Difference between revisions of "Extraterrestrial life" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Glieseupdated.jpg|thumb|235px|right|Artist's impression of Gilese 581 c, the first extrasolar planet discovered in its star's habitable zone]]
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'''Extraterrestrial life''' is the term used to define any form of [[life]] that may exist and originate outside the [[planet]] [[Earth]], the only place in the [[universe]] known to support life. Its existence is currently hypothetical; there is no evidence of extraterrestrial life that has been widely accepted by the [[scientific community]]. The putative study and theorization of ET life is known as [[astrobiology]] or ''exobiology'', and the term "exopolitics" may be used to denote the study of political relations between humanity and extraterrestrial [[civilization]]s. Speculative forms of extraterrestrial life range from [[humanoid]] and monstrous beings to life at the much smaller scale of [[bacterium|bacteria]].
  
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Extraterrestrial life forms, especially intelligent ones, are often referred to in popular culture as "aliens" or "ETs." The popular belief in extraterrestrial life has been fueled since the mid-twentieth century by numerous reports of [[Unidentified Flying Object (UFO)|UFO]]s (Unidentified Flying Objects) and claims of [[abduction]]. On the other hand, Christian skeptics consider them to be merely apparitions of [[angel]]s or [[demon]]s from the [[spirit world]].
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Scientists have approached the effort to discover extraterrestrial life by looking to the [[star]]s—exploring the closest planets and moons for evidence of life; listening for [[radio]] or [[electromagnetic]] transmissions from life beyond Earth; and even sending a message into space. While evidence has not yet been discovered of any life currently existing outside of earth, many scientists remain hopeful and continue the search. Given that the existence of life beyond earth has ramifications of the greatest significance for humankind, there are serious questions and preparations that need to be made on earth before this endeavor succeeds.
  
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'''Extraterrestrial life''' is [[life]] that may exist and originate outside the planet [[Earth]], the only place in the [[universe]] known to support life. Its existence is currently hypothetical; there is yet no evidence of extraterrestrial life that has been widely accepted by the [[scientific community]].
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==Historical belief in extraterrestrial life==
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[[Astronomy]] played a significant role in ancient societies, the arrangement of heavenly bodies inspiring cultural beliefs and [[mythology]]. Beliefs in creatures and lifeforms that populated the sky  became almost commonplace in the ancient world. The [[atomism|atomists]] of [[ancient Greece|Greece]] took up the idea of an infinite universe, with an infinity of populated worlds. The [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Talmud]] states that there are at least 18,000 other worlds. The [[Babylon|Babylonians]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], [[Sumer|Sumerians]], [[China|Chinese]], and [[Aztec Civilization|Aztec]]s all held somewhat similar ideas of multiple worlds that existed amongst the [[star]]s. However, these beliefs were often [[spirit]]ually focused, as the sky and stars were often the domain of [[deity|deities]] and supernatural powers. The notion of alien biological lifeforms as they are thought of today, did not take shape for centuries.
  
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Speculative forms of extraterrestrial life range from [[humanoid]] and monstrous beings seen in works of [[science fiction]] to life at the much smaller scale of [[bacterium|bacteria]]. Extraterrestrial life forms, especially intelligent ones, are often referred to in popular culture as [[Extraterrestrial life in popular culture|aliens]] or ETs. The putative study and theorisation of ET life is known as [[astrobiology]] or xenobiology.
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This situation changed, however, with the dramatic shift in thinking initiated by the invention of the [[telescope]] and the [[Copernican]] assault on geocentric [[cosmology]]. Once it became clear that the earth was merely one [[planet]] amongst countless bodies in the universe the extraterrestrial idea moved towards the scientific mainstream.  
  
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==Historical Belief in Extraterrestrial Life==
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The best known early-modern proponent of such ideas was [[Giordano Bruno]], who argued in the sixteenth century for an infinite universe in which every star is surrounded by its own [[solar system]]; he was eventually burned at the stake for [[heresy|heretical]] ideas.<ref>Al Van Helden, [http://galileo.rice.edu/chr/bruno.html "Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)"] (1995). Retrieved February 27, 2017.</ref> Dominican monk [[Tommaso Campanella]] wrote about a Solarian alien race in his ''[[Civitas Solis]].''
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The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated. [[William Herschel]], the discoverer of [[Uranus]], was one of many eighteenth and nineteenth century astronomers convinced that our [[solar system]], and perhaps others, could very well be populated by alien life. Other luminaries of the period who championed "cosmic pluralism" included [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]]. At the height of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] even the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]] were considered candidates for hosting aliens.
  
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[[Astronomy]] played a significant role in ancient societies, the arrangment of heavenly bodies inspiring cultural beliefs and especially [[mythology]]. Beliefs in creatures and lifeforms that populated the sky world became almost common place in the ancient world. The [[atomists]] of Greece took up the idea of an infinite universe, with an infinity of populated worlds. The [[Jewish]] [[Talmud]] states that there are at least 18,000 other worlds. The [[Babylon|Babylonians]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], [[Sumer|Sumerians]], [[Chinese]] and [[Aztecs]] all held somewhat similar ideas of multiple worlds that existed amongst the stars. However, these beliefs were often spiritually focused, as the sky and stars was often the domain of dieties and supernatural powers. The notion of alien biological lifeforms as they are thought of today, did take shape for centuries.
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==Extraterrestrials and the modern era==
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[[Image:Giordano_Bruno.jpg|thumb|[[Giordano Bruno]], ''De l'Infinito, Univirso e Mondi, 1584'']]
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This enthusiasm towards the possibility of alien life continued into the twentieth century. As long as humankind was unable to travel into space, extraterrestrial life seemed as probable to scientists and the general public alike. However, a split in the belief in ET life forms occurred in the beginning of the twentieth century. With advancement in the areas of [[physics]], [[astronomy]], and evolutionary [[biology]], scientists started to understand how complicated and fragile life on earth was, how unlikely it was that life even developed somewhere hospitable to it, let alone elsewhere in a largely dangerous and inhospitable universe.  
  
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This situation changed, however, with the dramatic shift in thinking initiated by the invention of the [[telescope]] and the [[Copernican]] assault on geocentric cosmology. Once it became clear that the Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe the extraterrestrial idea moved towards the scientific mainstream. God's omnipotence, it could be argued, not only allowed for other worlds and other life, on some level it necessitated them. The best known early-modern proponent of such ideas was [[Giordano Bruno]], who argued in the 16th century for an infinite universe in which every star is surrounded by its own solar system; he was eventually burned at the stake for heretical ideas.<ref> Helden, Al Van (1995) [[http://galileo.rice.edu/chr/bruno.html:Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)"]] Retrieved April 28, 2007 </ref> Dominican monk [[Tommaso Campanella]] wrote about a Solarian alien race in his ''[[Civitas Solis]]''.
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Furthermore, the early explorations of space by probes showed no signs of life on the barren [[planet]] of [[Mars]] and exposed [[Venus]] to be a planet of such dramatic climate as to be not conducive to supporting any known forms of life. The major scientific argument against extraterrestrial life was formed: Earth was unique in its [[evolution]], randomly composed of the exact conditions to support the fragile, and somewhat random itself, process that led to life. Most scientists believed that for such conditions to happen twice, even in a universe as big as this one, is unlikely.
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The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated. [[William Herschel]], the discoverer of [[Uranus]], was one of many 18th-19th century astronomers convinced that our Solar System, and perhaps others, would be well populated by alien life. Other luminaries of the period who championed "cosmic pluralism" included [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]]. At the height of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] even the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]] were considered candidates for hosting aliens.
 
  
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==Extraterrestrials and the Modern era==
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==Popular belief in extraterrestrials==
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This enthusiasm towards the possibility of alien life continued well into the [[20th century]]. As long as human kind was unable to travel into space, extraterrestrial life seemed as probable to scientists and the general public alike. However, a split in the belief in E.T. life forms occured in the beginning half of the 20th century. With advancement in the scientific areas of physics, astronomy and evolutionary biology, scientists started to understand how complicated and fragile it was for life to develop on Earth, let alone elsewhere in a largely dangerous and inhospitable universe. Furthermore, the early explorations of space by probes showed no signs of life on the barren planet of Mars and exposed Venus to be a planet of such dramatic climate it is not condusive to support any known forms of life. The major scientific arguement against extraterrestrial life was formed; Earth was unique in its evolution, randomly composed of the exact conditions to support the fragile, and somewhat random itself, process that led to life. Most scientists believed, and still do that for such conditions to happen twice, even in a universe as big as ours, is unlikely (See '''Scientific Debate''' below)
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===UFOs and alien abductions===
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[[Image:Alienigena.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Artistic depiction of a grey alien]]
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Yet, as science was dismissing the notion of extraterrestrial life, it was becoming more popular in public imagination. The connection between extraterrestrials, the sudden frequent reports of unidentifiable, un-Earthly aircraft known now as [[Unidentified Flying Object (UFO)|UFO]]s, and the anthropomorphizing of extraterrestrials into the common identity of aliens, as they are known today, happened in the time period between 1920 and 1950. The possibility of intelligent life forms became an alluring mystery to the public. Early [[science fiction]] of the period used aliens frequently in its stories. Even those who claimed not to believe in aliens shared a widespread fear of malevolent creatures from space, possibly best demonstrated  by [[Orson Welles]]' infamous radio broadcast of ''The War of the Worlds'', in which hundreds of people in the [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]] area were led to believe an invasion by aliens was taking place.  
  
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Yet, as science was dismissing the notion of extraterrestrial life, it was becoming more popular in the public's imagination. The connection between extraterrestrials, the sudden frequent reports of [[UFO]]s, and the anthropromorphizing of extraterrestrals into the common identity of aliens, as they are known today, happened in a time period between 1920 and 1950. The possibility of intelligent life forms became an almost alluring mystery to the public. Early [[science fiction]] of the period used aliens frequently in its stories. Even those who claimed not to believe in aliens, shared a widespread fear of malevolent creatures from space, possibly best demonstrated  by [[Orson Welles]]' infamous radio broadcast of ''The World of the Wars'' in which hundreds of people in the [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]] area were led to believe an invasion by aliens was taking place.  
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Belief in aliens has become one of the most interesting and complicated aspects of [[pop culture]] and the [[new age movement]] in the later half of the twentieth century. Not only was it commonly believed that UFOs were in fact alien space craft, but reports of contact between humans and aliens have been prevalent since the 1950s. The development of the highly controversial [[alien abduction]]s is perhaps the most bizarre phenomenon in the UFO culture. The incident in [[New Hampshire]] in 1961, involving [[Betty Hill and Barney Hill|Betty and Barney Hill]] was the first reported [[abduction]] of humans by extraterrestrials for the purpose of [[medicine|medical]] experiments and testing. The tenacity of the couple, their desire to keep the incident a secret, and the recognition of their [[psychologist]] that something traumatic had happened to them all lent a sense of credibility to their story when it was revealed some years later. Since then, thousands of people around the world have made similar claims.  
  
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[[Image:Alienigena.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Artistic depiction of a Grey Alien]]
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"Contactees" (persons who claim to be in regular contact with extraterrestrials) have typically reported that they were given messages or profound wisdom by aliens, and that they were compelled to share these messages. As a cultural phenomenon, contactees perhaps had their greatest notoriety from the late 1940s to the late 1950s, but individuals have continued to make similar claims. Some shared their messages with small groups of followers, and many issued newsletters or spoke at UFO conventions.  
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Belief in aliens has become one of the most interesting and complicated aspects of [[pop culture]], the [[paranormal]] and the [[new age movement]] in the later half of the 20th century. Not only is commonly believed that UFOs are in fact alien space craft, but reports of contact between humans and aliens have been prevalent since the 1950s. One popular phenomeon is the abduction of humans by aliens, during which humans are unwittingly brought aboard space craft and subjected to medical examinations. Conspiracy theorists have claimed that world governments have clandestine relationships with aliens or are otherwise covering up alien existence. Some new age socities believe aliens hold a special place in the spiritual realm. These beliefs are fueled by overwhelming reports, observations, and the media, in which aliens are commonplace elements of movies and television shows, as well as books and documentaries. Commonly, these aliens are seen as small, with greyish skin, large head and black, lidless eyes. They are sometimes refered to as ''Greys''. Other depictions percieve aliens as repitilian, insect-like, or even resembling people of Nordic descent.
 
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[[Image:grey_alien_close1.jpg|thumb|180px|right|A [[grey alien]] close-up]]
 
  
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Aliens are depicted in numerous different ways; some portray and believe aliens exist to help mankind, while other times aliens are seen as hostile and using mankind for their own advancement. Either way, the notion that there are other life forms that possess similar intelligence and cognitant abilities as humans seems to strike a cord in humanity. Perhaps it is an overactive imagination projecting onto the infinity of the cosmos, of which we still know little. Or perhaps the fear of the ultimate unknown, that which is '''alien''' to mankind that helps fuel the belief.
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===Belief in extraterrestrials as a religious phenomenon===
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The contactee movement has been regarded by academics as a variety of religious belief, analogous to the [[new religious movements|new religions]], and has thus been studied by sociologists of religion. The classic 1956 study, ''When Prophecy Fails'' by [[Leon Festinger]], which included information about, and analysis of, contactee groups and was foundational in the development of the theory of [[cognitive dissonance]].<ref>Leon Festinger, Henry W. Riecken, and Stanley Schachter, ''When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group That Predicted the Destruction of the World'' (Harper-Torchbooks, 1956, ISBN 0061311324).</ref> Thus, astronomer [[J. Allen Hynek]] described contactees as asserting
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<blockquote>…the visitation to the earth of generally benign beings whose ostensible purpose is to communicate (generally to a relatively few selected and favored persons—almost invariably without witnesses) messages of "cosmic importance." These chosen recipients generally have repeated contact experiences, involving additional messages. The transmission of such messages to willing and uncritical true believers frequently, in turn, leads to the formation of a flying saucer cult, with the "communicator" or "contactee" the willing and obvious cult leader. Although relatively few in number, such flying saucer advocates have by their irrational acts strongly influenced public opinion.<ref>J. Allen Hynek, ''The UFO Experience: A Scientific Inquiry'' (Marlow & Company, 1998, ISBN 156924782X).</ref></blockquote>
  
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==Scientific Approach==
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These beliefs are fueled by the [[mass media|media]], in which aliens are commonplace elements of [[science fiction]] in films and television shows, as well as books and documentaries. Conspiracy theorists have claimed that world governments have clandestine relationships with aliens or are otherwise covering up alien existence. Commonly, these aliens are seen as small, with grayish skin, large head, and black, lidless eyes. They are sometimes referred to as "greys." Other depictions perceive aliens as [[reptile|reptilian]], [[insect]]-like, or even resembling people of [[Nordic]] descent.
  
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Since there is no solid proof for the existence of extraterrestrial life, most of the scientific community since the mid 20th century have not given the idea much thought, especially with the stigma of the more outlandish pop culture perspectives on the matter. However, there have been, and continue to be, scientists who engage the idea, on many different levels.  
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Aliens are depicted with conflicting [[motivation]]s: Some believe aliens exist to help humankind, while other times aliens are seen as hostile and using humankind for their own advancement. Either way, the notion that there are other life forms that possess similar intelligence and cognitive abilities as human beings seems to strike a chord in people. Perhaps it is an overactive imagination projecting onto the infinity of the cosmos, of which science still knows little, or perhaps the fear of the ultimate unknown, that which is "alien" to humankind, that helps fuel the belief.
  
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===Basis of Life===
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===Alternative spiritual explanations===
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On the other hand, some Christians theorize that purported aliens are in fact [[angel]]s or [[demon]]s&mdash;spiritual creatures rather than material beings from outer space. They point out that angels and demons can appear in any form, including "aliens" if that is what matches [[human being]]s' expectations. The mixed motivations of the so-called aliens also fits with the behavior of spiritual beings, who may either seek to help or create problems for the people they visit. Numerous traditions teach that the [[Earth]] is unique among the planets as the place of free choice and responsibility.
  
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In order for something to be considered a living organism, there are five biological criteria that must be met: ability to reproduce and grow, it consume nutrients in order to survive, have mobility and respond to external stimuli <ref> (2007) [[http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/bio99/bio99171.htm"Definition of Life"]] Retrieved May 1, 2007 </ref> Further, all living organisms on earth are based on the element [[carbon]], depend on water as a meduim for crucial chemical reactions, and are made up of long strands of [[amino acids]], known as [[DNA — Deoxyribonucleic acid]]. The difficulty with trying to understand possible other life forms, is that science currently is unaware of any other composition of life (there has been some speculation that instead of carbon, the element [[silicon]] may consistitue the basis of extraterrestrial life). Therefore, either life in the universe can only exist on planets with similar water and carbon levels and tempeture of Earth, or life exists in some form that we currently do not know about, and raises the issue of how to look for something that does not correspond to current understandings.
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===Exopolitics===
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A development at the end of the twentieth century in the field of extraterrestrial life is "exopolitics," or the [[politics|political]] implications of extraterrestrial contact, a term that came into use by Alfred Webre in his groundbreaking work as a futurist at the Stanford Research Institute. His view is that humanity lives on an isolated planet in the midst of a populated, evolving, and highly organized universal society.
  
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Most scientists hold that if extraterrestrial life exists, its [[evolution]] would have occurred independently in different places in the [[universe]]. An alternative hypothesis, held by a minority, is [[panspermia]], which suggests that life in the universe could have stemmed from a smaller number of points of origin, and then spread across the universe, from [[Planetary habitability|habitable planet]] to habitable planet. These two hypotheses are not [[mutually exclusive]].
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==Scientific approaches==
  
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Given their relative abundance and usefulness in sustaining life it has long been assumed thalife forms elsewhere in the universe will also utilize these basic components. However, other elements and solvents might be capable of providing a basis for [[life]]. [[Silicon]] is usually considered the most likely alternative to carbon, though this remains improbable. Silicon life forms are proposed to have a crystalline morphology, and are theorized to be able to exist in high temperatures, such as planets closer to the sun. Life forms based in [[ammonia]] rather than water are also considered, though this solution appears less optimal than water.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/ammonialife.html| publisher=daviddarling.info| title=Ammonia based life}}</ref>
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The stigma attached to the question of alien lifeforms from the more outlandish pop cultural ideas left many scientists in the latter half of the twentieth century unwilling to pursue the topic, either because they were afraid of ridicule within their discipline or they firmly believed that such endeavors were pointless. However, there have always been, and continue to be, serious scientists willing to examine these questions.  
  
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Recently, scientists have discovered mysterious red cells in India unlike any cells on Earth.<ref>Astrophysics and Space Science 302 #1-6 (2006) 175–187
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[[Astrobiology]] as a field of study has gained legitimacy and acceptance in the scientific community. Its main objectives include the search for extraterrestrial life, but in so doing seek to develop a better understanding of life on Earth.
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The Red Rain Phenomenon of Kerala and its Possible Extraterrestrial Origin
 
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Godfrey Louis and A. Santhosh Kumar</ref>  The cells appear to be replicating without the presence of [[DNA]], raising questions about whether they are a new kind of life altogether, or whether they can even be classified as life at all, without genetic material.  It is believed that these red cells may have been injected into Earth's atmosphere by a comet or meteor from elsewhere in the universe; some believe this may be evidence of panspermia's occurrence.  Little is known about these cells, however, and the issue is controversial. Some scientists believe the cells may actually be native to Earth.<ref>{{cite news
 
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|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/06/02/red.rain/index.html
 
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|publisher=CNN.com
 
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|date=2006-06-02
 
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|title= Mysterious red cells might be aliens
 
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|accessdate=2006-08-09}}
 
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</ref>
 
  
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Along with the biochemical basis of extraterrestrial life, there remains a broader consideration of [[evolution]] and [[comparative anatomy|morphology]]. What might an alien look like? Science fiction has long shown a bias towards humanoid or (often in the case of villains) [[reptiles|reptilian]] forms. The classical alien is light green or grey skinned, with a large head, and the typical four limb and two to five digit structure—i.e., it is fundamentally humanoid with a large [[brain]] to indicate great intelligence. Other subjects from animal [[mythos]] such as [[cats|felines]] and [[insects]] have also featured strongly in fictional representations of aliens.  
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===Basis of life===
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A difficult term to define, [[life]] can be considered the characteristic state of living organisms and individual [[Cell (biology)|cells]], or that quality or property that distinguishes living organisms from dead organisms and inanimate objects. Although universal consensus on a definition is lacking, [[biology|biological]] properties common to the known organisms found on [[Earth]] ([[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungus|fungi]], [[protist]]s, [[archaea]], and [[bacteria]]) are that they are [[carbon]]-and-[[water]]-based, are cellular with complex organization, use [[energy]] and undergo [[metabolism]], possess a capacity to grow, maintain [[homeostasis]], respond to stimuli, reproduce, and have various adaptations to the environment. Beyond these biological manifestations of matter, some [[philosophy|philosophical]] and [[religion|religious]] perspectives argue that living organisms possess an inner aspect or character that confers the quality of life.<ref>S. H. Lee, ''Unification Thought'' (New York: Unification Thought Institute, 1981, ISBN 0960648003).</ref>
  
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In considering the subject more seriously, a useful division has [[Evolving the Alien|been suggested]] between universal and parochial (narrowly restricted)  characteristics. Universals are features which have evolved independently more than once on Earth (and thus presumably are not difficult to develop) and are so intrinsically useful that species will inevitably tend towards them. These include [[flight]], [[sight]], [[photosynthesis]] and [[limbs]], all of which have evolved several times here on Earth with differing materialization. There are a huge variety of [[eye]]s, for example, many of which have radically different working schematics as well as different visual foci: the [[visual spectrum]], [[infrared]], [[polarity]] and [[echolocation]]. Parochials, by contrast, are essentially arbitrary evolutionary forms which often serve little utility (or at least have a function which can be equally served by dissimilar morphology) and probably will not be replicated. Parochials include the five digits of [[mammals]], the [[genitalia]] and sexual mechanics of animals, as well as the curious and often fatal conjunction of the feeding and breathing passages found within many animals.  
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===Speculation===
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Without concrete facts to analyze or direct phenomena to observe, most scientists studying extraterrestrial life have had to do so by speculation. Most speculation is, however, based on what is accepted knowledge of [[astronomy]] and [[biology]], as well as careful scientific postulating. For example, scientists must first try to understand if the [[evolution]] of extraterrestrial life would have occurred independently in different places in the [[universe]], or if, as a minority of scientists contend, life in the universe could have stemmed from a smaller number of points of origin, and then spread across the universe, from [[Planetary habitability|habitable planet]] to habitable planet, known as [[panspermia]].
  
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A consideration of which features are ultimately parochial challenges many taken for granted notions about morphological necessity. [[Skeletons]], in some form, are likely to be replicated elsewhere, yet the [[vertebrate]] [[vertebral column|spine]]—while a profound development on Earth—is just as likely to be unique. Similarly, it is reasonable to expect some type of egg laying amongst off-Earth creatures but the [[mammary glands]] which set apart mammals may be a singular case.
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Another concern is the evolutionary state of extraterrestrial life. There seems to be a greater possibility in the mind of many scientists that simple life forms, such as basic [[protein]]s and [[microbe]]s, are more probable than more radically evolved organisms. One reason for this is that these simpler lifeforms are easier to develop and maintain than a more complicated life form, such as the [[human being]], and therefore can possibly exist in a wider variety of environments. The other reasoning for simpler life forms does not exclude the notion of complex lifeforms, but rather that humankind will never find any, because by the time a probe or spacecraft could reach other planets, the [[star]]s supporting the alien species would have died out and destroyed them. In this scenario, the most likely organisms humanity would discover are simple proteins in its own [[solar system]].
  
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The assumption of radical diversity amongst putative extraterrestrials is by no means settled. While many exobiologists do stress that the enormously heterogeneous nature of Earth life foregrounds even greater variety in space, others point out that [[convergent evolution]] dictates substantial similarities between Earth and off-Earth life. These two schools of thought are called "divergionism" and "convergionism," respectively.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/etlifevar.html| publisher=daviddarling.info| title=Variety of extraterrestrial life}}</ref>
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The assumption of radical diversity amongst putative extraterrestrials is by no means settled. While many exobiologists stress that the enormously heterogeneous nature of Earth life foregrounds even greater variety in space, others point out that [[convergent evolution]] dictates substantial similarities between Earth and off-Earth life. These two schools of thought are called "divergionism" and "convergionism," respectively.<ref>David Darling, [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/etlifevar.html "Variety of extraterrestrial life,"] The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight. Retrieved February 27, 2017.</ref>
  
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[[Image:arecibo_message.png|160px|right|thumb|The [[Arecibo message]] is a digital message sent to [[Great Globular Cluster in Hercules|globular star cluster M13]], and is a well-known symbol of human attempts to contact extraterrestrials.]]
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===The search for extraterrestrials===
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Since the last quarter of the twentieth century, scientists have been actively searching the universe for other lifeforms with all the different types of [[technology]] available. Yet, even if all of [[NASA]] and the [[European Space Agency]]'s budgets were directed towards this one goal, the [[universe]] is still too large and the technological means inadequate to exhaustively search those areas in space that could possibly harbor life. Still, there are undaunted scientists who continue to search for possible life, whether it be [[bacteria]] or advanced [[civilization]]s. There are two different methods scientists use in this search: the direct and indirect method.
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====The direct method====
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Scientists are directly searching for evidence of unicellular life within the [[solar system]], carrying out studies on the surface of [[Mars]], [[Europa]] (one of [[Jupiter]]'s [[natural satellite]]s), and [[Titan]] (a moon of [[Saturn]]). The possibility of life on Mars has always been a matter of speculation, but became an even more heated issue in 1996, when structures resembling [[bacterium|bacteria]] were reportedly discovered in a [[meteorite]], ALH84001, thought to be formed of rock ejected from Mars. Such potentialities have helped to keep interest in alien life open to a number of prominent scientists. NASA's Mars Lander probes have surveyed the landscape of the red planet, analyzing the geological and chemical makeup of the environment, in order to determine, among other things, if the planet could have at some point supported life. There is circumstantial evidence that Mars was at one time supportive of life; the frozen [[water]] at the Martian poles most likely once flowed over the surface of the planet, and the levels of [[methane]] in the atmosphere, a [[gas]] that occurs in [[Earth's atmosphere]] as the result of biological processes.
  
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Scientists are directly searching for evidence of unicellular life within the [[solar system]], carrying out studies on the surface of Mars and examining [[meteors]] that have fallen to Earth. A mission is also proposed to [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s moons with a liquid water layer under its surface, which might contain life.
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Studies of Saturn's moon Titan have discovered high levels of methane and [[nitrogen]] in the atmosphere, along with other organic compounds that point to the possibility of life forms. Its extremely low temperatures (-289 &deg;F) and hostile weather more than likely rule out current life, at least on the surface. Underground liquid reservoirs, coupled with recent discoveries on Earth of small life forms surviving in incredibly harsh environments, suggested that perhaps there are, or were, micro-sized organisms on Titan.<ref>Ker Than, [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050913_titan_life.html "Scientists Reconsider Habitability of Saturn's Moon,"] SPACE.com (September 13, 2005). Retrieved February 27, 2017.</ref>
  
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There is some limited evidence that microbial life might possibly exist or have existed on Mars. An experiment on the [[Viking program|Viking]] Mars lander reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil that some argue are consistent with the presence of microbes. However, the lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the Viking indicates that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. Recently, [[Circadian rhythms]] have been allegedly discovered in Viking data. The interpretation is controversial. Independently in 1996 structures resembling [[bacterium|bacteria]] were reportedly discovered in a meteorite, [[ALH84001]], thought to be formed of [[martian meteorite|rock ejected from Mars]]. This report is also controversial and scientific debate continues. (See [[Viking biological experiments]].)
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[[Image:Terrestrial Planet Finder PIA04499.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] &ndash; Infrared interferometer concept of finding Earth-like [[extrasolar planet]]s]]
  
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In February 2005, [[NASA]] scientists reported that they had found strong evidence of present life on [[Mars]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mars_life_050216.html| title= Exclusive: NASA Researchers Claim Evidence of Present Life on Mars| last= Berger| first= Brian| date=2005}}</ref> The two scientists, [[Carol Stoker]] and [[Larry Lemke]] of NASA's [[Ames Research Center]], based their claims on methane signatures found in Mars' atmosphere that resemble the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as their own study of primitive life near the [[Rio Tinto river]] in [[Spain]]. NASA officials soon denied the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.spacetoday.net/Summary/2804| title= NASA denies Mars life reports| publisher=spacetoday.net| date=2005}}</ref> However, only a few days after Stoker and Lemke made their claims, scientists from the [[European Space Agency]] reported that their own measurements of methane on Mars suggested an organic origin.<ref name="Michelson 2005">{{cite news| url=http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/nm/space_mars_dc| publisher=Yahoo News| title=European Scientists Believe in Life on Mars| last=Michelson| date= 2005}}</ref>
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Astronomers are also searching for [[extrasolar planet]]s that would be conducive to life, especially those like OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb, which have been found to have Earth-like qualities. Radiodetection methods have been inadequate for such a search, as the resolution has been inadequate for detailed study of extrasolar planetary objects. Future telescopes should be able to image planets around nearby stars, which may reveal the presence of life (either directly or through atomic [[spectrography]], which would reveal key information such as the presence of free [[oxygen]] in a planet's atmosphere). ''Darwin'' is an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets and analyze their atmosphere. It has been argued that one of the best candidates for the discovery of life-supporting planets may be [[Alpha Centauri]], the closest star system to Earth, given that two of the three stars in the system are broadly sun-like.
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Though such findings are still very much in debate, support among scientists for the belief in the existence of life on Mars seems to be growing. In an informal survey conducted at the conference in which the European Space Agency presented its findings, 75 percent of the scientists in attendance reported to believe that life once existed on Mars; 25 percent reported a belief that life currently exists there.<ref name="Michelson 2005"/>
 
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[[Image:Terrestrial Planet Finder PIA04499.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] - Infrared interferometer concept of finding Earth-like [[extrasolar planets]]]]
 
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Astronomers also search for [[extrasolar]] planets that would be conducive to life, especially those like [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] which have been found to have Earth-like qualities. Current radiodetection methods have been inadequate for such a search, as the resolution afforded by recent technology is inadequate for detailed study of extrasolar planetary objects. Future telescopes should be able to image planets around nearby stars, which may reveal the presence of life (either directly or through [[Atomic absorption spectroscopy|spectrography]] which would reveal key information such as the presence of free [[oxygen]] in a planet's atmosphere). [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] is an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets, and analyse their atmosphere. It has been argued that one of the best candidates for the discovery of life-supporting planets may be [[Alpha Centauri]], the closest star system to Earth, given that two of the three stars in the system are broadly sun-like.
 
  
 
===Indirect search===
 
===Indirect search===
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It is theorised that any technological society in space will be transmitting information. Projects such as [[SETI]] are conducting an astronomical search for radio activity that would confirm the presence of intelligent life. A related suggestion is that aliens might broadcast pulsed and continuous [[laser]] signals in the optical as well as infrared spectrum;<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.coseti.org/| publisher=The Columbus Optical SETI Observatory| title=The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) in the Optical Spectrum}}</ref> laser signals have the advantage of not "smearing" in the interstellar medium and may prove more conducive to communication between the stars.
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Some scientists theorize that any technological [[society]] in space would be transmitting information, and that instruments on Earth could possibly pick up those transmissions. In 1960, [[Cornell University]] astronomer [[Frank Drake]] performed the first modern experiment, named "[[Project Ozma]]" after the [[Princess Ozma|Queen of Oz]] in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s fantasy books. Drake used a 25-meter-diameter radio telescope at Green Bank, [[West Virginia]], to examine the stars [[Tau Ceti]] and [[Epsilon Eridani]] near the 1.420 gigahertz marker frequency. Although nothing of great interest was discovered, the notion spawned other searches that continue to this day. Such searches had been categorized under the acronym '''SETI''' (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence). Using radio telescopes to scan for cosmic transmissions is an approach widely endorsed by the scientific community as hard science.
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===SETI===
 
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'''SETI''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|['sɛti]}}) is the acronym for '''Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence'''; organized efforts by humans to detect [[Extraterrestrial life|intelligent aliens]]. A number of efforts with "SETI" in the project name have been organized, including projects funded by the [[United States Government]]. The generic approach of SETI projects is to survey the [[sky]] to detect the existence of [[interstellar communication|transmissions]] from a civilization on a distant planet - an approach widely endorsed by the [[scientific community]] as [[hard science]].
 
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There are great challenges in searching across the sky to detect a first transmission that can be characterised as intelligent, since its direction, spectrum and method of communication are all unknown beforehand. SETI projects necessarily make assumptions to narrow the search, and thus no exhaustive search has so far been conducted. 
 
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Visiting another [[civilization]] on a [[Extrasolar planets|distant world]] is presently beyond human capabilities (see [[Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)|Project Orion]] and [[Project Daedalus]] for some hypothetical explorations of the concept). However, it is currently technologically feasible to develop a communications system which uses a powerful transmitter and a sensitive receiver to search the sky for [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial worlds]] whose citizens have a similar inclination as terrestrials.
 
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SETI is not generally viewed by scientists as a trivial task. Our [[galaxy]], the [[Milky Way]], is 100,000 [[light year]]s across and contains approximately a hundred billion [[stars]]. Searching the entire sky for some far-away and faint signal is an exhausting exercise. A number of assumptions are needed for SETI to be feasible.
 
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A basic assumption of SETI is that of "Mediocrity": the idea that humanity is not exotic in the [[cosmos]] but in a sense "typical" or "medium" when compared with other intelligent species.{{citation needed}} This would mean that humanity has sufficient similarities with other intelligent beings that communications would be mutually desirable and understandable.  If this basic assumption of Mediocrity is correct, and other intelligent species are present in any number in the galaxy at our technological level or above, then communications between the two worlds should be inevitable.  
 
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Another assumption is to focus on [[Sun]]-like [[star]]s.  Very big stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that intelligent life would likely not have time to evolve on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be [[tidal locking|tidally locked]] to the star, with one side of the planet perpetually baked and the other perpetually frozen. (However, some speculate that a thick cloud cover may mitigate these differences. [http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/seti_sets_site_on_mdwarfs.html])
 
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About 10% of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy are Sun-like, and there are about a thousand such stars within 100 light-years of the Sun. These stars would be useful primary targets for interstellar listening.
 
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However, we know of only one planet where life exists, our own. There is no way to know if any of the simplifying assumptions are correct, and so as a second priority the entire sky must be searched.
 
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==== Searching the Electromagnetic Spectrum ====
 
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In order to find an electromagnetic transmission from an [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]] civilization we also have to search through most of the useful radio [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]], as there is no way to know what frequencies aliens might be using. Trying to transmit a powerful signal over a wide range of wavelengths is impractical, and so it is likely that such a signal would be transmitted on a relatively narrow band. This means that a wide range of frequencies must be searched at every [[Celestial coordinate system|spatial coordinate]] of the sky.
 
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There is also the problem of knowing what to listen for, as we have no idea how a signal sent by aliens might be modulated, and how the data transmitted by it might be encoded.  Narrow-bandwidth signals that are stronger than background noise and constant in intensity are obviously interesting, and if they have a regular and complex pulse pattern are likely to be artificial.
 
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However, while studies have been performed on how to send a signal that could be easily [[decipher]]ed, there is no way to know if the assumptions of those studies are valid, and deciphering the information from an alien signal could be very difficult.  
 
  
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There is yet another problem in listening for interstellar radio signals. Cosmic and receiver noise sources impose a threshold to power of signals that we can detect. For us to detect an alien civilization 100 light years away that is broadcasting "omnidirectionally," that is, in all directions, the aliens would have to be using a transmitter power equivalent to several thousand times the entire current power-generating capacity of the entire Earth.  
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There are great challenges in searching across the sky to detect a first transmission that can be characterized as intelligent, since its direction, spectrum, and method of communication are all unknown beforehand. SETI projects necessarily make assumptions to narrow the search, and thus no exhaustive search has so far been conducted. A basic assumption of SETI is that of "Mediocrity": The idea that humanity is not exotic in the [[cosmos]] but in a sense "typical" or "medium" when compared with other intelligent species.<ref>Jennifer Kahn, [http://discovermagazine.com/2002/apr/featnotes "Notes From Another Universe,"] ''Discover'' (April 2002). Retrieved February 27, 2017.</ref> This would mean that humankind has sufficient similarities with other intelligent beings that [[communication]] would be mutually desirable and understandable. If this basic assumption of “Mediocrity” is correct, and other intelligent species are present in any number in the galaxy at humanity's technological level or above, then communication between the two worlds should be inevitable.  
  
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It is much more effective in terms of communication to generate a narrow-beam signal whose "effective radiated power" is very high along the path of the beam, but negligible everywhere else.  This places the transmitter power within reasonable ranges, the problem being now of having the good luck to coincide with the path of the beam, with the possibility approaching to zero as distance increases.  
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Another assumption is to focus on [[Sun]]-like [[star]]s. Very big stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that intelligent life would likely not have time to evolve on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be [[tidal locking|tidally locked]] to the star, with one side of the planet perpetually baked and the other perpetually frozen.
  
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Such a beam might be very hard to detect, not only because it is very narrow, but because it could be blocked by interstellar dust clouds or garbled by "multipath effects," the same phenomenon that causes "ghosted" TV images.  Such ghosts occur when [[television|TV]] transmissions are bounced off a mountain or other large object, while also arriving at our TV antenna by a shorter, direct route, with the TV picking up two signals separated by a delay.  
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About 10 percent of the stars in the [[Milky Way galaxy]] are Sun-like, and there are about a thousand such stars within 100 light-years of the Sun, comprising the useful primary targets for interstellar listening. Finding an electromagnetic transmission from an alien civilization involves searching through most of the useful radio [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]], as there is no way to know what frequencies aliens might be using. Trying to transmit a powerful signal over a wide range of wavelengths is impractical, and so it is likely that such a signal would be transmitted on a relatively narrow band. This means that a wide range of frequencies must be searched at every [[Celestial coordinate system|spatial coordinate]] of the sky.  
  
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Similarly, interstellar narrow-beam communications could be bent or "refracted" by [[interstellar cloud]]s to produce multipath effects that could obscure the signal.  If interstellar signals are being transmitted on narrow beams, there is nothing we can do at this end to deal with this problem other than to be alert.
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There is also the problem of knowing what to listen for, as scientists have no idea how a signal sent by aliens might be modulated, and how the data transmitted by it might be encoded. Narrow-bandwidth signals that are stronger than background noise and constant in intensity are obviously interesting, and if they have a regular and complex pulse pattern are likely to be artificial.
 +
[[Image:arecibo_message.png|160px|right|thumb|The [[Arecibo message]] is a digital message sent to globular [[star cluster]] M13, and is a well-known symbol of human attempts to contact extraterrestrials]]
 +
However, while studies have been performed on how to send a signal that could be easily [[decipher]]ed, there is no way to know if the assumptions of those studies are valid, and deciphering the information from an alien signal could be very difficult.
  
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===Early work===
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Many different SETI projects have come and gone since the mid-twentieth century. The massive radio dish in Arecibo, [[Puerto Rico]], once was distinguished in its SETI program, until the U.S. government cut its funding. Since then, most of the SETI work being done has been in the private sector, such as the [[Allen Telescope Array]] in [[California]], the [[Phoenix Project]] in [[Australia]], and [[Harvard University]]'s Optical SETI project.
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In 1960, [[Cornell University]] astronomer [[Frank Drake]] performed the first modern SETI experiment, named "[[Project Ozma]]," after the [[Princess Ozma|Queen of Oz]] in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s fantasy books. Drake used a 25-meter-diameter radio telescope at [[Green Bank, West Virginia]], to examine the stars [[Tau Ceti]] and [[Epsilon Eridani]] near the 1.420 gigahertz marker frequency. A 400 kilohertz band was scanned around the marker frequency, using a single-channel receiver with a bandwidth of 100 hertz. The information was stored on tape for off-line analysis. Nothing of great interest was found.
 
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The first SETI conference took place at Green Bank in 1961. The Soviets took a strong interest in SETI during the 1960s and performed a number of searches with [[omnidirectional antenna]]s in the hope of picking up powerful radio signals beginning in 1964. TV-Host/American astronomer [[Carl Sagan]] and Soviet astronomer [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii|Iosif Shklovskii]] together wrote the pioneering book in the field, ''Intelligent Life in the Universe'' which was published in 1966 <ref name="sagan_shklovskii">{{cite book | first = Carl | last = Sagan | coauthors = Iosif Scklovskii | title = Intelligent Life in the Universe | year = 1966}}</ref>.
 
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In the March 1955 issue of [[Scientific American]], Dr. [[John Kraus]], Professor Emeritus and McDougal Professor of [[Electrical Engineering]] and [[Astronomy]] at the [[Ohio State University]], described a concept to scan the cosmos for natural radio signals using a flat-plane [[radio telescope]] equipped with a parabolic [[reflector]]. Within one year, his concept was approved for construction by the Ohio State University. With the aid of $71,000 in total grants by the [[National Science Foundation]], construction of the first Kraus-style radio telescope began on a 20-acre plot in [[Delaware, Ohio]]. The 360-feet wide, 500-feet long, and 70-feet high telescope was powered up in 1963. This Ohio State University radio telescope was called [[Big Ear]]. Later, it began the world's first continuous SETI program, called the Ohio State University SETI program.
 
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In 1971, the U.S. [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) funded a SETI study that involved Drake, [[Bernard Oliver]] of [[Hewlett-Packard]] Corporation, and others. The report that resulted proposed the construction of an Earth-based radio telescope array with 1,500 dishes, known as "[[Project Cyclops]]." The price tag for the Cyclops array was $10 billion USD, and, not surprisingly, Cyclops was not built.
 
  
 
===Arecibo message===
 
===Arecibo message===
  
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In 1974, a largely symbolic attempt was made to send a message to other worlds. To celebrate a substantial upgrading of the 305 meter [[Arecibo Radio Telescope]] in [[Puerto Rico]], a coded message of 1,679 [[bit]]s was transmitted towards the [[Globular Cluster M13]], about 25,100 light years away.
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In 1974, a largely symbolic attempt was made to send a message to other worlds. To celebrate a substantial upgrading of the 305 meter [[Arecibo Radio Telescope]] in [[Puerto Rico]], a coded message of 1,679 [[bit]]s was transmitted towards the [[globular cluster]] M13, about 25,100 light years away.
  
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The pattern of 0s and 1s contained in the message defines a 23 &times; 73 two dimensional grid which when plotted reveals some data about our location in the [[Solar System]], a stylized figure of a human being, chemical formulae and an outline of the radio telescope itself. The 23 by 73 grid was chosen because both 23 and 73 are [[prime number]]s, which makes it easier to decode the message.  
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The message contains a pattern of 0s and 1s, defining a 23 × 73 two dimensional grid which when plotted reveals some data about our location in the [[solar system]], a stylized figure of a [[human being]], [[chemistry|chemical]] formulae, and an outline of the [[radio telescope]] itself. The 23 by 73 grid was chosen because both 23 and 73 are [[prime number]]s, which makes it easier to decode the message.  
  
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Given the limitations of the speed of light for message transmission, no reply would be possible before the year 52,174 (approximately) and hence has been dismissed by some as a [[publicity stunt]]. A controversy arose because the transmission raised the serious question of whether a small group should be allowed to speak for Earth.
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Given the limitations of the speed of [[light]] for message transmission, no reply would be possible before the year 52,174 (approximately) and hence has been dismissed by many as a [[publicity stunt]]. It also generated controversy over the serious question of whether a small group should be allowed to speak for Earth.
  
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====Sentinel, META, and BETA====
+
==Notes==
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In 1980, [[Carl Sagan]], [[Bruce C. Murray|Bruce Murray]], and [[Louis Friedman]] founded the U.S. [[Planetary Society]], partly as a vehicle for SETI studies.
+
<references/>
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In the early 1980s, [[Harvard University]] physicist [[Paul Horowitz]] took the next step and proposed the design of a spectrum analyzer specifically intended to search for SETI transmissions. Traditional desktop spectrum analyzers were of little use for this job, as they sampled frequencies using banks of analog filters and so were restricted in the number of channels they could acquire. However, modern integrated-circuit [[digital signal processing]] (DSP) technology could be used to build [[autocorrelation]] receivers to check far more channels. This work led in 1981 to a portable spectrum analyzer named "Suitcase SETI" that had a capacity of 131,000 narrowband channels. After field tests that lasted into 1982, Suitcase SETI was put into use in 1983 with the 26-meter Harvard/Smithsonian [[radio telescope]] at [[Harvard, Massachusetts]]. This project was named "Sentinel," and continued into 1985.
 
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Even 131,000 channels weren't enough to search the sky in detail at a fast rate, so Suitcase SETI was followed in 1985 by Project "META," for "Megachannel Extra-Terrestrial Assay." The META spectrum analyzer had a capacity of 8.4 million channels and a channel resolution of 0.05 hertz. An important feature of META was its use of frequency [[doppler shift]] to distinguish between signals of terrestrial and extraterrestrial origin.  The project was led by Horowitz with the help of the Planetary Society, and was partly funded by movie maker Steven Spielberg. A second such effort, META II, was begun in Argentina in 1990 to search the southern sky. META II is still in operation, after an equipment upgrade in 1996. The next year, in 1986, UC Berkeley initiated their second SETI effort, SERENDIP II, and has continued with two more SERENDIP efforts to the present day.
 
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The follow-on to META was named "BETA," for "Billion-channel ExtraTerrestrial Assay," and it commenced observation on October 30, 1995.  The heart of BETA's processing capability consisted of 63 dedicated FFT engines, each capable of performing a 2^22-point [[Complex number#Signal analysis|complex]] [[fast Fourier transform]] in two seconds, and 21 general-purpose [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]s equipped with custom [[digital signal processing]] boards.  This allowed BETA to receive 250 million simultaneous channels with a resolution of 0.5 hertz per channel.  It scanned through the [[microwave]] [[spectrum]] from 1.400 to 1.720 gigahertz in eight hops, with two seconds of observation per hop.  An important capability of the BETA search was rapid and automatic reobservation of candidate signals, achieved by observing the sky with two adjacent beams, one slightly to the east and the other slightly to the west.  A successful candidate signal would first transit the east beam, and then the west beam and do so with a speed consistent with the earth's [[sidereal]] rotation rate.  A third receiver observed the horizon to veto signals of obvious terrestrial origin.  On March 23, 1999 the 26-meter [[radio telescope]] on which Sentinel, META and BETA were based was blown over by strong winds and seriously damaged.  This forced the BETA project to cease operation.
 
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====MOP and Project Phoenix====
 
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In 1992, the U.S. government finally funded an operational SETI program, in the form of the NASA "Microwave Observing Program (MOP)." MOP was planned as a long-term effort, performing a "Targeted Search" of 800 specific nearby stars, along with a general "Sky Survey" to scan the sky.  MOP was to be performed by radio dishes associated with the NASA [[Deep Space Network]], as well as a 43-meter dish at Green Bank and the big Arecibo dish. The signals were to be analyzed by spectrum analyzers, each with a capacity of 15 million channels. These spectrum analyzers could be ganged to obtain greater capacity. Those used in the Targeted Search had a bandwidth of 1 hertz per channel, while those used in the Sky Survey had a bandwidth of 30 hertz per channel.
 
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MOP drew the attention of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], where the program was strongly ridiculed, and was canceled a year after its start. SETI advocates did not give up, and in 1995 the nonprofit "SETI Institute" of [[Mountain View, Santa Clara County, California|Mountain View, California]], resurrected the work under the name of Project "Phoenix," backed by private sources of funding.  [[Project Phoenix (SETI)|Project Phoenix]], under the direction of Dr. [[Jill Tarter]], previously Project Scientist for the NASA project, is a continuation of the Targeted Search program, studying roughly 1,000 nearby Sunlike stars.  [[Seth Shostak]] also worked on Project Phoenix. From 1995 through March 2004, Phoenix conducted observing campaigns at the 64-meter [[Parkes Observatory|Parkes radio telescope]] in Australia, the 140 Foot Telescope of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in West Virginia, USA, and the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. The project observed the equivalent of 800 stars over the available channels in the frequency range from 1200 to 3000 MHz. The search was sensitive enough to pick up transmitters with power output equivalent to airport radars to a distance of about 200 light years.
 
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====Allen Telescope Array====
 
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The SETI Institute is now collaborating with the Radio Astronomy Laboratory at UC Berkeley to develop a specialized radio telescope array for SETI studies, something like a mini-Cyclops array.  The new array concept is named the "Allen Telescope Array" (ATA) (formerly, One Hectare Telescope [1HT]) after the project's benefactor [[Paul Allen]]. Its sensitivity will be equivalent to a single large dish more than 100 meters on a side.  The array is being constructed at the [[Hat Creek Observatory]] in rural northern California. <ref name="Allen">{{cite web | url = http://www.seti.org/site/pp.asp?c=ktJ2J9MMIsE&b=179146 | title = Allen Telescope Array General Overview | publisher = [[SETI Institute]] | accessdate = 2006-06-12}}</ref>
 
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The full array is planned to consist of 350 or more Gregorian radio dishes, each 6.1 meters (20 feet) in diameter. These dishes are the largest producable with commercially available [[satellite television]] dish technology. The ATA was planned for a 2007 completion date, at a very modest cost of $25 million USD, but the completion date will surely slip. The SETI Institute provides money for building the ATA while UC Berkeley designs the telescope and provides operational funding.  Berkeley astronomers will use the ATA to pursue other deep space radio observations. The ATA is intended to support a large number of simultaneous observations through a technique known as "multibeaming," in which DSP technology is used to sort out signals from the multiple dishes. The DSP system planned for the ATA is extremely ambitious.
 
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The ATA schedule has slipped, not surprising for an ambitious project on a limited budget.  The individual antennas work, can be fabricated, and meet specifications.  As of summer 2006, roughly 10 of the antennas are complete and 42 are under final construction.  Although not yet capable of significant radio astronomy or SETI observations, the ATA has become a testbed for array technology, as needed for the [[Square Kilometre Array]], the US Navy, and DARPA.  Completion of the full 350 element array will depend on funding and the technical results from the 42 element sub-array.
 
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===Optical SETI experiments===
 
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While most SETI sky searches have studied the radio spectrum, some SETI researchers have considered the possibility that alien civilizations might be using powerful [[laser]]s for interstellar communications at optical wavelengths.
 
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The idea was first suggested in a paper published in the British journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1961, and in 1983 [[Charles Townes]], one of the inventors of the laser, published a detailed study of the idea in the US journal ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]''.
 
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Most SETI researchers agreed with the idea. The 1971 Cyclops study discounted the possibility of optical SETI, reasoning that construction of a laser system that could outshine the bright central sun of a remote star system would be too difficult. Now some SETI advocates, such as [[Frank Drake]], have suggested that such a judgement was too conservative.
 
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There are two problems with optical SETI, one of which is easy to deal with, the second of which is troublesome.
 
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The first problem is that lasers are highly "monochromatic," that is, they emit light only on one frequency, making it troublesome to figure out what frequency to look for.
 
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However, according to [[Harmonic analysis|Harmonic analysis (Fourier analysis)]], emitting light in narrow pulses results in a broad spectrum of emission{{fact}}, with the frequencies becoming higher as the pulse width becomes narrower, and an interstellar communications system could use pulsed lasers.
 
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The other problem is that while radio transmissions can be broadcast in all directions, lasers are highly directional. This means that a laser beam could be easily blocked by clouds of [[interstellar dust]], and more to the point, we could pick it up only if we happened to cross its line of fire.
 
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As it is unlikely an alien civilization would focus an interstellar laser communications beam on Earth deliberately, we would have to cross such a beam by accident.
 
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However, as discussed earlier, the power requirements for omnidirectional interstellar radio broadcasts are tremendous, and narrow-beam radio communications are technically more plausible.
 
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As SETI researchers have adjusted to the idea that interstellar radio communications may be over narrow beams, the idea of hunting for interstellar laser beams has become no more troublesome.
 
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Several optical SETI experiments are now in progress.
 
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A Harvard-Smithsonian group that includes Paul Horowitz designed a laser detector and mounted it on Harvard's 155 centimeter (61 inch) optical telescope.
 
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This telescope is currently being used for a more conventional star survey, and the optical SETI survey is "[[piggyback]]ing" on that effort.
 
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Between October 1998 and November 1999, the survey inspected about 2,500 stars. Nothing that resembled an intentional laser signal was detected, but efforts continue.
 
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The Harvard-Smithsonian group is now working with Princeton to mount a similar detector system on Princeton's 91-centimeter (36-inch) telescope.
 
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The Harvard and Princeton telescopes will be "ganged" to track the same targets at the same time, with the intent being to detect the same signal in both locations as a means of reducing errors from detector noise.
 
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The Harvard-Smithsonian group is now building a dedicated all-sky optical survey system along the lines of that described above, featuring a 1.8-meter (72-inch) telescope.
 
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The new optical SETI survey telescope is being set up at the [[Oak Ridge Observatory]] in [[Harvard, Massachusetts]].
 
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The University of California, Berkeley, home of SERENDIP and SETI@home, is also conducting optical SETI searches.
 
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One is being directed by [[Geoffrey Marcy]], the well-known extrasolar planet hunter, and involves examination of records of spectra taken during [[extrasolar planet]] hunts for a continuous, rather than pulsed, laser signal.
 
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The other Berkeley optical SETI effort is more like that being pursued by the Harvard-Smithsonian group and is being directed by Dan Werthimer of Berkeley, who built the laser detector for the Harvard-Smithsonian group.
 
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The Berkeley survey uses a 76-centimeter (30-inch) automated telescope and an older laser detector built by Wertheimer.
 
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===Criticism of SETI===
 
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SETI has occasionally been the target of criticism by those who suggest that it is a form of [[pseudoscience]]. In particular, critics allege that no observed phenomena suggest the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence, and furthermore that the assertion of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligence has no good [[Karl Popper|Popperian]] criteria for [[falsifiability]] [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.theness.com/articles/seti-nejs0101.html]. [[Science fiction]] writer [[Michael Crichton]], in a 2003 lecture at [[Caltech]], stated that "The [[Drake equation]] cannot be tested and therefore SETI is not science. SETI is unquestionably a religion." [http://www.crichton-official.com/speeches/speeches_quote04.html].
 
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In response, SETI advocates note, among other things, that the existence of intelligent life on Earth is a plausible reason to expect it elsewhere, and that individual SETI projects have clearly defined "stop" conditions. Concerning the latter argument, the justification for SETI projects doesn't necessarily require an acceptance of the Drake equation. The ''search'' for extra-terrestrial intelligence is not an assertion that extra-terrestrial intelligence exists, and conflating the two can be seen as a [[straw man argument]]. There is an effort to distinguish the SETI projects from UFOlogy, the study of UFOs considered to be pseudoscience by many.
 
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In 1983 [[Stanislaw Lem]], disappointed with the lack of results of SETI in spite of the huge effort, has noted that he considers the Universe silent, coining the moniker [[silencium universi]].
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
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<references/>
+
* Baird, John C. ''The Inner Limits of Outer Space: A Psychologist Critiques Our Efforts to Communicate With Extraterrestrial Beings.'' Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1987. ISBN 0874514061
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* Cohen, Jack and Ian Stewart. ''Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life.'' Ebury Press, 2002. ISBN 0091879272
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== Further reading ==
+
* Crowe, Michael J. ''The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750-1900.'' Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
−
* {{cite book | author = Exers, Ronald, D. Cullers, J. Billingham, L. Scheffer (editors) | title = SETI 2020: A Roadmap for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence | year = 2003 | publisher = SETI Press | id = ISBN 0-9666335-3-9}}
+
* Exers, Ronald, D. Cullers, J. Billingham, L. Scheffer (eds.). ''SETI 2020: A Roadmap for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence.'' SETI Press, 2003. ISBN 0966633539
−
* {{cite book | last = McConnell | first = Brian | coauthors = Chuck Toporek | title = Beyond Contact: A Guide to SETI and Communicating with Alien Civilizations | year = 2001 | publisher = O'Reilly | id = ISBN 0-596-00037-5}}
+
* Festinger, Leon, Henry W. Riecken, and Stanley Schachter. ''When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group That Predicted the Destruction of the World''. Harper-Torchbooks, 1956. ISBN 0061311324
−
 
+
* Goldsmith, Donald. ''The Hunt for Life on Mars.'' New York: Dutton Books, 1997. ISBN 0525943366
−
 
+
* Grinspoon, David. ''The Lonely Planets: The Natural Philosophy of Alien Life.'' New York: HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0060185406
−
 
+
* Hynek, J. Allen. ''The UFO Experience: A Scientific Inquiry''. Marlow & Company, 1998. ISBN 156924782X
−
*Roth, Christopher F., "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult."  In ''E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces,'' ed. by Debbora Battaglia. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005.
+
* Lee, Sang Hun. ''Unification Thought''. Rose of Sharon Pr, 1981. ISBN 0960648003
−
 
+
* Lemnick, Michael T. ''Other Worlds: The Search for Life in the Universe.'' New York: Touchstone Books, 1998.
−
* [[Carl Sagan|Sagan, Carl]]. 1996. ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark: chapter 4: "Aliens"
+
* McConnell, Brian and Chuck Toporek. ''Beyond Contact: A Guide to SETI and Communicating with Alien Civilizations.'' O'Reilly, 2001. ISBN 0596000375
−
 
+
* Pickover, Cliff. ''The Science of Aliens.'' New York: Basic Books, 2003. ISBN 0465073158
−
 
+
* Roth, Christopher F. "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult" in Debbora Battagilia, ''E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces.'' Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005.  
−
 
+
* Sagan, Carl, and I.S. Shklovskii. ''Intelligent Life in the Universe.'' New York: Random House, 1966.
−
 
+
* Sagan, Carl. ''Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence.'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973.
−
 
+
* Sagan, Carl. ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark'', 1996. chap. 4: "Aliens."
−
* {{cite book
+
* Webre, Alfred. ''Exopolitics: Politics, Government, and Law in the Universe.'' Universebooks, 2008 (original 2005). ISBN 0973766301
−
| author = [[David Grinspoon (scientist)|David Grinspoon]]
 
−
| year =2003
 
−
| title=[[Lonely Planets|Lonely Planets: The Natural Philosophy of Alien Life]]
 
−
| publisher = HarperCollins
 
−
| id = ISBN 0-06-018540-6
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| author = [[Jack Cohen (scientist)|Jack Cohen]] and [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]]
 
−
| year =2002
 
−
| title=[[Evolving the Alien|Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life]]
 
−
| publisher = Ebury Press
 
−
| id = ISBN 0-09-187927-2
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| author = [[John C. Baird]]
 
−
| year = 1987
 
−
| title = [[The Inner Limits of Outer Space]]: A Psychologist Critiques Our Efforts to Communicate With Extraterrestrial Beings
 
−
| location = Hanover
 
−
| publisher = University Press of New England
 
−
| id = ISBN 0-87451-406-1
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| author = [[Donald Goldsmith]]
 
−
| year = 1997
 
−
| title = [[The Hunt for Life on Mars]]
 
−
| location = New York
 
−
| publisher = A Dutton Book
 
−
| id = ISBN 0-525-94336-6
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| author = [[Michael T. Lemnick]]
 
−
| year = 1998
 
−
| title = Other Worlds: The Search for Life in the Universe
 
−
| location = New York
 
−
| publisher = A Touchstone Book
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| author = [[Cliff Pickover]]
 
−
| year = 2003
 
−
| title = [[The Science of Aliens]]
 
−
| location = New York
 
−
| publisher = Basic Books
 
−
| id = ISBN 0-465-07315-8
 
−
}}
 
−
*Roth, Christopher F. (2005) "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult." In ''E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces,'' ed. by Debbora Battaglia.  Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| last = Crowe | first = Michael J.
 
−
| title = The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750—1900
 
−
| publisher = Dover Publications
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| author = [[Carl Sagan|Sagan, Carl]] and [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii|I.S. Shklovskii]]
 
−
| title = [[Intelligent Life in the Universe]]
 
−
| publisher = Random House
 
−
| year = 1966
 
−
}}
 
−
* {{cite book
 
−
| last = Sagan | first = Carl
 
−
| title = [[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence]]
 
−
| publisher = MIT Press
 
−
| year = 1973
 
−
}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/9 'Is There Anybody Out There?'] Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU.
+
All links retrieved March 23, 2024.
−
*[http://www.actualaliens.com Actual Aliens]: Extraterrestrial News and Current Events
 
−
*[http://www.pbs.org/lifebeyondearth/index.html ''PBS: Life Beyond Earth'' a film by Timothy Ferris]
 
−
*[http://www.pbs.org/exploringspace/ ''PBS: Exploring Space - The Quest for Life'' by Scott Pearson]
 
−
*[http://www.ufoskeptic.org ''ufoskeptic.org'' by Bernard Haisch]
 
−
*[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/Xenopsychology.htm ''Xenopsychology'' by Robert A. Freitas Jr.]
 
−
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0520_050520_tv_aliens.html "What Aliens Might Look Like"] from [[National Geographic]]
 
−
*[http://www.sylviaengdahl.com/space/poetry1.htm Sylvia Engdahl , "Early Space Poetry" Part I]: Didactic and other poetry concerning other inhabited worlds, well-known and obscure poets, 17th-18th centuries. [http://www.sylviaengdahl.com/space/poetry2.htm "Part II":] 19th century
 
−
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4728228.stm Top stars picked in alien search]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
* [http://ufologie.net/htm/caponi.htm ufologie.net - The Filiberto Caponi close encounter of the 3rd kind, 1993]
 
−
* [http://www.ufocasebook.com/caponi.html ufocasebook.com - Filiberto Caponi Close Encounter 1993]
 
−
* [http://ufologie.net/htm/ilkleymoor.htm The Ilkley Moor encounter of the 3rd kind, 1987]
 
  
−
{{cleanup-date|2006 September}}<!-- too many links surely? —>
 
 
* [http://www.seti.org/ SETI Institute]
 
* [http://www.seti.org/ SETI Institute]
−
* [http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/ SETI@home], the [[shared computing]] project
+
*[http://www.pbs.org/exploringspace/ ''PBS: Exploring Space - The Quest for Life'' by Scott Pearson]
−
* [http://www.planetary.org/ The Planetary Society]
+
*[http://www.pbs.org/lifebeyondearth/index.html ''PBS: Life Beyond Earth'' a film by Timothy Ferris]
−
* [http://www.setileague.org/ The SETI League]
+
* [http://SkyandTelescope.com/resources/seti/ ''SETI: Searching for Life''] – ''Sky & Telescope''
−
:* [http://www.setileague.org/iaaseti/index.html IAA SETI Permanent Study Group]
+
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0520_050520_tv_aliens.html "Flying Whales, Other Aliens Theorized by Scientists"] from ''National Geographic Magazine''
−
:* [http://www.setileague.org/editor/clarke.htm Where Is Everybody?] : an [[essay]] by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] on SETI
+
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4728228.stm “Top stars picked in alien search”] &ndash; BBC
−
* [http://www.iaaweb.org/ International Academy of Astronautics]
+
*[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/Xenopsychology.htm ''Xenopsychology''] by Robert A. Freitas Jr.
−
* [http://www.boulder.swri.edu/CSEPR/projects/readings/race-need_for_operating_guidelines.pdf ''SETI Principles''] as defined from the [[Department of Space Studies]] of the [[Southwest Research Institute]] (PDF File)
+
* [http://www.anthropic-principle.com/preprints/milan-seti.pdf “Galactic Gradients, Postbiological Evolution, and the Apparent Failure of SETI”]
−
* [http://seti.harvard.edu/seti/ Harvard University SETI page]
 
−
* [http://www.coseti.org The Columbus Optical SETI Observatory, Dr. Stuart A, Kingsley]
 
−
* [http://www.spacedaily.com/news/seti-04e.html ''First Contact Within 20 Years: Shostak''] &ndash; From SpaceDaily.com, 22 July 2004 (based on calculations to be published in [[Acta Astronautica]])
 
−
* [http://SkyandTelescope.com/resources/seti/ ''SETI: Searching for Life''] &ndash; Article series in [[Sky & Telescope]] magazine
 
−
* Cirkovic, Milan M., and Bradbury, R. J., 200n, "[http://www.anthropic-principle.com/preprints/milan-seti.pdf Galactic Gradients, Postbiological Evolution, and the Apparent Failure of SETI.]"
 
−
* [http://history.nasa.gov/garber.pdf ''Searching for Good Science: The Cancellation of NASA's SETI Program''] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) &ndash; By [[Stephen J. Garber]], [[NASA History Office]].  ''Journal of the British Interplanetary Society'', Vol. 52, pp. 3-12, 1999. Provides more details on the elimination of SETI funding by the US Congress in 1993.
 
−
* [http://www.openseti.org Open SETI Initiative] &ndash; Gerry Zeitlin's site concerned with reforming SETI's approach
 
−
* [http://groups.myspace.com/galacticdrifterseti Galactic Drifter SETI] &ndash; Example of an economical SETI contact strategy in terms of look direction and timing constraints
 
−
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-419/sp419.htm ''The Search For Extraterrestrial Intelligence'' (NASA SP-419, 1977)]
 
−
* [http://www.winlab.rutgers.edu/~crose/cgi-bin/cosmic23.html  ET Might Write, Not Radiate]
 
−
* [http://www.satsig.net/seticalc.htm  SETI radio link-budget range calculator]
 
−
* [http://www.ccnmag.com/story.php?id=146  IT & SETI: The Role of Computer Technology in the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence]
 
−
* [http://www.markelowitz.com/exobiology.htm Mark Elowitz's Web site on Exobiology and SETI]
 
−
* [http://www.bigear.org/ Big Ear Memorial Website] - discovered the "Wow!" signal and has entry in Guinness Book of Records
 
−
* [http://www.naapo.org/ NAAPO], North American AstroPhysical Observatory (formerly Big Ear)
 
−
* [http://spsr.utsi.edu/ SPSR] The Society for Planetary SETI Research
 
−
* [http://www.setifaq.org/ SETI@home FAQ for newsgroups alt.sci.seti and sci.astro.seti]
 
−
* [http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Has_Seti_Been_Barking_Up_The_Wrong_Tree_Mostly_999.html Has SETI Been Barking Up the Wrong Tree (Mostly?]
 
−
* {{cite news | title=Top stars picked in alien search | publisher=BBC News | date=2006-02-19 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4728228.stm | accessdate=2006-08-13 }}
 
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{{Credits|Extraterrestrial_life|79457760|Extraterrestrial_life_in_popular_culture|78634268|SETI|79467501|}}

Latest revision as of 00:00, 25 March 2024


Artist's impression of Gilese 581 c, the first extrasolar planet discovered in its star's habitable zone

Extraterrestrial life is the term used to define any form of life that may exist and originate outside the planet Earth, the only place in the universe known to support life. Its existence is currently hypothetical; there is no evidence of extraterrestrial life that has been widely accepted by the scientific community. The putative study and theorization of ET life is known as astrobiology or exobiology, and the term "exopolitics" may be used to denote the study of political relations between humanity and extraterrestrial civilizations. Speculative forms of extraterrestrial life range from humanoid and monstrous beings to life at the much smaller scale of bacteria.

Extraterrestrial life forms, especially intelligent ones, are often referred to in popular culture as "aliens" or "ETs." The popular belief in extraterrestrial life has been fueled since the mid-twentieth century by numerous reports of UFOs (Unidentified Flying Objects) and claims of abduction. On the other hand, Christian skeptics consider them to be merely apparitions of angels or demons from the spirit world.

Scientists have approached the effort to discover extraterrestrial life by looking to the stars—exploring the closest planets and moons for evidence of life; listening for radio or electromagnetic transmissions from life beyond Earth; and even sending a message into space. While evidence has not yet been discovered of any life currently existing outside of earth, many scientists remain hopeful and continue the search. Given that the existence of life beyond earth has ramifications of the greatest significance for humankind, there are serious questions and preparations that need to be made on earth before this endeavor succeeds.

Historical belief in extraterrestrial life

Astronomy played a significant role in ancient societies, the arrangement of heavenly bodies inspiring cultural beliefs and mythology. Beliefs in creatures and lifeforms that populated the sky became almost commonplace in the ancient world. The atomists of Greece took up the idea of an infinite universe, with an infinity of populated worlds. The Jewish Talmud states that there are at least 18,000 other worlds. The Babylonians, Egyptians, Sumerians, Chinese, and Aztecs all held somewhat similar ideas of multiple worlds that existed amongst the stars. However, these beliefs were often spiritually focused, as the sky and stars were often the domain of deities and supernatural powers. The notion of alien biological lifeforms as they are thought of today, did not take shape for centuries.

This situation changed, however, with the dramatic shift in thinking initiated by the invention of the telescope and the Copernican assault on geocentric cosmology. Once it became clear that the earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe the extraterrestrial idea moved towards the scientific mainstream.

The best known early-modern proponent of such ideas was Giordano Bruno, who argued in the sixteenth century for an infinite universe in which every star is surrounded by its own solar system; he was eventually burned at the stake for heretical ideas.[1] Dominican monk Tommaso Campanella wrote about a Solarian alien race in his Civitas Solis. The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated. William Herschel, the discoverer of Uranus, was one of many eighteenth and nineteenth century astronomers convinced that our solar system, and perhaps others, could very well be populated by alien life. Other luminaries of the period who championed "cosmic pluralism" included Immanuel Kant and Benjamin Franklin. At the height of the Enlightenment even the Sun and Moon were considered candidates for hosting aliens.

Extraterrestrials and the modern era

This enthusiasm towards the possibility of alien life continued into the twentieth century. As long as humankind was unable to travel into space, extraterrestrial life seemed as probable to scientists and the general public alike. However, a split in the belief in ET life forms occurred in the beginning of the twentieth century. With advancement in the areas of physics, astronomy, and evolutionary biology, scientists started to understand how complicated and fragile life on earth was, how unlikely it was that life even developed somewhere hospitable to it, let alone elsewhere in a largely dangerous and inhospitable universe.

Furthermore, the early explorations of space by probes showed no signs of life on the barren planet of Mars and exposed Venus to be a planet of such dramatic climate as to be not conducive to supporting any known forms of life. The major scientific argument against extraterrestrial life was formed: Earth was unique in its evolution, randomly composed of the exact conditions to support the fragile, and somewhat random itself, process that led to life. Most scientists believed that for such conditions to happen twice, even in a universe as big as this one, is unlikely.

Popular belief in extraterrestrials

UFOs and alien abductions

Artistic depiction of a grey alien

Yet, as science was dismissing the notion of extraterrestrial life, it was becoming more popular in public imagination. The connection between extraterrestrials, the sudden frequent reports of unidentifiable, un-Earthly aircraft known now as UFOs, and the anthropomorphizing of extraterrestrials into the common identity of aliens, as they are known today, happened in the time period between 1920 and 1950. The possibility of intelligent life forms became an alluring mystery to the public. Early science fiction of the period used aliens frequently in its stories. Even those who claimed not to believe in aliens shared a widespread fear of malevolent creatures from space, possibly best demonstrated by Orson Welles' infamous radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds, in which hundreds of people in the New York and New Jersey area were led to believe an invasion by aliens was taking place.

Belief in aliens has become one of the most interesting and complicated aspects of pop culture and the new age movement in the later half of the twentieth century. Not only was it commonly believed that UFOs were in fact alien space craft, but reports of contact between humans and aliens have been prevalent since the 1950s. The development of the highly controversial alien abductions is perhaps the most bizarre phenomenon in the UFO culture. The incident in New Hampshire in 1961, involving Betty and Barney Hill was the first reported abduction of humans by extraterrestrials for the purpose of medical experiments and testing. The tenacity of the couple, their desire to keep the incident a secret, and the recognition of their psychologist that something traumatic had happened to them all lent a sense of credibility to their story when it was revealed some years later. Since then, thousands of people around the world have made similar claims.

"Contactees" (persons who claim to be in regular contact with extraterrestrials) have typically reported that they were given messages or profound wisdom by aliens, and that they were compelled to share these messages. As a cultural phenomenon, contactees perhaps had their greatest notoriety from the late 1940s to the late 1950s, but individuals have continued to make similar claims. Some shared their messages with small groups of followers, and many issued newsletters or spoke at UFO conventions.

Belief in extraterrestrials as a religious phenomenon

The contactee movement has been regarded by academics as a variety of religious belief, analogous to the new religions, and has thus been studied by sociologists of religion. The classic 1956 study, When Prophecy Fails by Leon Festinger, which included information about, and analysis of, contactee groups and was foundational in the development of the theory of cognitive dissonance.[2] Thus, astronomer J. Allen Hynek described contactees as asserting

…the visitation to the earth of generally benign beings whose ostensible purpose is to communicate (generally to a relatively few selected and favored persons—almost invariably without witnesses) messages of "cosmic importance." These chosen recipients generally have repeated contact experiences, involving additional messages. The transmission of such messages to willing and uncritical true believers frequently, in turn, leads to the formation of a flying saucer cult, with the "communicator" or "contactee" the willing and obvious cult leader. Although relatively few in number, such flying saucer advocates have by their irrational acts strongly influenced public opinion.[3]

These beliefs are fueled by the media, in which aliens are commonplace elements of science fiction in films and television shows, as well as books and documentaries. Conspiracy theorists have claimed that world governments have clandestine relationships with aliens or are otherwise covering up alien existence. Commonly, these aliens are seen as small, with grayish skin, large head, and black, lidless eyes. They are sometimes referred to as "greys." Other depictions perceive aliens as reptilian, insect-like, or even resembling people of Nordic descent.

Aliens are depicted with conflicting motivations: Some believe aliens exist to help humankind, while other times aliens are seen as hostile and using humankind for their own advancement. Either way, the notion that there are other life forms that possess similar intelligence and cognitive abilities as human beings seems to strike a chord in people. Perhaps it is an overactive imagination projecting onto the infinity of the cosmos, of which science still knows little, or perhaps the fear of the ultimate unknown, that which is "alien" to humankind, that helps fuel the belief.

Alternative spiritual explanations

On the other hand, some Christians theorize that purported aliens are in fact angels or demons—spiritual creatures rather than material beings from outer space. They point out that angels and demons can appear in any form, including "aliens" if that is what matches human beings' expectations. The mixed motivations of the so-called aliens also fits with the behavior of spiritual beings, who may either seek to help or create problems for the people they visit. Numerous traditions teach that the Earth is unique among the planets as the place of free choice and responsibility.

Exopolitics

A development at the end of the twentieth century in the field of extraterrestrial life is "exopolitics," or the political implications of extraterrestrial contact, a term that came into use by Alfred Webre in his groundbreaking work as a futurist at the Stanford Research Institute. His view is that humanity lives on an isolated planet in the midst of a populated, evolving, and highly organized universal society.

Scientific approaches

The stigma attached to the question of alien lifeforms from the more outlandish pop cultural ideas left many scientists in the latter half of the twentieth century unwilling to pursue the topic, either because they were afraid of ridicule within their discipline or they firmly believed that such endeavors were pointless. However, there have always been, and continue to be, serious scientists willing to examine these questions.

Astrobiology as a field of study has gained legitimacy and acceptance in the scientific community. Its main objectives include the search for extraterrestrial life, but in so doing seek to develop a better understanding of life on Earth.

Basis of life

A difficult term to define, life can be considered the characteristic state of living organisms and individual cells, or that quality or property that distinguishes living organisms from dead organisms and inanimate objects. Although universal consensus on a definition is lacking, biological properties common to the known organisms found on Earth (plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria) are that they are carbon-and-water-based, are cellular with complex organization, use energy and undergo metabolism, possess a capacity to grow, maintain homeostasis, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and have various adaptations to the environment. Beyond these biological manifestations of matter, some philosophical and religious perspectives argue that living organisms possess an inner aspect or character that confers the quality of life.[4]

Speculation

Without concrete facts to analyze or direct phenomena to observe, most scientists studying extraterrestrial life have had to do so by speculation. Most speculation is, however, based on what is accepted knowledge of astronomy and biology, as well as careful scientific postulating. For example, scientists must first try to understand if the evolution of extraterrestrial life would have occurred independently in different places in the universe, or if, as a minority of scientists contend, life in the universe could have stemmed from a smaller number of points of origin, and then spread across the universe, from habitable planet to habitable planet, known as panspermia.

Another concern is the evolutionary state of extraterrestrial life. There seems to be a greater possibility in the mind of many scientists that simple life forms, such as basic proteins and microbes, are more probable than more radically evolved organisms. One reason for this is that these simpler lifeforms are easier to develop and maintain than a more complicated life form, such as the human being, and therefore can possibly exist in a wider variety of environments. The other reasoning for simpler life forms does not exclude the notion of complex lifeforms, but rather that humankind will never find any, because by the time a probe or spacecraft could reach other planets, the stars supporting the alien species would have died out and destroyed them. In this scenario, the most likely organisms humanity would discover are simple proteins in its own solar system.

The assumption of radical diversity amongst putative extraterrestrials is by no means settled. While many exobiologists stress that the enormously heterogeneous nature of Earth life foregrounds even greater variety in space, others point out that convergent evolution dictates substantial similarities between Earth and off-Earth life. These two schools of thought are called "divergionism" and "convergionism," respectively.[5]

The search for extraterrestrials

Since the last quarter of the twentieth century, scientists have been actively searching the universe for other lifeforms with all the different types of technology available. Yet, even if all of NASA and the European Space Agency's budgets were directed towards this one goal, the universe is still too large and the technological means inadequate to exhaustively search those areas in space that could possibly harbor life. Still, there are undaunted scientists who continue to search for possible life, whether it be bacteria or advanced civilizations. There are two different methods scientists use in this search: the direct and indirect method.

The direct method

Scientists are directly searching for evidence of unicellular life within the solar system, carrying out studies on the surface of Mars, Europa (one of Jupiter's natural satellites), and Titan (a moon of Saturn). The possibility of life on Mars has always been a matter of speculation, but became an even more heated issue in 1996, when structures resembling bacteria were reportedly discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, thought to be formed of rock ejected from Mars. Such potentialities have helped to keep interest in alien life open to a number of prominent scientists. NASA's Mars Lander probes have surveyed the landscape of the red planet, analyzing the geological and chemical makeup of the environment, in order to determine, among other things, if the planet could have at some point supported life. There is circumstantial evidence that Mars was at one time supportive of life; the frozen water at the Martian poles most likely once flowed over the surface of the planet, and the levels of methane in the atmosphere, a gas that occurs in Earth's atmosphere as the result of biological processes.

Studies of Saturn's moon Titan have discovered high levels of methane and nitrogen in the atmosphere, along with other organic compounds that point to the possibility of life forms. Its extremely low temperatures (-289 °F) and hostile weather more than likely rule out current life, at least on the surface. Underground liquid reservoirs, coupled with recent discoveries on Earth of small life forms surviving in incredibly harsh environments, suggested that perhaps there are, or were, micro-sized organisms on Titan.[6]

Terrestrial Planet Finder – Infrared interferometer concept of finding Earth-like extrasolar planets

Astronomers are also searching for extrasolar planets that would be conducive to life, especially those like OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb, which have been found to have Earth-like qualities. Radiodetection methods have been inadequate for such a search, as the resolution has been inadequate for detailed study of extrasolar planetary objects. Future telescopes should be able to image planets around nearby stars, which may reveal the presence of life (either directly or through atomic spectrography, which would reveal key information such as the presence of free oxygen in a planet's atmosphere). Darwin is an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets and analyze their atmosphere. It has been argued that one of the best candidates for the discovery of life-supporting planets may be Alpha Centauri, the closest star system to Earth, given that two of the three stars in the system are broadly sun-like.

Indirect search

Some scientists theorize that any technological society in space would be transmitting information, and that instruments on Earth could possibly pick up those transmissions. In 1960, Cornell University astronomer Frank Drake performed the first modern experiment, named "Project Ozma" after the Queen of Oz in L. Frank Baum's fantasy books. Drake used a 25-meter-diameter radio telescope at Green Bank, West Virginia, to examine the stars Tau Ceti and Epsilon Eridani near the 1.420 gigahertz marker frequency. Although nothing of great interest was discovered, the notion spawned other searches that continue to this day. Such searches had been categorized under the acronym SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence). Using radio telescopes to scan for cosmic transmissions is an approach widely endorsed by the scientific community as hard science.

There are great challenges in searching across the sky to detect a first transmission that can be characterized as intelligent, since its direction, spectrum, and method of communication are all unknown beforehand. SETI projects necessarily make assumptions to narrow the search, and thus no exhaustive search has so far been conducted. A basic assumption of SETI is that of "Mediocrity": The idea that humanity is not exotic in the cosmos but in a sense "typical" or "medium" when compared with other intelligent species.[7] This would mean that humankind has sufficient similarities with other intelligent beings that communication would be mutually desirable and understandable. If this basic assumption of “Mediocrity” is correct, and other intelligent species are present in any number in the galaxy at humanity's technological level or above, then communication between the two worlds should be inevitable.

Another assumption is to focus on Sun-like stars. Very big stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that intelligent life would likely not have time to evolve on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally locked to the star, with one side of the planet perpetually baked and the other perpetually frozen.

About 10 percent of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy are Sun-like, and there are about a thousand such stars within 100 light-years of the Sun, comprising the useful primary targets for interstellar listening. Finding an electromagnetic transmission from an alien civilization involves searching through most of the useful radio spectrum, as there is no way to know what frequencies aliens might be using. Trying to transmit a powerful signal over a wide range of wavelengths is impractical, and so it is likely that such a signal would be transmitted on a relatively narrow band. This means that a wide range of frequencies must be searched at every spatial coordinate of the sky.

There is also the problem of knowing what to listen for, as scientists have no idea how a signal sent by aliens might be modulated, and how the data transmitted by it might be encoded. Narrow-bandwidth signals that are stronger than background noise and constant in intensity are obviously interesting, and if they have a regular and complex pulse pattern are likely to be artificial.

The Arecibo message is a digital message sent to globular star cluster M13, and is a well-known symbol of human attempts to contact extraterrestrials

However, while studies have been performed on how to send a signal that could be easily deciphered, there is no way to know if the assumptions of those studies are valid, and deciphering the information from an alien signal could be very difficult.

Many different SETI projects have come and gone since the mid-twentieth century. The massive radio dish in Arecibo, Puerto Rico, once was distinguished in its SETI program, until the U.S. government cut its funding. Since then, most of the SETI work being done has been in the private sector, such as the Allen Telescope Array in California, the Phoenix Project in Australia, and Harvard University's Optical SETI project.

Arecibo message

In 1974, a largely symbolic attempt was made to send a message to other worlds. To celebrate a substantial upgrading of the 305 meter Arecibo Radio Telescope in Puerto Rico, a coded message of 1,679 bits was transmitted towards the globular cluster M13, about 25,100 light years away.

The message contains a pattern of 0s and 1s, defining a 23 × 73 two dimensional grid which when plotted reveals some data about our location in the solar system, a stylized figure of a human being, chemical formulae, and an outline of the radio telescope itself. The 23 by 73 grid was chosen because both 23 and 73 are prime numbers, which makes it easier to decode the message.

Given the limitations of the speed of light for message transmission, no reply would be possible before the year 52,174 (approximately) and hence has been dismissed by many as a publicity stunt. It also generated controversy over the serious question of whether a small group should be allowed to speak for Earth.

Notes

  1. ↑ Al Van Helden, "Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)" (1995). Retrieved February 27, 2017.
  2. ↑ Leon Festinger, Henry W. Riecken, and Stanley Schachter, When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group That Predicted the Destruction of the World (Harper-Torchbooks, 1956, ISBN 0061311324).
  3. ↑ J. Allen Hynek, The UFO Experience: A Scientific Inquiry (Marlow & Company, 1998, ISBN 156924782X).
  4. ↑ S. H. Lee, Unification Thought (New York: Unification Thought Institute, 1981, ISBN 0960648003).
  5. ↑ David Darling, "Variety of extraterrestrial life," The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight. Retrieved February 27, 2017.
  6. ↑ Ker Than, "Scientists Reconsider Habitability of Saturn's Moon," SPACE.com (September 13, 2005). Retrieved February 27, 2017.
  7. ↑ Jennifer Kahn, "Notes From Another Universe," Discover (April 2002). Retrieved February 27, 2017.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Baird, John C. The Inner Limits of Outer Space: A Psychologist Critiques Our Efforts to Communicate With Extraterrestrial Beings. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1987. ISBN 0874514061
  • Cohen, Jack and Ian Stewart. Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life. Ebury Press, 2002. ISBN 0091879272
  • Crowe, Michael J. The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750-1900. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications.
  • Exers, Ronald, D. Cullers, J. Billingham, L. Scheffer (eds.). SETI 2020: A Roadmap for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. SETI Press, 2003. ISBN 0966633539
  • Festinger, Leon, Henry W. Riecken, and Stanley Schachter. When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group That Predicted the Destruction of the World. Harper-Torchbooks, 1956. ISBN 0061311324
  • Goldsmith, Donald. The Hunt for Life on Mars. New York: Dutton Books, 1997. ISBN 0525943366
  • Grinspoon, David. The Lonely Planets: The Natural Philosophy of Alien Life. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. ISBN 0060185406
  • Hynek, J. Allen. The UFO Experience: A Scientific Inquiry. Marlow & Company, 1998. ISBN 156924782X
  • Lee, Sang Hun. Unification Thought. Rose of Sharon Pr, 1981. ISBN 0960648003
  • Lemnick, Michael T. Other Worlds: The Search for Life in the Universe. New York: Touchstone Books, 1998.
  • McConnell, Brian and Chuck Toporek. Beyond Contact: A Guide to SETI and Communicating with Alien Civilizations. O'Reilly, 2001. ISBN 0596000375
  • Pickover, Cliff. The Science of Aliens. New York: Basic Books, 2003. ISBN 0465073158
  • Roth, Christopher F. "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult" in Debbora Battagilia, E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005.
  • Sagan, Carl, and I.S. Shklovskii. Intelligent Life in the Universe. New York: Random House, 1966.
  • Sagan, Carl. Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1973.
  • Sagan, Carl. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark, 1996. chap. 4: "Aliens."
  • Webre, Alfred. Exopolitics: Politics, Government, and Law in the Universe. Universebooks, 2008 (original 2005). ISBN 0973766301

External links

All links retrieved March 23, 2024.

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