Phenylalanine

Phe redirects here. For the BitTorrent feature, see PHE. For the constellation, see Phoenix (constellation).

Phenylalanine
Systematic name	2-Amino-3-phenyl- propanoic acid
Abbreviations	Phe F
Chemical formula	C9H11NO2
Molecular mass	165.19 g mol-1
Melting point	283 °C
Density	1.29 g cm-3
Isoelectric point	5.5
pKa	2.20 9.09
PubChem	994
CAS number	[673-06-3] (D) [63-91-2] (L) [150-30-1] (D/L or racemic)
SMILES	N[C@@H](Cc1ccccc1)C(O)=O
Disclaimer and references

Phenyl alanine is an α-amino acid with the formula HO₂CCH(NH₂)CH₂C₆H₅. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar because of the hydrophobic nature of the benyl side chain. The codons for L-phenylalanine are UUU and UUC. It is a white, powdery solid. L-Phenylalanine (LPA) is an electrically-neutral amino acid, one of the twenty common amino acids used to biochemically form proteins, coded for by DNA.

Valine is an α-amino acid that is found in most proteins and is essential in the human diet. It is similar to leucine and isoleucine in being a branched-chain amino acid and whose buildup in the blood and urine, due a particular enzyme deficiency, causes the serious metabolic disorder maple syrup urine disease.

In humans, the L-isomer of valine, which is the only form that is involved in protein synthesis, is one of the 20 standard amino acids common in animal proteins and required for normal functioning in humans. Valine is also classified as an "essential amino acid" since it cannot be synthesized by the human body from other compounds through chemical reactions and thus has to be taken in with the diet.

The precision and complex coordination in the universe is revealed in valine's role in proteins. Similar to leucine and isoleucine, valine's structure makes it important for the correct folding of proteins. The functionality of a protein is dependent upon its ability to fold into a precise three-dimensional shape. In sickle-cell disease, valine substitutes for the hydrophilic (binds with water) amino acid glutamic acid in hemoglobin. Because valine is hydrophobic (repelled by water), the hemoglobin does not fold correctly.

In the case of essential amino acids, it is important for individuals to have disciplined eating habits in order to get proper amounts. This is emphasized in the case of maple syrup urine disorder, where one must obtain minimal levels of valine (and leucine and isoleucine) without consuming too much to result in the symptoms.

Valine's three letter code is Val, its one letter code is V, its codons are GUU, GUC, GUA, and GUG, and its systematic name is 2-Amino-3-methylbutanoic acid (IUPAC-IUB 1983). Valine is named after the plant valerian.

Phenylalanine Phe F 2-Amino-3-phenylpropanoic acid C6H5-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH

Structure

In biochemistry, the term amino acid is frequently used to refer specifically to alpha amino acids: those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate groups are attached to the same carbon, the so-called α–carbon (alpha carbon). The general structure of these alpha amino acids is:

     R
     |
 H2N-C-COOH
     |
     H

where R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid.

Most amino acids occur in two possible optical isomers, called D and L. The L amino acids represent the vast majority of amino acids found in proteins. They are called proteinogenic amino acids. As the name "proteinogenic" (literally, protein building) suggests, these amino acid are encoded by the standard genetic code and participate in the process of protein synthesis. In valine, only the L-stereoisomer is involved in synthesis of mammalian proteins.

Valine's chemical formula is (CH₃)₂CH-CH(NH₂)-COOH, or in general form C₅H₁₁NO₂ (IUPAC-IUB 1983).

Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan contain large rigid aromatic group on the side chain. These are the biggest amino acids. Like isoleucine, leucine and valine, they are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards the interior of the folded protein molecule.

Forms

L-phenylalanine

L-Phenylalanine (LPA) is an electrically-neutral amino acid, one of the twenty common amino acids used to biochemically form proteins, coded for by DNA. L-phenylalanine is used in living organisms, including the human body, where it is an essential amino acid. L-phenylalanine can also be converted into L-tyrosine, another one of the twenty protein-forming amino acids. L-tyrosine is converted into L-DOPA, which is further converted into dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline) (the latter three are known as the catecholamines).

D-phenylalanine

D-phenylalanine (DPA), can be synthesized artificially. D-phenylalanine can be converted only into phenylethylamine. D-phenylalanine is a non-protein amino acid, meaning that it does not participate in protein biosynthesis. D-phenylalanine and other D-amino acids are, however, found in proteins, in small amounts, particularly aged proteins and food proteins that have been processed. The biological functions of D-amino acids remain unclear. Some D-amino acids, such as D-phenylalanine, may have pharmacologic activity.

DL-phenylalanine

DL-phenylalanine is a racemic mixture of phenylalanine - it contains 50 % each of D and L enantiomers. DL-Phenylalanine is marketed as a nutritional supplement for its putative analgesic and antidepressant activities.

The putative analgesic activity of DL-phenylalanine may be explained by the possible blockage by D-phenylalanine of enkephalin degradation by the enzyme carboxypeptidase A. The mechanism of DL-phenylalanine's putative antidepressant activity may be accounted for by the precursor role of L-phenylalanine in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. Elevated brain norepinephrine and dopamine levels are thought to be associated with antidepressant effects.

Biological aspects

The genetic codon for phenylalanine was the first to be discovered. Marshall W. Nirenberg discovered that, when he inserted m-RNA made up of multiple uracil repeats into E. coli, the bacterium produced a new protein, made up solely of repeated phenylalanine amino acids.

Phenylalanine uses the same active transport channel as tryptophan to cross the blood-brain barrier, and, in large quantities, interferes with the production of serotonin.

Phenylalanine is contained in most protein rich foods, but especially good sources are dairy products (curd, milk, cottage cheese), avocados, pulses and legumes (particularly peanuts and lima beans), nuts (pistachios, almonds), seeds (piyal seeds), leafy vegetables, whole grains, poultry, fish, other seafoods, and some diet beverages.

Absorption

D-phenylalanine is absorbed from the small intestine, following ingestion, and transported to the liver via the portal circulation. A fraction of D-phenylalanine appears to be converted to L-phenylalanine. D-phenylalanine is distributed to the various tissues of the body via the systemic circulation. D-phenylalanine appears to cross the blood-brain barrier with less efficiency than L-phenylalanine. A fraction of an ingested dose of D-phenylalanine is excreted in the urine. There is much about the pharmacokinetics in humans that is unknown.

Like isoleucine and leucine, valine has large aliphatic hydrophobic side chains. Its molecules are rigid, and its mutual hydrophobic interactions are important for the correct folding of proteins, as these chains tend to be located inside of the protein molecule.

Biosynthesis

Phenylalanine cannot be made by animals, which have to obtain it from their diet. It is produced by plants and most microorganisms from prephenate, an intermediate on the shikimate pathway.

Prephenate is decarboxylated with loss of the hydroxyl group to give phenylpyruvate. This species is transaminated using glutamate as the nitrogen source to give phenylalanine and α-ketoglutarate.

Other biological roles

L-phenylalanine can also be converted into L-tyrosine, another one of the DNA-encoded amino acids. L-tyrosine in turn is converted into L-DOPA, which is further converted into dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline) (the latter three are known as the catecholamines).

Phenylalanine uses the same active transport channel as tryptophan to cross the blood-brain barrier, and, in large quantities, interferes with the production of serotonin.

Lignin is derived from phenylalanine and from tyrosine. Phenylalanine is converted to cinnamic acid by the enzyme phenylalanine ammonia lyase.

Metabolic pathways

Simplified pathway for phenylalanine metabolism

The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase normally converts the amino acid phenylalanine into the amino acid tyrosine. If this reaction does not take place, phenylalanine accumulates and tyrosine is deficient. Excessive phenylalanine can be metabolized into phenylketones, which are detected in the urine. These include phenylacetate, [[phenylpyruvate] and phenylethylamine. Detection of phenylketones in the urine is diagnostic.

Phenylalanine is a large, neutral amino acid (LNAA). LNAAs compete for transport across the blood brain barrier (BBB) via the large neutral amino acid transporter (LNAAT). Excessive phenylalanine in the blood saturates the transporter. Thus, excessive levels of phenylalanine significantly decrease the levels of other LNAAs in the brain. But since these amino acids are required for protein and neurotransmitter synthesis, phenylalanine accumulation disrupts brain development in children, leading to mental retardation.

File:PKU Adrenaline.PNG

Biosynthesis of neurotransmitters from tyrosine

File:PKU Serotonin.PNG

Biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter serotonin

Phenylketonuria

Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine. When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylketones, which are detected in the urine.

Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to progressive mental retardation and seizures. However, PKU is one of the few genetic diseases that can be controlled by diet. A diet low in phenylalanine and high in tyrosine can bring about a nearly total cure.

The genetic disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) is the inability to metabolize phenylalanine. Individuals with this disorder are known as "phenylketonurics" and must abstain from consumption of phenylalanine. This dietary restriction also applies to pregnant women with hyperphenylalanine (high levels of phenylalanine in blood) because they do not properly metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine. Phenylalanine is present in many sugarless gums, Monster Munch crisps, sugarless soft drinks (such as Diet Coke, and Diet Pepsi), some forms of Lipton Tea, Icebreakers Mints, Clear Splash flavored water, and a number of other food products, all of which must be labeled: "Phenylketonurics: Contains phenylalanine." Phenylalanine itself is not present in the food. Rather, the artificial sweetener sold under the names "Equal" and "NutraSweet" contain aspartame, an ester that is hydrolyzed in the body to give phenylalanine, aspartic acid, and methanol (wood alcohol). Thus, aspartame is problematic for persons with PKU. The amounts produced by aspartame pose a risk however, as far larger quantities of the amino acid would be obtained through consuming normal protein. Interestingly, the macaque genome was recently sequenced and it was found that macaques naturally have a mutation that is found in humans who have PKU.[1]

Notes: Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). This enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine to the amino acid tyrosine. When PAH is deficient, phenylalanine accumulates and is converted into phenylketones, which are detected in the urine.

Left untreated, this condition can cause problems with brain development, leading to progressive mental retardation and seizures. However, PKU is one of the few genetic diseases that can be controlled by diet. A diet low in phenylalanine and high in tyrosine can bring about a nearly total cure.

Women affected by PKU must pay special attention to their diet if they wish to become pregnant, since high levels of phenylalanine in the uterine environment can cause severe malformation and mental retardation in the child. However, women who maintain an appropriate diet can have normal, healthy children.

If PKU is diagnosed early enough, an affected newborn can grow up with normal brain development, but only by eating a special diet low in phenylalanine for the rest of his or her life. This requires severely restricting or eliminating foods high in phenylalanine, such as breast milk, meat, chicken, fish, nuts, cheese and other dairy products. Starchy foods such as potatoes, bread, pasta, and corn must be monitored. Many diet foods and diet soft drinks that contain the sweetener aspartame must also be avoided, as aspartame consists of two amino acids: phenylalanine and aspartic acid.

Treatment of PKU includes the elimination of phenylalanine from the diet, and supplementation of the diet with tyrosine. Phenylalanine is commonly found in protein-containing foods such as meat, dairy products, fish, grains and legumes. Babies who are diagnosed with PKU must immediately be put on a special milk/formula substitute. Later in life, the diet continues to exclude phenylalanine-containing foods.

Previously, PKU-affected people were allowed to go off diet after approximately 12 years of age. However, physicians now recommend that this special diet should be followed throughout life.

Dietary aspects

Phenylalanine is contained in most protein-rich foods. Especially good sources are dairy products (curd, milk, cottage cheese), avocados, pulses and legumes (particularly peanuts and lima beans), nuts (pistachios, almonds), seeds (piyal seeds), leafy vegetables, whole grains, poultry, fish, other seafoods, and some diet beverages.

==D- and DL-phenylalanine==^{[citation needed]} D-phenylalanine (DPA) either as a single enantiomer or as a component of the racemic mixture is available through conventional organic synthesis. It does not participate in protein biosynthesis although it is found in proteins, in small amounts, particularly aged proteins and food proteins that have been processed. The biological functions of D-amino acids remain unclear. Some D-amino acids, such as D-phenylalanine, may have pharmacologic activity. DL-Phenylalanine is marketed as a nutritional supplement for its putative analgesic and antidepressant activities. The putative analgesic activity of DL-phenylalanine may be explained by the possible blockage by D-phenylalanine of enkephalin degradation by the enzyme carboxypeptidase A. The mechanism of DL-phenylalanine's putative antidepressant activity may be accounted for by the precursor role of L-phenylalanine in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. Elevated brain norepinephrine and dopamine levels are thought to be associated with antidepressant effects.

D-phenylalanine is absorbed from the small intestine, following ingestion, and transported to the liver via the portal circulation. A fraction of D-phenylalanine appears to be converted to L-phenylalanine. D-phenylalanine is distributed to the various tissues of the body via the systemic circulation. D-phenylalanine appears to cross the blood-brain barrier with less efficiency than L-phenylalanine. A fraction of an ingested dose of D-phenylalanine is excreted in the urine.

History

The genetic codon for phenylalanine was the first to be discovered. Marshall W. Nirenberg discovered that insertion of m-RNA made up of multiple uracil repeats into E. coli, the bacterium produced a new protein, made up solely of repeated phenylalanine amino acids.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Doolittle, R. F. 1989. Redundancies in protein sequences. In G. D. Fasman, ed., Prediction of Protein Structures and the Principles of Protein Conformation. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0306431319.
• International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUPAC-IUB) Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature. 1983. Nomenclature and symbolism for amino acids and peptides: Recommendations on organic & biochemical nomenclature, symbols & terminology. IUPAC-IUB. Retrieved June 14, 2007.
• Kendall, E. C., and B. F. McKenzie. 1941. dl-Alanine. Organic Syntheses 1: 21.
• Lehninger, A. L., D. L. Nelson, and M. M. Cox. 2000. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 3rd ed. New York: Worth Publishing. ISBN 1572591536.

External links

• Phenylalanine and tyrosine biosynthesis
• Computational Chemistry Wiki
• Nitrogen Order's Molecule of the Week
• DL-phenylalanine versus imipramine in depression

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