 B.C.E., and North [[Okjeo]] in 28 B.C.E.
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Goguryeo developed into an ancient state in the first century and expanded its power in the region. In the time of [[Taejo of Goguryeo]] in 53, five local tribes were reorganised into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Taejo successfully expanded Goguryeo by attacking [[Han Dynasty|Han China]]'s [[Four Commanderies of Han|commanderies]] of [[Lelang]], Xiantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies. <ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}{{dubious}}</ref>
 
  
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Continuing its expansion to the northwest, Goguryeo began large-scale, organized attacks against China{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, as well as conquering neighboring polities such as [[Okjeo]] and [[Dongye]]. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy.  Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.
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=== First Wave of Expansion and Centralization of Tribal Leagues ===
  
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===Further expansion===
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Developing from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state, Goguryeo rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the [[Hun River]] drainage. The Goguryeo homeland lacked arable land and could barley sustain its population. Goguryeo, raiding their neighbors, expanded their resource base. During the rein of King [[Taejo of Goguryeo]] in 53 C.E., five local tribes reorganized into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. The king controlled [[foreign relations]] and the [[military]]. Aggressive military activities may have allowed Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and to even dominate them politically and economically.<ref>Gina L. Barnes, ''State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives,'' Durham East Asia Series (Richmond: Curzon, 2001 ISBN 9780700713233), 22.</ref>
  
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As Goguryeo extended its reach into the [[Liaodong peninsula]], the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was destroyed by [[Micheon of Goguryeo]] in 313, and from that time the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] dominated the Korean Peninsula. <ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref>
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King Taejo conquered the [[Okjeo]] tribes of northeast [[Korea]] as well as the eastern Ye and other tribes in southeastern [[Manchuria]] and northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that those subjugated tribes gave him, Goguryeo attacked [[Han Dynasty|Han China]]'s [[Four Commanderies of Han|Commanderies]] of [[Lelang]], Xiantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han Commanderies.<ref>Ki-Baik Lee, ''A New History of Korea'' (Harvard University Press, 1984 ISBN 9780674615755), 24.</ref>  
  
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The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, [[Former Yan]], a Chinese [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] state of [[Xianbei]] ethnicity, (Some Goguryeo royal family members were seized by Former Yan, and one of them, [[Gao Yun]], briefly ruled Former Yan's successor state [[Northern Yan]] from 407 to 409.) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern [[Ji'an]], [[Jilin]]), and in 371, King [[Geunchogo of Baekje]] sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, [[Pyongyang]], and killed King [[Gogukwon of Goguryeo]] in battle.<ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref>
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Generally, Taejo allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors related to Goguryeo's royal line and pay heavy tribute. Taejo and his successors utilized their increasing resources to continue expanding to the northwest. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy; the central aristocracy continued to absorb tribal leaders. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.<ref>Ibid., 36. </ref>  
  
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Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, [[Sosurim of Goguryeo]] proclaimed new laws, embraced [[Buddhism]] as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學). By 391, the kingdom's rulers had achieved undisputed control of all of [[Manchuria]] and eastern [[inner Mongolia]], as well as of the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.
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The expanding Goguryeo kingdom entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong commandery. Pressure from Liadong forced Goguryeo to move its capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley, near Mount Wandu in the current-day Dongou region of China's [[Jilin]] province <ref>Gina L. Barnes, ''State Formation in Korea,'' 22–23.</ref>
  
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[[Image:Three Kingdoms of Korea Map.png|thumb|250px|left|Goguryeo territory at its height.]]
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===Goguryeo-Wei War===
  
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===Gwanggaeto the Great===
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Chaos followed the fall of the [[Han Dynasty]] with former Han commanderies breaking free from control and falling under the rule of independent warlords. Surrounded by those commanderies, governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created [[Cao Wei|Wei]] Dynasty of China and sent tribute in 220 C.E. In 238 C.E., Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with the Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery. When Wei finally conquered the Liaodong, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. On that occasion, Wei reached and destroyed the Goguryeo capital at Wandu. The Goguryeo king, with his army destroyed, fled alone and sought refuge with the Okjeo tribes in the east.<ref>Ibid., 23.</ref>
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{{Goguryeo monarchs}}
  
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The greatest territorial expansion of Goguryeo began during the reigns of [[Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo|King Gwanggaeto the Great]] and his son [[Jangsu of Goguryeo|King Jangsu]]. <ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref>
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===Revival and Further Expansion===
  
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Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the [[Gaya confederacy]], and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and [[Wa (Japan)]]. In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. His accomplishments are recorded on the [[Gwanggaeto Stele]], erected in 414 in southern part of Manchuria.
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The Wei armies chose not to occupy Goguryeo and left after they believed that the kingdom was destroyed. After only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital at Wandu and again began to raid Liaodong, Lelang, and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the [[Liaodong Peninsula]], the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was destroyed by [[Micheon of Goguryeo]] in 313, and from that time the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] dominated the [[Korean Peninsula]].  
  
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Jangsu Taewang, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to [[Pyongyang]] in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]] to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north. Jangsu also advanced into the east, occupying part of Russia's [[Primorsky Krai]].  
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The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, [[Former Yan]], a Chinese [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] state of [[Xianbei]] ethnicity, attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern [[Ji'an]], [[Jilin]]), and in 371, King [[Geunchogo of Baekje]] sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, [[Pyongyang]], and killed King [[Gogukwon of Goguryeo]] in battle.  
  
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During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the [[Korean peninsula]], including today's [[Seoul]], and most of Manchuria and the Russian maritime province.  Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of Heaven. The title of the ruler, '''Daewang''', while literally translated as the ''Greatest of the Kings'', is often translated to mean ''Emperor''.
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Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, [[Sosurim of Goguryeo]] proclaimed new laws, embraced [[Buddhism]] as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學).  
  
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In the late 5th century, it absorbed [[Buyeo (state)|Bukbuyeo]] and more [[Mohe]] and [[Khitan]] tribes, competed with [[Northern Wei]] in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.
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[[Image:Three Kingdoms of Korea Map.png|thumb|250px|left|Goguryeo territory at its height.]]
  
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===Internal strife===
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===Gwanggaeto the Great===
  
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Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, it began a steady decline. [[Anjang of Goguryeo|King Anjang]] was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother [[Anwon of Goguryeo|King Anwon]], during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased.  A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned.  But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as feudal lords with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero.
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The greatest territorial expansion of Goguryeo began during the reigns of [[Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo|King Gwanggaeto the Great]] and his son [[Jangsu of Goguryeo|King Jangsu]].  
  
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Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and manoeuvered to effectively sever the Silla-Baekje alliance.
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Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against [[Buyeo (state)|Buyeo]] alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north. He also subjugated [[Baekje]], contributed to the dissolution of the [[Gaya confederacy]], and turned [[Silla]] into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and Wa (Japan). In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. The [[Gwanggaeto Stele]], erected in 414 in the southern part of [[Manchuria]], records his accomplishments. By the end of his reign, Goguryeo had achieved undisputed control of southern Manchuria, and the northern and central regions of the [[Korean Peninsula]].
  
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==Military history of Goguryeo==
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Jangsu Taewang, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to [[Pyongyang]] in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries with the two Korean kingdoms of [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]] to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north. Jangsu also advanced into the east, occupying part of Russia's [[Primorsky Krai]]. During that period, Goguryeo territory included three-fourths of the Korean Peninsula, including today's [[Seoul]], and most of Manchuria and the Russian maritime province.  
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{{main|Military history of Goguryeo}}
 
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Throughout its history, Goguryeo had been aggressive in northeastern China and constantly invaded Chinese settlements. The presence of Goguryeo often caused the Chinese court to apply major military actions towards Goguryeo. Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties and was also at odds with [[Silla]] and [[Baekje]], although Goguryeo considered Baekje as an ally several times. Most of the [[Goguryeo-Sui Wars|Sui invasions]] ended as failures for China, and considerably weakened the [[Sui Dynasty]]. The Eastern [[Göktürk]], a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, was an ally with Goguryeo and trading was done between the two states.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} [[Xueyantuo]], a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when Goguryeo was attacked by a Silla-Tang alliance near the end of Goguryeo's rule.
 
  
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===Goguryeo-Sui Wars===
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Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of heaven. The title of the ruler, '''Taewang,''' while literally translated as the ''greatest of the kings,'' is often translated to mean ''emperor.'' In the late fifth century, Goguryeo absorbed Bukbuyeo and more Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with [[Northern Wei]] in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.
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{{main|Goguryeo-Sui Wars}}
 
  
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The [[Sui Dynasty]] was founded in 581. It grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598 the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the [[Goguryeo-Sui Wars]]. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui was unsuccessful.  The 612 campaign was terminated after tremendous losses — reported to be at a greater than 99% cdasualty rate.  The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch — the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general [[Yang Xuangan]] rebelled against [[Emperor Yang of Sui]], while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered peace and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), an associate of Yang Xuangan, who had fled to Goguryeo, for Emperor Yang to be able to execute Husi.  Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state at that time was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule. They could not attack further because the soldiers in the Sui heartland would not send millitary supplies.
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===Internal Strife===
  
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One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns was the campaign of 612, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General [[Eulji Mundeok]], led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the [[Battle of Salsu]] River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Chinese army and drowned nearly every Chinese soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China.<ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref> Sui, attacked three more times, all of which were repulsed by Goguryeo.<ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref>
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Goguryeo reached its zenith in the sixth century and then steadily declined. [[Anwon of Goguryeo|King Anwon]], [[assassination|assassinated]] and succeeded his brother [[Anjang of Goguryeo|King Anjang]], inaugurating a period of increased aristocratic factionalism. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, leading to the crowning of eight-year-old Yang-won. Renegade magistrates with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero, continuing the power struggle.  
  
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The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.
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Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a [[nomad]]ic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]] allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551, which weakened Goguryeo more, as [[civil war]] continued among feudal lords over royal succession. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and maneuvered to effectively sever the Silla–Baekje alliance. During the war, Goguryeo lost much of the fertile Han River valley to Silla.
  
−
===Goguryeo-Tang War and Tang-Silla alliance===
+
==Conflicts of the Late Sixth and Seventh Centuries ==  
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After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the new dynasty that took its place, the [[Tang]], attacked Goguryeo as well. Under [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Tang Taizong]],  the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Chinese, failing to capture strategic points. <ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year}}</ref>
 
  
−
The Tang also forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the [[Göktürks]]. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general [[Yeon Gaesomun]], increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.  
+
Throughout its history, Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties while disputing with [[Silla]] and [[Baekje]]. Goguryeo considered Silla and Baekje allies at alternating times. During the late sixth and early seventh century, Goguryeo often conflicted with Chinese dynasties such as the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]]. The [[Goguryeo-Sui Wars|Sui invasions]] ended in failure for Sui, and effectively crippled its economic and military capability. The Eastern [[Göktürk]], a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, allied with Goguryeo and conducted trade with Goguryeo. [[Xueyantuo]], a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when a Silla–Tang alliance attacked Goguryeo near the end of Goguryeo's rule.
  
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In 645, Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at [[Ansi Fortress]]. the central figure of a repulse was Yeon Gaesomun and [[Yang Manchun]]. In the end, Taizong was not able to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army was again sent to conquer Goguryeo in 661 and 662, but while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang was not able to conquer Goguryeo.
+
===Goguryeo-Sui Wars===
 +
{{main|Goguryeo-Sui Wars}}
  
−
After numerous attacks, the Tang and Silla forces attacked Goguryeo on two fronts, totally exhausting Goguryeo's ability to fight. This subsequently brought the end of Goguryeo's rule.
+
The [[Sui Dynasty]], founded in 581, grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598, the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaosuh region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the [[Goguryeo-Sui Wars]]. In that campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, the Sui failed, losing three-fourths of its military capability. Ninety percent of the first expedition never returned. The 613 and 614 campaigns aborted after launching. The 613 campaign terminated when the Sui general [[Yang Xuangan]] rebelled against [[Emperor Yang of Sui]]. The 614 campaign terminated with Goguryeo's offer to surrender and return Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defector who had fled to Goguryeo, allowing Emperor Yang to execute Husi. Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but, due to Sui's deteriorating internal state, never launched it. Rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule weakened Sui. Further attacks became impossible when the soldiers in the Sui heartland refused to send logistical support.
  
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===Fall===
+
The campaign of 612 proved to be one of Sui's most disastrous campaigns, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General [[Eulji Mundeok]] led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of [[Pyongyang]]. At the [[Battle of Salsu]] River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a [[dam]], which overwhelmed the Sui army and drowned nearly every Sui soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China. Sui attacked three more times, all of which Goguryeo repulsed.
−
Goguryo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 661; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons.<ref>{{Harv|Byington|2004b}}</ref> 
 
  
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Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668.<ref>{{Harv|Byington|2004b}}</ref> Goguryeo's last king [[Bojang of Goguryeo|Bojang]] was captured and taken into exile by the Tang forces.
+
The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. The wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined as well.
  
−
Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the [[Protectorate General to Pacify the East]], governed by [[Xue Rengui]], but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their own strength did not extend beyond the [[Taedong River]].
+
===Goguryeo-Tang War and Tang-Silla Alliance===
 +
{{main|Goguryeo-Tang Wars}}
  
−
In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of [[Joseon]]" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, King Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually banished to [[Szechuan]] in 681, and died the following year.
+
[[Image:Three Kingdoms of Korea Map with modernborders.png|thumb|200px|left|Goguryeo territory at its height, with modern political boundaries]]
 +
After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the successor [[Tang Dynasty] attacked Goguryeo as well. Under Li Shih min ([[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Tang Taizong]]), the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The Chinese failed to capture strategic points in numerous attacks. The Tang forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival [[Silla]] after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the [[Göktürks]]. That, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general [[Yeon Gaesomun]], increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.  
  
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===Revival movements===
+
Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo in 645; Goguryeo repelled the attack at [[Ansi Fortress]]. Goguryeo leaders Yeon Gaesomun and [[Yang Manchun]] led the successful defense. In the end, Taizong failed to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and after running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army attacked Goguryeo again in 661 and 662, but for as long as Yeon Gaesomun lived, the Tang failed to conquer Goguryeo. Following the defection of Yeon Namseng, the son of Yeon Gaesomun and the surrender of numerous cities in northern Goguryeo, the Tang army bypassed the Liaodong region and captured Pyongyang, the capital of Goguryeo, while Yeon Jeongto, the younger brother of Yeon Gaesomun, surrendered his forces to the Silla general [[Kim Yushin]], who advanced from the south. In November 668, Bojang, the last king of Goguryeo, surrendered to [[Tang Gaozhong]].
−
After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were [[Geom Mojam]], [[Dae Jung-sang]], and several others. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.  
 
  
−
The revival movements were suppressed until the rise of [[Dae Joyeong]], a former Goguryeo general. Dae Joyeong reconquered most of Goguryeo's northern land, establishing the kingdom of [[Balhae]] in 698, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo. Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the [[Taedong River]], while northern Korea and Manchuria were conquered by Balhae. Balhae stood as a [[successor state]] to Goguryeo. Not much is known about Balhae, although it is known that Balhae was conquered in 926 by the [[Liao Dynasty]], after which many Goguryeo descent people migrated down to Goryeo. The time of Balhae and Unified Silla is called the North-South State period of Korea.
+
===Goguryeo's Fall===
 +
Goguryeo's ally in the southwest, [[Baekje]], fell to the [[Silla]]–[[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] alliance in 660; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664–666), [[Yeon Gaesomun]] died and [[civil war]] ensued among his three sons. Silla–Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of [[famine]]s and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. Tang forces captured and took into [[exile]] Goguryeo's last king [[Bojang of Goguryeo|Bojang]]. Silla thus unified most of the [[Korean Peninsula]] in 668. But the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the [[Protectorate General to Pacify the East]], or Andong protectorate, governed by [[Xue Rengui]], but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their strength stopped at the [[Taedong River]].  
  
−
In the early 10th century, [[Taebong]] (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla, also claimed to be a successor to Goguryeo, as did [[Goryeo]], the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean peninsula.
+
In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of [[Joseon]]" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. King Bojang continued to cause trouble for Tang, fermenting rebellions in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. Tang eventually exiled him to [[Szechuan]] in 681 where he died the following year.
  
−
==Military==
+
===Revival Movements===
−
The military of Goguryeo has been known to be powerful, especially during the rule of King Gwanggaeto. However, we do not know much of it or its exact number as there are not many records left.
+
After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] and [[Silla]] by starting Goguryeo revival movements. [[Geom Mojam]], and [[Dae Jung-sang]], along with several others, were among those that started revival movements. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area. [[Dae Joyeong]], the son of a former Goguryeo general led the first successful revival movement, regaining most of Goguryeo's northern land and establishing the kingdom of [[Balhae]] in 698, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo. Silla controlled the [[Korean Peninsula]] south of the [[Taedong River]], while Balhae conquered northern [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]].  
  
−
The Goguryeo military was powerful and it grew in strength as Goguryeo began to conquer Manchuria. The Goguryeo cavalry was probably its largest asset. The common foot infantry wore padded armor and a helmet as well, highly unlike the common foot soldier of the later [[Joseon Dynasty]], who had almost no armor.  
+
Balhae stood as a [[successor state]] to Goguryeo. The [[Liao Dynasty]] conquered Balhae in 926 after which many people migrated down to [[Goryeo]]. Few accounts or records of Balhae survive. Historians call the time of Balhae and [[Unified Silla]] the North-South State period of Korean history. In the early tenth century, [[Taebong]] (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), rose briefly in rebellion against Silla laying hold of the claim to succeed Goguryeo. Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean Peninsula, also claimed that lineage.
  
−
Captains and higher ranking soldiers wore armor made of lamellar iron armor or scale mail. A helmet was adorned with fancy designs and often had horns to intimidate the enemy. Usually, the armor was fancy and strong as the rank of the soldier.
+
==Aspects of Goguryeo Civilization==
 +
===Military===
  
−
Weapons used were swords, spears, and axes. Archery was the preferred ranged weapon and there are no records of the usage of slings or crossbows.
+
Goguryeo possessed a powerful [[military]], especially during the rule of [[Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo|King Gwanggaeto]], although records tell little more than that. A [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of King Bojang. Goguryeo required every man to serve in the military or pay extra grain tax. Cavalry, mounted archers, and infantry, famous for their horned helmets as well as spikes attached to the bottom soles of their boots, formed the core of Goguryeo's military.
  
−
==Culture==
+
===Culture===
−
The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.
 
  
−
===Lifestyle===
+
[[Climate]], [[religion]], and the tense [[society]] that people dealt with due to the numerous [[wars]] Goguryeo waged, shaped Goguryeo [[culture]]. Few records of Goguryeo's culture remain.  
−
Goguryeo clothing was usually thick to help keep the wearer warm from the cold climate of Goguryeo. Men wore loose fitting jackets and trousers while women wore skirts and dresses. Higher class Goguryeo people often had beautiful clothing and adorned jewelry. Unlike common people during the [[Chosun]] Dynasty later, Goguryeo people wore colorful clothing.
 
  
−
The diet of the Goguryeo people included rice and barley. Beans were supplementary. Rice was cooked by boiling, similar to how it is cooked in Korea. [[Bulgogi]]'s predeccessor, the ''maegjeok'', was seasoned meat, and a common dish while eating.<ref>{{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year|p=culture.htm}}</ref>
+
====Lifestyle====
 +
The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern [[hanbok]], just as the other cultures of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]]. Murals and artifacts depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses. The diet of the Goguryeo people included [[rice]] and [[barley]]. [[Bean]]s supplemented their diet, while they steamed their rice, in a way similar throughout [[East Asia]]. A seasoned meat, ''maegjeok,'' [[Bulgogi]]'s predecessor, usually accompanied meals.
  
−
===Festivals and pastimes===
+
====Festivals and Pastimes====
−
[[Image:Korean three-legged bird mural.jpg|thumb|200px|A mural of a [[three-legged bird]] in a Goguryeo tomb.]]
+
[[Image:Korean three-legged bird mural.jpg|thumb|200px|A mural of a three-legged bird in a Goguryeo [[tomb]].]]
−
Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.  
+
Goguryeo people loved to drink, sing, and dance. Games such as [[wrestling]] attracted curious spectators. The Dongmaeng Festival, held every October, paid homage to their gods. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors. Following ceremonies, the citizens enjoyed elaborate feasts, games, and other activities. [[Hunting]], a common activity for men, also served as [[military training]] for young men. Hunting parties rode on [[horse]]s and hunted [[deer]] and other game with bows-and-arrows. [[Archery]] contests and horse riding proved a popular recreation. Those activities helped Goguryeo develop an excellent cavalry.
  
−
Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.  
+
====Religion====
 +
[[Image:Ddol-mangM.jpg|thumb|150px|A Goguryeo tomb mural.]]
 +
Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors, considering them supernatural. The people worshipped and respected [[Jumong]], the founder of Goguryeo. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, they performed religious rites to ancestors and gods. In Goguryeo, people considered [[mythical creatures|mythical beasts]] and [[animal]]s sacred. They worshipped the [[phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]], [[Chinese dragon|dragon]], and the Chinese [[three-legged bird]] of the [[Zhou Dynasty]], considering the Chinese three-legged bird the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.
  
−
Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred. Horse riding was popular and Goguryeo developed strong military skills, as the cavalry was strong.
+
[[Buddhism]] first entered Goguryeo in 372. Goguryeo became the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and built many [[monastery|monasteries]] and [[shrine]]s during Goguryeo's history. Passing from Goguryeo, Buddhism thrived in [[Silla]] and [[Baekje]].
  
−
===Religion===
+
====Cultural Impact====
−
[[Image:Ddol-mangM.jpg|thumb|150px|A Goguryeo tomb mural.]]
 
  
−
Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. {{Harv|MyGoguryeo|Unknown year|p=culture.htm}} [[Jumong]], the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.
+
Noted for the vigor of its imagery, [[Goguryeo art]] has been preserved for the most part in [[tomb]] paintings. Finely detailed art decorates Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Designs found throughout northern China and northeast Asia influenced many of the art pieces.
 +
[[Image:SNV30853.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Goguryeo roof-tile]]
 +
Goguryeo's floor heating system, [[Ondol|ondol]], and [[Hanbok|hanbok]] number among their cultural legacies.
  
−
Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The Korean phoenix and dragon were both worshipped upon, while the [[three-legged bird]] was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.
+
===Language===
 +
[[Image:Rubbing of the Gwanggaeto S.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Detail of a rubbing of the [[Gwanggaeto Stele]] (414 C.E.), one of the few surviving records made by Goguryeo, written in [[classical Chinese]]]]
 +
{{main|Goguryeo language}}
  
−
[[Buddhism]] was first introduced to [[Korea]] in 372 <ref>{{Harv|ScienceView|Unknown year}}.</ref> The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in [[Silla]] and [[Baekje]], which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.<ref>{{Harv|ScienceView|Unknown year}}</ref>
+
Along with many other kingdoms in East Asia, Goguryeo used [[Chinese character]]s and wrote in [[classical Chinese]]. Only a few words of the Goguryeo language survive, enough to suggest a similarity to the language of [[Silla]] and influenced by the [[Tungusic languages]]. Supporters of the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language family]] often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists consider the Goguryeo language the closest to the Altaic languages out of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] that followed [[Gojoseon]].  
  
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===Cultural impact===
+
[[Baekje]] and Goguryeo bore striking similarities, giving support to the legends that describe Baekje as founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts bore a resemblance to those of Baekje and Silla. The American linguist [[Christopher Beckwith]] has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with [[Old Japanese language|Old Japanese]]. Some linguists propose the so-called "[[Buyeo languages]]" family that includes the languages of [[Buyeo (state)|Buyeo]], Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest a similarity between the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East [[Okjeo]], and [[Gojoseon]], while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal ([[Mohe]]). Some words of Goguryeo origin exist in the old Korean language (early tenth-late fourteenth centuries), but Silla-originated ones replaced most before long.  
−
[[Goguryeo art]], preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces were influenced by Chinese designs.
 
  
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Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, [[Ondol]], Goguryeo's unique floor heating system, and [[Hanbok]]{{Harv|Brown|2006|p=18}}, traditional clothes of Korea. A modernized version of Ondol can be found in the floor of every modern house in Korea, and Koreans wear Hanbok on traditional holidays and other special occasions.
+
{{See also|Korean language}}
  
 
==Legacy==
 
==Legacy==
  
−
[[Image:Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in Jilin, China.]]
+
Goguryeo remains of walled [[town]]s, [[fortress]]es, [[palace]]s, [[tomb]]s, and [[artifact]]s have been found in [[North Korea]] and[[ Manchuria]], including ancient paintings in a [[Complex of Goguryeo Tombs|Goguryeo tomb complex]] in [[Pyongyang]]. Some ruins are also still visible in China, for example at [[Onyeosan]] ("Five Maiden Peaks") near [[Ji'an, Jilin|Ji'an]] in Manchuria, along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital.  
−
Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in [[North Korea]] and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a [[Complex of Goguryeo Tombs|Goguryeo tomb complex]] in [[Pyongyang]]. Some ruins are also still visible in China, for example at [[Onyeosan]] ("Five Maiden Peaks") near [[Ji'an, Jilin|Ji'an]] in Manchuria along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral [[stele]] of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.
+
 
 +
Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider the tombs of kings [[Gwanggaeto the Great of Goguryeo|Gwanggaeto]] and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral [[stele]] of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.  
  
 
===World Heritage Site===
 
===World Heritage Site===
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[[UNESCO]] added [[Complex of Goguryeo Tombs]] in present-day [[North Korea]] and [[Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom]] in present-day [[China]] to the [[World Heritage Site]]s in 2004.
+
[[UNESCO]] added the [[Complex of Goguryeo Tombs]] in present-day [[North Korea]] and [[Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom]] in present-day [[China]] to the [[World Heritage Site]]s in 2004.
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==Language==
 
−
[[Image:Rubbing of the Gwanggaeto S.jpg|thumb|200px|Detail of a rubbing of the [[Gwanggaeto Stele]] (414 C.E.), one of the few surviving records made by Goguryeo, written in [[Classical Chinese]].]]
 
−
:''Main article: [[Goguryeo language]].''
 
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Along with many other kingdoms in east Asia, Goguryeo used [[Chinese character]]s and wrote in [[Classical Chinese]]. The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the [[Tungusic languages]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Supporters of the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language family]] often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] that followed [[Gojoseon]].
 
−
Striking similarities between [[Baekje]] and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}
 
−
 
 
−
The American linguist [[Christopher Beckwith]] has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with [[Old Japanese language|Old Japanese]] {{Harv|Beckwith|August 2003}}. Some linguists propose the so-called "[[Buyeo languages]]" family that includes the languages of [[Buyeo (state)|Buyeo]], Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, [[Buyeo (state)|Buyeo]], East [[Okjeo]], and [[Gojoseon]] were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal ([[Mohe]]){{Fact|date=May 2007}}.
 
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Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.
 
−
 
 
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''See also: [[Korean language]]''
 
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==Modern politics==
 
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{{main|Goguryeo controversies}}
 
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<!--{{totally-disputed}}—>
 
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[[Image:Three Kingdoms of Korea Map with modernborders.png|thumb|200px|right|Goguryeo at territorial prime and modern political boundaries]]
 
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Goguryeo has been conventionally viewed as one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]], and is described as Korean by most non-Chinese sources. ({{Harvnb|Britannica|Unknown Year}}, {{Harvnb|Encarta|2007}}, {{Harvnb|CIA World Factbook|2007}}, and {{Harvnb|Columbia Encyclopedia|2005}})
 
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[[PRC|Chinese]] characterization of Goguryeo as a regional power of China in modern times has spawned heated disputes with both [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]]. At heart of the Goguryeo controversy is whether Goguryeo was a part of the greater Chinese nation, or an independent Korean kingdom.
 
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China views Goguryeo as a part of the regional history of China rather than of being solely or uniquely Korean.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Chinese historian Sun Jinji in 1986 suggested that Goguryeo is separate from the history of the Three Kingdoms in the Korean Peninsula. He argued that “the people of [[Buyeo]] and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the [[Silla]] lineage.”({{Harvnb|Sun|1986}}, {{Harvnb|Yonson|2006}})  This view has since been supported by many other prominent Chinese historians.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} However, Chinese scholars are not all of one voice on this issue. There are also many Chinese historians who acknowledge Goguryeo history as being shared by both Korea and China within “a framework of the dual elements of a single history” (一史两用论, ''yishi liangyong lun'').{{Harv|Sun|2004a}}. More recently, the [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (CASS) generated new controversy through its [[Northeast Project]] study of China's three [[Northeast China|Northeast provinces]]. The Chinese argument for Goguryeo’s historical heritage in the Northeast Project is based on two main points: the first is that the Goguryeo state grew out of the [[Han Dynasty|Han Chinese]] commandary of Xuantu; and also the Chinese consider Goguryeo and Barhae to be founded by the [[Mohe]] (Malgal) peoples, a purported ancestor of modern day [[Manchu]]rians, who ruled China's [[Qing Dynasty|last dynasty]]. ({{Harvnb|Sun|2004b}}, {{Harvnb|Yonson|2006}}) The conclusions of the CASS study have created tensions in [[China-South Korea relations]].
 
−
 
 
−
In his email to Koreanstudies mailing list, Mark Byington, when completing a [[postdoctorate|postdoctoral]] program at the Korea Institute, an autonomous non-departmental entity<ref>
 
−
{{cite web
 
−
| url = http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~korea/about.html
 
−
| title = About the Korea Institute
 
−
| publisher = Korea Institute
 
−
| accessdate = 2007-05-28 }}
 
−
</ref> located at [[Harvard University]], has suggested China's official position to be "flimsy," historically speaking, though notes it "accords with current practice in the PRC" in describing "a very vaguely defined [[Zhonghua Minzu|greater Chinese nation]] of the remote past," and that their position is "one that must exist in order to fall into line with current Chinese views of the Chinese past" {{Harv|Byington|2004a}}{{dubious|Email message not ruled as reliable source in wikipedia}}.
 
−
 
 
−
==Political Connections between Goguryeo and the Chinese Central Plains Dynasties==
 
−
{{totally-disputed}}
 
−
According to Wei Cuncheng<ref>魏存成(Wei Chuncheng). “中原、南方政权对高句丽的管辖册封及高句丽改称高丽时间考(The Domination and Conferring Titles on Koguryo of the State Political Power of Central Plains and the Investigation on the Time of Changing the Name From Koguryo to Koryo).” 史学集刊(Collected Papers of History Studies), January 2004, No. 1, pp.73-79. http://www.wanfangdata.com.cn/qikan/periodical.articles/shixjk/shix2004/0401/040112.htm
 
−
</ref>{{dubious}}, a researcher of the [[Northeast Project]]<ref>이희옥 (2004), 동북공정 추진현황과 추진기관 실태, 고구려연구재단 제1차 국내학술  회의</ref>{{dubious}}, in addition to the almost incessant wars during its existence,Goguryeo also had close political connections with the Chinese Central Plains dynasties, manifested by tribute and the conferring of dynastic titles on Goguryeo kings.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Goguryeo for a long time regularly paid tributes, such as horses and jewelries, to show its submissiveness to the Central Plains dynasties. And Goguryeo’s receiving of the titiles matter-of-factly was a demonstration of its subjugation to the Chinese dynasties.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
 
−
         
 
−
Research conducted by a Japanese scholar shows that from 32 B.C.E. to 666 C.E. Goguryeo paid 205 tributes to the Central Plains dynasties. From 32 B.C.E. to 391 C.E., Goguryeo paid only 17 tributes, but between 423 C.E. and 666 C.E., 188 tributes were paid.<ref> Baidu Baike, a Chinese online and free Encyclopedia, http://baike.baidu.com/view/5801.htm, s.v. “高句丽.” </ref> According to the analysis of Chinese historians, Goguryeo paid few tributes in its early stage because Goguryeo was treated as a local government of the Han dynasty, and did not need to pay tributes.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
 
−
         
 
−
Both Korean and Chinese historical records state that the kings of Goguryeo regularly paid tributes to and were conferred titles by the Central Plains dynasties during its later era. According to both The Book Of Jin and Samguk Sagi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms), in 355 C.E., the Yan dynasty conferred the title of “Lord of Lelang”(乐浪公) on King Gogugwon.<ref> Historical texts are seen in 《晋书•慕容隽载记》:高句丽王钊遣使谢恩，贡其方物。隽以钊为营州诸军事、征东大将军、营州刺史，封乐浪公，王如故。《三国史记•高句丽本纪》:十二月，王遣使诣燕，纳质修贡⋯⋯以王为征东大将军、营州刺史，封乐浪公，王如故。</ref>  In 413 C.E., Eastern Jin Emperor Jinan conferred the titles of “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王), “Lord of Lelang” (乐浪公), and “Eastern Expedition General” (征东大将军) on King Jangsu.<ref> Historical texts are seen in 《三国史记•高句丽本纪》:安帝封王高句丽王、乐安(浪)郡公。《南史•高句丽传》:晋安帝义熙九年，高丽王遣长史高翼奉表，献储白马，晋以琏为使持节、都督营州诸军事、征东将军、高丽王、乐浪公。 </ref>  After King Jangsu died in 491 C.E., the Northern Wei Dynasty conferred the following titles upon King Munjamyeong: “Eastern Expedition General”(征东将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公),and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王).<ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《魏书•高句丽传》:遣大鸿肪拜琏孙云使持节、都督辽海诸军事、征东将军、领护东夷中郎将、辽东郡开国公、高句丽王。
 
−
</ref>
 
−
         
 
−
In 520 C.E., Munjamyeong’s son, King Anjang, was conferred by Northern Wei the titles of “Pacifying East General”(安东将军), “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王),and “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公).<ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《魏书•高句丽传》: 拜安为安东将军、领护东夷校尉、辽东郡开国公、高句丽王。
 
−
</ref>  After King Anjang died in 531 C.E., the next year Northern Wei conferred on King Anwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). <ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《魏书•高句丽传》:出帝初，诏加延使持节、散骑常侍、车骑大将军、领护东夷校尉、辽东郡开国公、高句丽王。
 
−
</ref> In 550 C.E., the Northern Qi Dynasty conferred on King Yangwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王).<ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《北齐书•文宣帝纪》:以散骑常侍、车骑将军、领东夷校尉、辽东郡开国公、高丽王成
 
−
为使持节、侍中、骑大将军、领护东夷校尉，王、公如故。
 
−
</ref>  In 560 C.E., King Pyeongwon was conferred by Northern Qi the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公) and “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王).<ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《北齐书•废帝纪》: 以高丽王世子汤为使持节、领东夷校尉、辽东郡公、高丽王。
 
−
</ref>  In 590 C.E., the Sui Dynasty conferred on King Yeongyang the title of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公).<ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《隋书•高丽传》:汤病卒，子元嗣立。高祖使使拜元为上开府、仪同三司，袭爵辽东郡公，赐衣一袭。元奉表谢恩，并贺祥瑞，因请封王。高祖优册元为王。
 
−
</ref>  After the Tang Dynasty was established, Goguryeo King Yeongnyu was conferred by Tang the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公) and “King of Goryeo”(高丽王). <ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《I日唐书•高丽传》: 遣前刑部尚书沈叔安往册建武为上柱国、辽东郡公、高丽王。
 
−
</ref>
 
−
         
 
−
The last titles conferred on the king of Goguryeo was in 643 C.E. by Tang Emperor Taizong. He conferred the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡王) and “King of Goryeo” (高丽王) on King Bojang.<ref> Historical texts are seen in
 
−
《I日唐书•高丽传》: 太宗闻建武死⋯⋯。十七年，封其嗣王藏为辽东郡王、高丽王。
 
−
</ref>  The historical records in both Korean and Chinese ancient books show that title-conferring had been a way that the Central Plains tried to impose indirect rules over Goguryeo, and it had been institutionalized from the Eastern Jin dynasty to the Tang dynasty, with every Goguryeo king from Jangsu to Bojang holding titles conferred by the Chinese Central Plains dynasties.
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 208: Line 148:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
<div class="references-small">
+
*Gyeonggi Provincial Museum. “Goguryeo-Korea, Among Us: Special Exhibition.” Yongin City: Gyeonggi Provincial Museum, 2005.
−
*{{citation|last=Byeon|first=Tae-seop|title=韓國史通論(Outline of Korean history), 4th ed.|year=1999|id=ISBN 89-445-9101-6|publisher=Unknown Publisher}}
+
*Ha, Ilyon, and Kim. ''Tales from the Three Kingdoms: Sam-guk sŏl-hwa.'' Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1970.
−
 
+
*Ilyon. ''Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea.'' Trans. Tae Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1972.
−
*{{citation|last=US Library of Congress|first=Unknown Author|year=-0000|title=South Korea:The Three Kingdom Periods|year=Unknown Year|url= http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kr0014) |publisher=Unknown Publisher }}
+
*Lee, Gil-sang. ''Exploring Korean History through World Heritage.'' Seongnam-si: Academy of Korean Studies, 2006. ISBN 978-8971055519
−
 
+
*Lee, Ki-baik. ''A New History of Korea.'' Harvard University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0674615755
−
*{{citation|last=Metropolitan Museum|first=Unknown Author|year=Unknown Year|title=Korea, 1-500C.E.|year=Unknown Year|url= http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/eak/ht05eak.htm Korea, 1-500 C.E.) |publisher=Unknown Publisher }}
+
*Seth, Michael J. ''A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period through the Nineteenth Century.'' Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-0742540040
−
 
 
−
*{{citation|last=Yonson|first=Ahn|title= Korea China Textbook War. What's It All About?|year=2006|url= http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html|publisher=History News Network}}
 
  
−
*{{citation|last=Ramzy|first=Austin|year=Unknown Year|title=Rewriting History|url= http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501040823-682338,00.html|publisher=Time Magazine}}
+
==External Links==
 +
All links retrieved June 24, 2017.
  
−
*{{citation|last=Klingner|first=Bruce|year=2004|title=China Shock for South Korea|url= http://www.atimes.com/atimes/korea/FI11Dg03.html|publisher=Asia Time}}
+
*[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045880/Koguryo Article in Encyclopedia Britannica].  
  
−
*{{citation|last=Shin|first=Hyoung-Sik|year=2003|title=History of Koguryo|url= http://dprk-cn.com/en/history/koguryo/|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press, South Korea}}
 
  
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*{{citation|last=Lee|first=Wha|year=Unknown Year|title=Forgotten Glory of Koguryo|url= http://www.kimsoft.com/KOREA/kogu.htm|publisher=Kimsoft.com}}
+
[[category:History and biography]]
−
 
+
[[Category:Geography]]
−
*{{citation|last=Brown|first=John|title=China, Japan, Korea. Culture and Custom|year=2006|url=http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1419648934&id=3r-3YH3t45cC&pg=RA1-PA81&lpg=RA1-PA81&ots=HkePGwTvGa&dq=goguryeo+hanbok&sig=ON0Cf8QIGlCaAdfa179I-WYK1j4#PPP1,M1|publisher=BookSurge Publishing|id=ISBN 1419648934}}
+
[[Category:Korea]]
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=Beckwith| first = Christopher I. | title =Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean |year=August 2003| booktitle= 13th Japanese/Korean Linguistics Conference |location = Michigan State University |url =http://www.msu.edu/~jk13/Abs.Beckwith.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-03-12 }}
 
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=Britannica|first=Unknown Author|title=Koguryo|year=Unknown Year|url= http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9369333|publisher=Britannica Encyclopedia}}
 
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=Encarta|first=Unknown Author|title=Koguryo|year=2007|publisher=MSN|url = http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search.aspx?q=koguryo | format = HTML | accessdate = 2007-03-12}}
 
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*{{citation|last=Columbia Encyclopedia|first=Unknown Author|title=Korea|publisher=Bartleby.com |year=2005| url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ko/Korea.html | accessdate = 2007-03-12}}
 
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*{{citation|last=CIA World Factbook|title = Korea, South| publisher =CIA | year=2007| url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html| accessdate = 2007-04-27}}
 
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*{{citation|last=Sun|first=Jinji|title =Dongbei minzu yuanliu (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast)| publisher =Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe| year=2004a}}
 
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*{{citation|last=Sun|first=Jinji|title =Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research)| publisher =Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe| year=1986}}
 
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*{{citation|last=Sun|first=Jinji|title =Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi (History Department of People’s Education Press), Zhongguo lishi (Chinese History) II| publisher =Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe| year=2004b}}
 
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=MyGoguryeo|first=Unknown|title =The Pride History of Korea| publisher =MyGoguryeo.net (WWW)| url=http://www.mygoguryeo.net/history01.htm|year=Unknown Year}}
 
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=Byington|first=Mark|title =Koguryo Part of China?| publisher =Koreanstudies mailing list (WWW)| url=http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html|year=2004a}}
 
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=Byington|first=Mark|title =The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided|publisher =History News Network (WWW)| url=http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html|year=2004b}}
 
−
 
 
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*{{citation|last=ScienceView|first=Unknown Author|title =Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms |publisher =ScienceView (WWW)| url=http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/handbooks_history.html|year=Unknown Year}}
 
−
 
 
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* Rhee, Song nai (1992) Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State. In ''Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites'', edited by C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee, pp. 191-196. WSU Press, Pullman ISBN 0-87422-092-0.
 
−
</div>
 
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==See also==
 
−
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
 
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* [[Cheolli Jangseong]]
 
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==External links==
 
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===Informational===
 
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*{{en icon}} [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045880/Koguryo Encyclopaedia Britannica] 
 
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*{{en icon}} [http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search.aspx?q=koguryo Encarta] 
 
−
*{{en icon}} [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ko/Korea.html Columbia Encyclopedia]
 
−
*{{ko icon}} [http://www.koguryo.org/ Information about the ancient kingdom]
 
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*{{en icon}} [http://www.mygoguryeo.com Goguryeo of Korea]
 
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<!-- Categories —>
 
 
[[Category:History of China]]
 
[[Category:History of China]]
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[[Category:History of Manchuria]]
 
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[[Category:History of Korea]]
 
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[[Category:Former countries in Asia]]
 
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[[Category:Goguryeo|Goguryeo]]
 
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[[Category:1st millennium B.C.E. establishments]]
 
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Latest revision as of 08:36, 19 December 2022


Goguryeo
Goguryeo tomb mural.jpg
Korean name
Hangul: 고구려
Hanja: 高句麗
McCune-Reischauer: Koguryŏ
Revised Romanization: Goguryeo
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese: 高句麗
Simplified Chinese: 高句丽
Hanyu Pinyin: Gāogōulì
Wade-Giles: Kao-kou-li
Russian name
Cyrillic: Когурё
IPA: kogurʲo

The ancient kingdom Goguryeo, occupying southern Manchuria (present-day northeast China), southern Russian Maritime province, and the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla, for nearly seven centuries at the beginning of the first millennium. Considered an important regional kingdom in Manchuria by the People's Republic of China, Goguryeo actively participated in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and as well conducted foreign affairs with associated polities in China and Japan.

The 'Samguk Sagi, a twelfth-century C.E. Goryeo text, puts Goguryeo's founding at 37 B.C.E. by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo. Archaeological evidence suggests Goguryeo culture existed since the second century B.C.E., around the fall of Gojoseon, an earlier kingdom that also occupied southern Manchuria and northern Korea. Goguryeo, a major regional power of East Asia, fell in defeat to a Silla-Tang alliance in 668 C.E. After suffering defeat, Goguryeo was divided between the Tang Dynasty, Unified Silla, and Balhae. The tribal state of Khitan in Manchuria may have also taken some of the territory.

Korea unified vertical.svgHistory of Korea

Jeulmun Period
Mumun Period
Gojoseon, Jin
Proto-Three Kingdoms:
 Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye
 Samhan
  Ma, Byeon, Jin
Three Kingdoms:
 Goguryeo
  Sui wars
 Baekje
 Silla, Gaya
North-South States:
 Unified Silla
 Balhae
 Later Three Kingdoms
Goryeo
 Khitan wars
 Mongol invasions
Joseon
 Japanese invasions
 Manchu invasions
Korean Empire
Japanese occupation
 Provisional Gov't
Division of Korea
 Korean War
 North Korea
 South Korea
List of monarchs

History of Manchuria
Not based on timeline
Early tribes
Gojoseon
Yan (state) | Gija Joseon
Han Dynasty | Xiongnu
Donghu | Wiman Joseon
Wuhuan | Sushen | Buyeo
Xianbei | Goguryeo
Cao Wei
Jin Dynasty (265-420)
Yuwen
Former Yan
Former Qin
Later Yan
Northern Yan
Mohe | Shiwei
Khitan | Kumo Xi
Northern Wei
Tang Dynasty
Balhae
Liao Dynasty
Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)
Yuan Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
Far Eastern Republic (USSR)
Republic of China
Manchukuo
Northeast China (PRC)
Russian Far East (RUS)

History

Founding

According to the Samguk Sagi, a prince from the kingdom of Eastern Buyeo, named Jumong, fled after a power struggle with other princes of the Buyeo court [1] and founded the Goguryeo state in 37 B.C.E. in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle of the Yalu and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border. Some scholars believe that Goguryeo may have been founded in the second century B.C.E. [2]

The first mention of the word Goguryeo or "高句麗" appeared in the geographic monographs of the Han Shu, stating that the nation's founding as 113 B.C.E. as a region under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu commandery.[3] The Old Book of Tang states that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 B.C.E., a group of Yemaek tribes (a people that made up the original Goguryeo stock), which may have included Goguryeo, made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the Amnok River valley. [4]

The weight of documentary evidence from the Old and New Histories of Tang, the Samguk Sagi, the Nihon Shoki, as well as other ancient sources support a 37 B.C.E. or "middle"-first-century B.C.E. foundation date for Goguryeo. Archaeological evidence supports the claim that centralized groups of Yemaek tribes settled in the second century B.C.E., although a lack of direct evidence suggests that those Yemaek groups had little or no concept of themselves as Goguryeo. The Han Shu has the first mention of Goguryeo as a group type associated with Yemaek tribes, referring to a Goguryeo revolt in 12 C.E., where they break away from Xuantu influence.[5] During that time, the Goguryeo ruler, given the title of "marquis" (侯) by the Xuantu administrators, began calling himself the Chinese title of "wang" (王) or king.

The leadership from Buyeo appears to have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms, leading some to conclude that the founding people of Goguryeo came from a blend of the Buyeo and Yemaek people.[6] The San Guo Zhi, in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians," states that the Buyeo and Yemaek people came from the same ethnic line and spoke a common language.[7]

Jumong and the Foundation Myth

The Stele of Great King Gwanggaeto states that Jumong existed in the fourth century C.E., the earliest mention of Jumong. Jumong is the Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모). The Stele proclaims Jumong the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo, the son of the king of Buyeo and the river deity Habaek.[8] The Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa paint additional details and name Jumong's mother as Yuhwa. The Samguk Yusa described Jumong's biological father, Hae Mosu, as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince."[9]

The Samguk Sagi presents Hae Mosu as a sky deity who had seduced Yuhwa. Later, the King of Buyeo gave refuge to Yuhwa in the Buyeo court and adopted Jumong as his own son, making Jumong a prince of Buyeo. According to the story, Jumong, very talented, especially in archery and equestrian arts, made the crown prince jealous. The crown prince had plans to have Jumong killed and upon learning of the plot, Jumong fled Buyeo.[10] The Stele and later Korean sources disagree on which of the Buyeo states Jumong came from. The Stele records that he came from North Buyeo and the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa report he came from East Buyeo. Jumong eventually journeyed to the Jolbon Buyeo confederacy, where he married the daughter of the ruler and subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of followers from his native country.

Jumong received the surname, Hae (解), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk Yusa, Jumong changed his surname to Ko (高), in conscious reflection of his divine parentage.[11] Legend records that Jumong conquered the tribal states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 B.C.E., Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 B.C.E., and North Okjeo in 28 B.C.E.

First Wave of Expansion and Centralization of Tribal Leagues

Developing from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state, Goguryeo rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun River drainage. The Goguryeo homeland lacked arable land and could barley sustain its population. Goguryeo, raiding their neighbors, expanded their resource base. During the rein of King Taejo of Goguryeo in 53 C.E., five local tribes reorganized into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. The king controlled foreign relations and the military. Aggressive military activities may have allowed Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and to even dominate them politically and economically.[12]

King Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of northeast Korea as well as the eastern Ye and other tribes in southeastern Manchuria and northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that those subjugated tribes gave him, Goguryeo attacked Han China's Commanderies of Lelang, Xiantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han Commanderies.[13]

Generally, Taejo allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors related to Goguryeo's royal line and pay heavy tribute. Taejo and his successors utilized their increasing resources to continue expanding to the northwest. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy; the central aristocracy continued to absorb tribal leaders. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.[14]

The expanding Goguryeo kingdom entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong commandery. Pressure from Liadong forced Goguryeo to move its capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley, near Mount Wandu in the current-day Dongou region of China's Jilin province [15]

Goguryeo-Wei War

Chaos followed the fall of the Han Dynasty with former Han commanderies breaking free from control and falling under the rule of independent warlords. Surrounded by those commanderies, governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created Wei Dynasty of China and sent tribute in 220 C.E. In 238 C.E., Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with the Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery. When Wei finally conquered the Liaodong, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. On that occasion, Wei reached and destroyed the Goguryeo capital at Wandu. The Goguryeo king, with his army destroyed, fled alone and sought refuge with the Okjeo tribes in the east.[16]

Goguryeo rulers
  1. Dongmyeongseong 37-19 B.C.E.
  2. Yurimyeong 19 B.C.E.-18 C.E.
  3. Daemusin 18-44
  4. Minjung 44-48
  5. Mobon 48-53
  6. Taejo 53-146
  7. Chadae 146-165
  8. Sindae 165-179
  9. Gogukcheon 179-197
  10. Sansang 197-227
  11. Dongcheon 227-248
  12. Jungcheon 248-270
  13. Seocheon 270-292
  14. Bongsang 292-300
  15. Micheon 300-331
  16. Gogugwon 331-371
  17. Sosurim 371-384
  18. Gogugyang 384-391
  19. Gwanggaeto the Great 391-413
  20. Jangsu 413-490
  21. Munjamyeong 491-519
  22. Anjang 519-531
  23. Anwon 531-545
  24. Yangwon 545-559
  25. Pyeongwon 559-590
  26. Yeongyang 590-618
  27. Yeongnyu 618-642
  28. Bojang 642-668

Revival and Further Expansion

The Wei armies chose not to occupy Goguryeo and left after they believed that the kingdom was destroyed. After only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital at Wandu and again began to raid Liaodong, Lelang, and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was destroyed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313, and from that time the Three Kingdoms dominated the Korean Peninsula.

The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, Former Yan, a Chinese Sixteen Kingdoms state of Xianbei ethnicity, attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern Ji'an, Jilin), and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, Pyongyang, and killed King Gogukwon of Goguryeo in battle.

Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學).

Goguryeo territory at its height.

Gwanggaeto the Great

The greatest territorial expansion of Goguryeo began during the reigns of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu.

Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north. He also subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and Wa (Japan). In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. The Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 in the southern part of Manchuria, records his accomplishments. By the end of his reign, Goguryeo had achieved undisputed control of southern Manchuria, and the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.

Jangsu Taewang, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries with the two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north. Jangsu also advanced into the east, occupying part of Russia's Primorsky Krai. During that period, Goguryeo territory included three-fourths of the Korean Peninsula, including today's Seoul, and most of Manchuria and the Russian maritime province.

Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of heaven. The title of the ruler, Taewang, while literally translated as the greatest of the kings, is often translated to mean emperor. In the late fifth century, Goguryeo absorbed Bukbuyeo and more Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.

Internal Strife

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the sixth century and then steadily declined. King Anwon, assassinated and succeeded his brother King Anjang, inaugurating a period of increased aristocratic factionalism. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, leading to the crowning of eight-year-old Yang-won. Renegade magistrates with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero, continuing the power struggle.

Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551, which weakened Goguryeo more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and maneuvered to effectively sever the Silla–Baekje alliance. During the war, Goguryeo lost much of the fertile Han River valley to Silla.

Conflicts of the Late Sixth and Seventh Centuries

Throughout its history, Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties while disputing with Silla and Baekje. Goguryeo considered Silla and Baekje allies at alternating times. During the late sixth and early seventh century, Goguryeo often conflicted with Chinese dynasties such as the Sui and Tang. The Sui invasions ended in failure for Sui, and effectively crippled its economic and military capability. The Eastern Göktürk, a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, allied with Goguryeo and conducted trade with Goguryeo. Xueyantuo, a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when a Silla–Tang alliance attacked Goguryeo near the end of Goguryeo's rule.

Goguryeo-Sui Wars

Main article: Goguryeo-Sui Wars

The Sui Dynasty, founded in 581, grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598, the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaosuh region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. In that campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, the Sui failed, losing three-fourths of its military capability. Ninety percent of the first expedition never returned. The 613 and 614 campaigns aborted after launching. The 613 campaign terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang of Sui. The 614 campaign terminated with Goguryeo's offer to surrender and return Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defector who had fled to Goguryeo, allowing Emperor Yang to execute Husi. Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but, due to Sui's deteriorating internal state, never launched it. Rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule weakened Sui. Further attacks became impossible when the soldiers in the Sui heartland refused to send logistical support.

The campaign of 612 proved to be one of Sui's most disastrous campaigns, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General Eulji Mundeok led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Sui army and drowned nearly every Sui soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China. Sui attacked three more times, all of which Goguryeo repulsed.

The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. The wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined as well.

Goguryeo-Tang War and Tang-Silla Alliance

Goguryeo territory at its height, with modern political boundaries

After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the successor [[Tang Dynasty] attacked Goguryeo as well. Under Li Shih min (Tang Taizong), the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The Chinese failed to capture strategic points in numerous attacks. The Tang forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the Göktürks. That, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general Yeon Gaesomun, increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.

Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo in 645; Goguryeo repelled the attack at Ansi Fortress. Goguryeo leaders Yeon Gaesomun and Yang Manchun led the successful defense. In the end, Taizong failed to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and after running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army attacked Goguryeo again in 661 and 662, but for as long as Yeon Gaesomun lived, the Tang failed to conquer Goguryeo. Following the defection of Yeon Namseng, the son of Yeon Gaesomun and the surrender of numerous cities in northern Goguryeo, the Tang army bypassed the Liaodong region and captured Pyongyang, the capital of Goguryeo, while Yeon Jeongto, the younger brother of Yeon Gaesomun, surrendered his forces to the Silla general Kim Yushin, who advanced from the south. In November 668, Bojang, the last king of Goguryeo, surrendered to Tang Gaozhong.

Goguryeo's Fall

Goguryeo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla–Tang alliance in 660; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664–666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons. Silla–Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. Tang forces captured and took into exile Goguryeo's last king Bojang. Silla thus unified most of the Korean Peninsula in 668. But the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, or Andong protectorate, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their strength stopped at the Taedong River.

In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. King Bojang continued to cause trouble for Tang, fermenting rebellions in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. Tang eventually exiled him to Szechuan in 681 where he died the following year.

Revival Movements

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Geom Mojam, and Dae Jung-sang, along with several others, were among those that started revival movements. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area. Dae Joyeong, the son of a former Goguryeo general led the first successful revival movement, regaining most of Goguryeo's northern land and establishing the kingdom of Balhae in 698, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo. Silla controlled the Korean Peninsula south of the Taedong River, while Balhae conquered northern Korea and Manchuria.

Balhae stood as a successor state to Goguryeo. The Liao Dynasty conquered Balhae in 926 after which many people migrated down to Goryeo. Few accounts or records of Balhae survive. Historians call the time of Balhae and Unified Silla the North-South State period of Korean history. In the early tenth century, Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), rose briefly in rebellion against Silla laying hold of the claim to succeed Goguryeo. Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean Peninsula, also claimed that lineage.

Aspects of Goguryeo Civilization

Military

Goguryeo possessed a powerful military, especially during the rule of King Gwanggaeto, although records tell little more than that. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of King Bojang. Goguryeo required every man to serve in the military or pay extra grain tax. Cavalry, mounted archers, and infantry, famous for their horned helmets as well as spikes attached to the bottom soles of their boots, formed the core of Goguryeo's military.

Culture

Climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged, shaped Goguryeo culture. Few records of Goguryeo's culture remain.

Lifestyle

The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the Three Kingdoms. Murals and artifacts depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses. The diet of the Goguryeo people included rice and barley. Beans supplemented their diet, while they steamed their rice, in a way similar throughout East Asia. A seasoned meat, maegjeok, Bulgogi's predecessor, usually accompanied meals.

Festivals and Pastimes

A mural of a three-legged bird in a Goguryeo tomb.

Goguryeo people loved to drink, sing, and dance. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators. The Dongmaeng Festival, held every October, paid homage to their gods. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors. Following ceremonies, the citizens enjoyed elaborate feasts, games, and other activities. Hunting, a common activity for men, also served as military training for young men. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests and horse riding proved a popular recreation. Those activities helped Goguryeo develop an excellent cavalry.

Religion

A Goguryeo tomb mural.

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors, considering them supernatural. The people worshipped and respected Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, they performed religious rites to ancestors and gods. In Goguryeo, people considered mythical beasts and animals sacred. They worshipped the phoenix, dragon, and the Chinese three-legged bird of the Zhou Dynasty, considering the Chinese three-legged bird the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.

Buddhism first entered Goguryeo in 372. Goguryeo became the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and built many monasteries and shrines during Goguryeo's history. Passing from Goguryeo, Buddhism thrived in Silla and Baekje.

Cultural Impact

Noted for the vigor of its imagery, Goguryeo art has been preserved for the most part in tomb paintings. Finely detailed art decorates Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Designs found throughout northern China and northeast Asia influenced many of the art pieces.

Goguryeo roof-tile

Goguryeo's floor heating system, ondol, and hanbok number among their cultural legacies.

Language

Detail of a rubbing of the Gwanggaeto Stele (414 C.E.), one of the few surviving records made by Goguryeo, written in classical Chinese


Along with many other kingdoms in East Asia, Goguryeo used Chinese characters and wrote in classical Chinese. Only a few words of the Goguryeo language survive, enough to suggest a similarity to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists consider the Goguryeo language the closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon.

Baekje and Goguryeo bore striking similarities, giving support to the legends that describe Baekje as founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts bore a resemblance to those of Baekje and Silla. The American linguist Christopher Beckwith has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese. Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest a similarity between the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe). Some words of Goguryeo origin exist in the old Korean language (early tenth-late fourteenth centuries), but Silla-originated ones replaced most before long.


Legacy

Goguryeo remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea andManchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in China, for example at Onyeosan ("Five Maiden Peaks") near Ji'an in Manchuria, along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital.

Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral stele of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site

UNESCO added the Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.

Notes

  1. ↑ Mark E. Byington, “A history of the Puyŏ State, its People, and its Legacy,” PhD Thesis (Harvard University, May 2003), 234.
  2. ↑ Daniel Kane, VI. Puyo-Koguryo, Bibliography of Ancient Korea and the Samguk sagi. Retrieved November 16, 2007.
  3. ↑ Christopher I. Beckwith, Koguryo: The Language of Japan's Continental Relatives, Brill's Japanese Studies Library, vol. 21 (Boston: Brill, 2004 ISBN 9789004139497), 33.
  4. ↑ Byington, "A history of the Puyo State," 194.
  5. ↑ Ibid., 233.
  6. ↑ Song Nai Rhee, “Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State,” in Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites, ed. C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee (Washington State University, 1993 ISBN 0-87422-092-0), 191–196.
  7. ↑ Peter H. Lee and William Theodore De Bary, Sources of Korean Tradition: Introduction to Asian Civilizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997 ISBN 9780231105668), 7–11.
  8. ↑ Ibid., 24–25.
  9. ↑ Ilyon, Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea, trans. Tae Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz (Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1972), 45.
  10. ↑ Ibid., 46.
  11. ↑ Ibid., 46–47
  12. ↑ Gina L. Barnes, State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives, Durham East Asia Series (Richmond: Curzon, 2001 ISBN 9780700713233), 22.
  13. ↑ Ki-Baik Lee, A New History of Korea (Harvard University Press, 1984 ISBN 9780674615755), 24.
  14. ↑ Ibid., 36.
  15. ↑ Gina L. Barnes, State Formation in Korea, 22–23.
  16. ↑ Ibid., 23.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Gyeonggi Provincial Museum. “Goguryeo-Korea, Among Us: Special Exhibition.” Yongin City: Gyeonggi Provincial Museum, 2005.
  • Ha, Ilyon, and Kim. Tales from the Three Kingdoms: Sam-guk sŏl-hwa. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1970.
  • Ilyon. Samguk Yusa: Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms of Ancient Korea. Trans. Tae Hung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz. Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1972.
  • Lee, Gil-sang. Exploring Korean History through World Heritage. Seongnam-si: Academy of Korean Studies, 2006. ISBN 978-8971055519
  • Lee, Ki-baik. A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press, 1984. ISBN 978-0674615755
  • Seth, Michael J. A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period through the Nineteenth Century. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006. ISBN 978-0742540040

External Links

All links retrieved June 24, 2017.

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