Jesus of Nazareth

Jesus, or Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, is Christianity's central figure, both as Messiah and, for most Christians, as God incarnate. In Islam and the Bahá'í Faith, he is regarded as a major prophet. Jesus remains the subject of intense interest, with many scholarly and popular books discussing whether he really existed, whether what most Christians believe about him is actually based on what he taught or intended, whether he envisaged anything like Christianity or not or whether he ever called himself God, Son of God or expected people to worship him. Films, novels and plays also discuss these issues. Jesus has been represented as a militant zealot, as a feminist, as a magician, as a homosexual, as a married man with a family and a political agenda, as a social activist and as uninterested in social issues, as offering spiritual salvation in another realm of existence and as offering justice and peace in this world. Did he intend to establish a new religion, or was he a faithful Jew? He is said, one the one hand, to have visited India, to have been influenced by Buddhism or even to have been a Buddhist, on the other to have never left Palestine except for a few childhood years in Egypt. He has even been described as an gentile, not a Jew. Marxists, humanists, atheists as well as Hindus, Jews, Muslims and Buddhist alongside Christians of different denominations and theological persuasion, continue to write about Jesus. He may have been subject to more attention and discusion than any other figure in history, which remains true even if he never did exist. Most acccounts represent him as a good person even if misunderstood and minsinterpreted, although the work of Barbara Theiring (1992) tends to see him as cunning and manipulative. Uncovering the real Jesus from behind the clothes in which people dress him, making him reflect their own concerns and agendas, is a major critical task. For centuries, Christians assumed that the real Jesus (the Jesus of History) and the Jesus in whom they believed (the Christ of Faith) were identical. That comfortable assumption has been challenged by a great deal of scholarship from the late-eighteenth century on, since the posthumous publication in 1778 of Hermann Samuel Reimarus's controversial book on Jesus(see Talbert, 1970). This began what is known as the Quest of the Historical Jesus (after Albert Schweitzer's book of the same title, originally published in German in 1910). For many people of religious faith, Jesus represents a model of service, of sacrifice and of spiritual maturity that continues to inspire them. Inability to say that this or that view of Jesus is definitive may actually result in our discovering fresh truths about God's intent for the world of God's creation, from a providential perspective. Christians have often limited their outlook based on how they interpret Jesus' words, or on what they believe about him but Jesus may never have intended his life to be regarded as quite so final, saying that the Spirit that would come after him would lead people into 'all truth' (John 16: 13). Christians claim Jesus as their central personality but they neither own him nor control how others view him. He belongs, as Pelikan (1985) put it, to 'all the world' (233).

Sources for Jesus Life

The primary sources about Jesus are the four canonical Gospel accounts, which depict him as a Jewish preacher, healer often at odds with Jewish authorities — who was crucified in Jerusalem during the rule of the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate. In addition to the four Gospels, a dozen or so non-canonical texts also exist, among which the Gospel of Thomas is believed by some textual critics to predate the Gospels of the traditional canon or to be at least as reliable as they are in reporting what Jesus said. The Gospel of Thomas, though, does not contain narrative accounts of what Jesus did, so adds no biographucal detail. It does not have a birth or death narrative. The term 'canonical' is a Christian term for those gospels that were reconized as genuine, and as a term is rejected by some scholars who see no reason to privilege certain texts over others. For example, Elaine Pagels says that this language merely perpetuates 'an old stereotype in which all the good ... stuff is in the New Testament, all the bad other stuff out there is Gnostic' (1999: 40). Thomas and 51 other texts were discovered at Nag Hammadi, Egypt in 1945 but controversy over ownership delayed their translation until 1970, resulting in conspiracy theories about the Vatican trying to prevent publication because they challenged the foundations of Christianity (which informs the 1999 film, Stigmata, directed by Rupert Wainright)[1]. Most Christians, for whom Jesus is the central pesonality, believe that the Jesus who once lived and walked in Palestine is also the second person of a God-head that consists of three persons, God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit. Jesus is thus the second person of that trinity. They also believe that he is the Messiah (Greek: Christos) whose coming was prophesied in the Old Testament (or Hebrew Bible). Passages, however, that Christian apply to Jesus (such as Isaiah 11: 1-4 and Chapter 53) are often not undertood as Messianic by Jews. Some Jews at the time expecetd a Messiah who would liberate them from Rome, others a Messiah who would establish justice and peace for a thousand years on earth but this expectation was not universal among Jews. Most Christians also believe that Jesus died on the cross and rose from the dead, and that through him they can be saved. Others, including Christians, ask whether Jesus believed that he was Messiah, whether he saw himself either as God or as God's son and whether he thought his death necessary for humankind's salvation. These and such other issues as whether he taught about an earthly or a spiritual kingdom, whether he made ethical demands on people or was unconcerned with life in the here and now world continue to be widely discussed and debated. Also of widely debated issues is whether Jesus expected the 'End', or the restoration of Israel, within either his own life-time, or shortly afterwards and whether he ever spoke about a 'return' (Second Coming), in which many Christians believe. Muslims believe that he was one of God's most important Prophets in Islam and also the Messiah, though this is a title will no real significance. Muslims do not share the Christian belief in the divinity of Jesus.

The canonical Gospel accounts focus primarily on Jesus' last one to three years, especially the last week before his crucifixion, which, based upon mention of Pilate, would have been anywhere from the years 26 to 36 in the current era. The earlier dating agrees with Tertullian (died 230) who, in Adversus Marcionem xv, expresses a Roman tradition that placed the crucifixion in the twelfth year of Tiberius Caesar. A faulty 6th century attempt to calculate the year of his birth (which according to recent estimates could have been from 8 B.C.E./BCE to 4 B.C.E./BCE became the basis for the Anno Domini system of reckoning years (and also the chronologically-equivalent Common Era system).

The historicity, teachings and nature of Jesus are subject to debate. The earliest New Testament texts which refer to him are Saint Paul's letters, which are usually dated from the mid-first century]]. The only recorded times when Paul saw Jesus were in visions, but he claimed they were divine revelations and hence authoritative. Many modern scholars hold that the works describing Jesus (primarily the Gospel accounts) were initially communicated by oral tradition and were committed to writing as soon as several decades after the Crucifixion. Some believe that these texts may not have retained the same level of historical accuracy as direct first-hand accounts written during or soon after the life of Jesus. However, some scholars argue for a high degree of historical reliability of the key New Testament events, and some also for early dates of the entire New Testament . Although the exact level of the historical accuracy contained in these texts is debated, the vast majority of scholars agree that the actual existence of a historical Jesus is likely [2]. Among advocates of the Jesus-never-existed view are Joseph Wheless (1868-1950) (see 1930) and George Albert Wellls (see 1975). However, there is no reliable extra-Biblical material, thus all the texts available for reconstructing Jesus life are written by his own followers (insiders). There are no non-insider references. Josephus's (d 100C.E.) much debated Testimonium Flavinium [3]is late, if authentic, as is the brief mention of Christ in Tacitus's Annals (d 117C.E.).

The Jesus of History and the Christ of Faith

Christian scholarship distinguishes between the Jesus of History, that is, what can be said with some confidence about Jesus' life on earth as one might about a Roman Emperor or US President, and the Christ of Faith, what Christians believe about him. That he was born in Bethlehem (which is contested) refers to the Jesus of History, that his death on the Cross saves people from sin refers to the Christ of Faith. Christians, though, do not always find it easy to separate these two. Many scholars believe, for example, that the story of Jesus' birth in Bethlehem was projected back by the early Church because of the theological conviction that Jesus' was King David's heir. He was, many scholars suggest, probably born and raised in Nazareth. The flight to Egypt may not have actually occured but serves as a parallel to Moses' having also escaped slaughter at the hands of a King who was determined to prevent the emergence of a Jewish rival, or leader. The same process redacts miracles from the Jesus narrative, dismissing this as supersitition supplied by a church that venerated Jesus. Any reference to Jesus as having self-consciousness of his divinity, or knowledge of the future such as predicting that he would be crucified, are taken as later editoiral additions. So is the resurrection. These are matters of faith, not of history, say critical scholars. Many Biblical scholars also question whether himself thought he was the Messiah but suggest that his disciples did think so. While some Christians believe that all or almost all of the four gospels are reliable and accurate, others think that only about 16% of what Jesus is reported to have said was really said, and that John's gospel has relatively little of Jesus' original words. For example, the work of the Jesus Seminar, in which shcolars voted on whether they determined passages genuine or not [4]. John's Jesus is from the beginning the pre-existent, eternal 'logos' through which God created the world and John's Jesus is conscious of his own identity throughout the gospel. Few scholars seriously think that Jesus was born on December 25th (the Eastern churches celebrate January 6th) but recognize that the date was chosen because it corresponded to the popular winter solstice as well as to the feast days of several pagan Gods. Muslims regard the references to Jesus in the [Qur'an] as more reliable, asserting that the original Gospel is either corrupt or lost while many believe that a document called the Gospel of Barnabas [5]is a much more reliable account than the four canonical gospels. Some Indian writers refer to a Puranic text, the Bahavishyat Maha Purana as containing reference to Jesus visiting India (see Bennett, 2001: 342). Columbia Professor Morton Smith (1915-91) used the contested Secret Gospel of Mark to construct his picture of Jesus as a Magician (1982; see Carlson, 2005). (Thiering (1992) uses the same texts as mainstream Christian scholars but decodes or interprets them differently, drawing as do many of those who paint an alternative picture of Jesus on the Dead Sea Scrolls. Conspiracy theories also surround the translation of these scrolls (see Baigent and Leigh, 1992). Thiering and such writers as Baigent, Leigh and Lincoln (1982) think that Jesus survived the crucifixion and established a dynasty or lineage that has ever since had political ambitions. Usually, he is said to have married Mary Magdalene. This is also the substance of the popular twenty-first century novel and film, The Davinci Code by Dan Brown. In 2005, the Gospel of Judas was published (see http://www.nationalgeographic.com/lostgospel/?fs=www9.nationalgeographic.com) again giving rise to controversy about its authenticity (the debate is not whether Judas wrote it but whether it is an early or late example of Christian refelction on Jesus). However, it adds no historical or biographical data.

Historicity

This 11th-century portrait is one of many images of Jesus in which a halo] with a cross is used. Such depictions are characteristic of Eastern Orthodox iconography, in which he is portrayed as similar in features and skin tone to the culture of the artist.

The four canonical Gospel accounts are the primary sources about Jesus received by the Church and the Christian faith. Some critics speculate that the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke) used as sources a Q document, Logia, M-Source, and Oral tradition, and that the Gospel of John used a Signs Gospel. They are collectively referred to as 'synoptic' because they share the same 'synopsis', that is, basic structure. None of these presumed sources exist although scholars have re-constructed them using textual analysis. Debate continues about their existence. Also, considered as important by a handful of scholars, though arguably not as authoritative sources for the Christian faith, are several apocryphal writings such as the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Gospel of Mary, the Infancy Gospels, the Gospel of Peter, the Unknown Berlin Gospel, the Naassene Fragment, the Secret Gospel of Mark, the Egerton Gospel, the Oxyrhynchus Gospels, the Fayyum Fragment and some others compiled in The Complete Gospels(see Miller, 1994).

The dating of the Gospel of Thomas is believed by some scholars to possibly predate the canonical Gospels, and therefore this non-canonical Gospel may not rightly be called apocryphal, or be said to have any greater or lesser level of scholarly certainty existing about its authenticity, than any of the four canonical Gospels. The Gospel of Thomas is included with the canonicals in the Five Gospels of the Jesus Seminar. However, other scholars date the Gospel of Thomas as late as 150, see gnostic influences in it, cite the lack of any definitive support that any church fathers quoted it, and believe it suffers from a paucity of manuscripts. [6][7][8] In addition, some scholars see the Gospel of Thomas as being very unlike the others Gospels and cite its lack of a resurrection of Jesus, despite the fact that the gospel of Mark originally may have ended without a resurrection as well. [9]

The debates that went on in the 4th century regarding which works should and should not be included in the canon were not known to include modern techniques of historical analysis, and generally tended to center more upon theology than upon historicity. However, noted scholars F.F Bruce (1910-1990) professor at Manchester, Bruce Metzger (see 1997) and others argue that many considerations (including historical considerations) were taken into consideration regarding New Testament cannon. It may be surmised that the early church leaders took for granted that historicity was not an issue to be debated, any more than debating the historicity of the Articles of Confederation or the Constitution of the USA would be major issues today.[10][11] [12] (Last footnote uses a PDF file). Bruce Metzger wrote regarding the Canon formation, "Although the fringes of the emerging canon remained unsettled for generations, a high degree of unanimity concerning the greater part of the New Testament was attained among the very diverse and scattered congregations of believers not only throughout the Mediterranean world, but also over an area extending from Britain to Mesopotamia." (1997: 75). Several historians have observed that historical documentation is often partial and second hand, and must be interpreted with care. Thus, many have suggested that one treat the existence of Jesus and the accuracy of the New Testament as distinct questions. For example, F.F. Bruce has said: "Some writers may toy with the fancy of a 'Christ-myth,' but they do not do so on the ground of historical evidence. The historicity of Christ is as axiomatic for an unbiased historian as the historicity of Julius Caesar." (1982:100; [13].) Doherty (2005) take thew opposite view. In The Historical Figure of Jesus, E.P. Sanders explains that historians often have to contend with documentation of differing quantity and quality. In many cases (Sanders provides the examples of Thomas Jefferson and Winston Churchill) historians are fortunate to have access to a good deal of documentation, although much of it has to be interpreted critically. In some cases, and Sanders presents Alexander the Great as paradigmatic, the available sources tell us much about his deeds, but nothing about his thoughts. Sanders considers the quest for the "historical Jesus" to be much closer to that of Alexander than to Jefferson or Churchill. Nevertheless, he concludes, "the sources for Jesus are better, however, than those that deal with Alexander" and "the superiority of evidence for Jesus is seen when we ask what he thought" (1993:3). Paul Barnett has also pointed out that "scholars of ancient history have always recognised the 'subjectivity' factor in their available sources" and that "they have so few sources available compared to their modern counterparts that they will gladly seize whatever scraps of information that are at hand". He notes that modern history and ancient history are two separate disciplines, with differing methods of analysis and interpretation. ^[14].

Andrei Rublev's idealized image of Christ the Redeemer (1409).

Consequently, scholars like Sanders, Geza Vermes, Paula Fredriksen, John Dominic Crossan and John Meier, argue that although many readers are accustomed to thinking of Jesus solely as a theological figure, whose existence is a matter of theological debate, the source documents, on which several modern source hypotheses argue the four canonical Gospel accounts are based, were written within living memory of Jesus's lifetime and therefore provide a basis for the study of the "historical" Jesus. They draw on the canonical Gospel accounts, but also on other historical sources and archaeological evidence to reconstruct as best as possible the life of Jesus in his historical and cultural context. Nevertheless, these scholars reject supernatural elements in the Gospels and other early texts about Jesus.

Even among those who do believe in his existence there are divisions over the extent of historicity of the canonical Gospel accounts. Some say that the Gospel accounts are neither objective nor accurate, since they were written or compiled by his followers. Those who have a naturalistic view of history do not believe in divine intervention or miracles without any evidence for them, such as the resurrection of Jesus mentioned by the Gospels. The German scholar, Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976), a dominant figure in twentieth century Biblical scholarship, was renowned for his demythologizing approach and for skepicism about how much can be known for sure about Jesus but he did not doubt that Jesus existed. Albert Schweitzer thought Jesus so consumed by apocalyptic expectations that he belongs to a world we do not share and not not fully comprehend. This is known as 'thoroughgoing eschatology' (See Bennett, 2001: 121-126). Both Bultmann and Schweitzer, however, found in existentialism a way to retain their Christian faith. Although exotic, Jesus' words still speak to us across the centuries, summoning us to live his ethic and to live lives of service and of sacrifice. Borg and Crossan are among those scholars who part company from Schweitzer and others on the apocalyptic nature of Jesus teaching (see Miller, 2001 for discussion of this issue). Sanders developed a 'restorationist eschatology' arguing that Jesus did expect the end within his lifetime and that this would result in a restored or renewed earthly Kingdom. Johannes Weiss (1863-1914), in his classic Jesus Proclamation of the Kingdom of God, reacting against the Jesus of nineteenth century liberals who, created in their own image, taught time-truths, argued that Jesus had expected the imminent end of history and had taught a spiritual, not a this-wordly kingdom. There are many similarities between stories about Jesus and myths of Pagan Godmen such as Mithras, Apollo, Attis, Horus, and Osiris Dionysus, leading to conjectures that the pagan myths were adopted by some authors of early accounts of Jesus. Devout Christian thinkers, such as C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien, believed that such myths were created by ancient pagans with vague and imprecise knowledge of Gospel truth. However, not all agree. For example, the contributors to the Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies maintained that the only area which has any historical detail with regard to the influence of Mithraism on Christianity was in the area of art.

It is commonly thought that Jesus preached for a period of three years, yet this is never mentioned explicitly in any of the Gospels. However, many interpretations of the Synoptic Gospels suggest only one year; and to achieve consistency with the Gospel of John, one theory suggests that the last Gospel describes a timeline which depicts a ministry time period of approximately one year.

FF Bruce (1982), Ian Howard Marshall (2001) and others argue for a high degree of historical reliability of the key New Testament events or the New Testament as a whole .[15] [16][17][18] Prominent liberal scholar and Anglican bishop, John A. T Robinson (1919-1983)argued for early dates of the entire New Testament and ascribed many of the key New Testament texts to their traditional authors. [19] —>

Religious perspectives

Christianity

The vast majority of Christian denominations (generally including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism, but not Restorationism) derive their beliefs from the agreement reached at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, known as the Nicene Creed, in the form of the Creed of Constantinople (381). In addition to the belief in "one God, the Father, Almighty, maker of heaven and earth ..." and in "the Holy Spirit, the Lord and life-giver, Who proceeds from the Father ...", this Creed confesses the belief in "one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten from the Father before all ages, light from light, true God from true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father, through Whom all things came into existence, Who because of us men and because of our salvation came down from the heavens, and was incarnate from the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary and became man, and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried, and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures and ascended to heaven, and sits on the right hand of the Father, and will come again with glory to judge living and dead, of Whose kingdom there will be no end" (for both the Greek text and the above quoted English translation, cf. J. Stevenson, Creeds, Councils and Controversies, (London 1989); note that the above quotation follows Stevenson in italicising those phrases that do not occur in the Creed of Nicaea).

Jesus Carrying the Cross as portrayed by El Greco - Domenikos Theotokopoulos, 1580

Protestant Christians generally believe that faith in Jesus is the only way to receive salvation and to enter into heaven, and that salvation is a gift given by the grace of God. Although most members of the various Christian denominations believe that faith in Jesus is necessary (based upon John 3:16), good works are certainly expected. Jesus says (John 13:15) that his life was given as an example or role model for followers. The Lutheran position on justification is nearly identical. Roman Catholics believe that good works are even necessary for salvation, and that also those without faith can be saved by leading a just life.[20]. Following the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on the Relation of the Church to Non-Christian Religons (1964), Roman Catholics believe that non-Christians who do not identify with Jesus or with the Christian Church can receive the grace needed for salvation if they live a just life. [21]^{[22] [23]}

As reflected in the different Christian denominations, Christianity has undergone several schisms in its understanding of Jesus. The vast majority of Christians believe that Jesus is God. The Creeds describe him as of the same substance as God the Father. An early debate was whether he was of the same, or similar, substance. He is believed to be eternally begotten by God the Father. As the Second Person of the Divine Trinity he is thus co-eternal with God with the distinction that while the Father is 'unbeggoten', the Son is 'begotten' (born). Following the opening paragraph of John's gospel, known as the Prologue, he is believed to have become Incarnate in the man Jesus. This is believed to have been the work of the Holy Spirit. His human mother, the Virgin Mary, had no sexual intercourse with Joseph, her husband. Rather, Jesus' birth was a miracle. There was debate, which rsulted in schism, between those Christians who said that Jesus had only one nature (some said that this nature was divine, others that it was human) and those who said he hsad two, human and divine. The issue was whether these two were natures separate, and did Jesus' death involve only his human nature, or were his natures 'mixed'. Nestorius (d 451) argued for two natures. The monophysites (for example, the Copts of Egypt and the Assyrian Church) argued for one, divine nature. The Council of Chalcedon (451) endorsed two natures 'united, not confused, united unconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseperably'. The purpose of the eternal Son becomming incarnate in Jesus was to save humanity from sin and death through the shedding of his own blood in sacrifice and by rising from the dead on the third day, and ascending into Heaven.

Some groups identifying themselves as Christian, such as Jehovah's Witnesses, and Christian Scientists, believe Jesus was divinely inspired but not God incarnate. Arius (256-336C.E.) had taught that the Son was created in time by the Father, as the noblest of God's creatures. Others taught that Jesus became 'God's son' by adoption, possible at the baptism (see Mark 1: 11). The ninteenth century German theologian, Friedrich D Schleiermacher (1768-1834) dubbed the father of Modern theology rejected a pre-existent Christ but argued that Jesus can be distinguished from all other men and women because he achieved a complete state of dependence on God, of God-consciousness. Others, such as Mormons (members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), believe in a Trinity, but maintain that God the Father begot Jesus as God the Son, and that Jesus created the Earth under the direction of God the Father. Mormons also have additional sacred texts - the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and Pearl of Great Price - that testify that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God. Chronologically, their book of scripture continues on past the period of the New Testament; and thus provides additional Christian history. Swedenborgians (members of the New Church) believe that Jesus is God incarnate, but not a separate person from the Father; the Father is in the Son like the soul in the body.

There are differing views within Christian groups as to whether or not Jesus ever claimed divinity. The majority of lay Christians, theologians and clergy hold that the Bible shows Jesus both as divine, and claiming divinity.

The Docetics believed (as Muslims do today) that Jesus never died and the Crucifixion was a type of illusion.

The Gnostics believed in the secret wisdom that they say Paul received during his road to Damascus experience (Romans 16:25; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 2 Corinthians 12:2-4; Acts 9).

The Marcionites believed Paul and Jesus rejected the Law of Moses and revealed in Jesus Christ a Supreme God, greater than the creator god of the Old Testament.

The Montanists believed in the Paraclete promised in John 14:16.

The Ebionites believed in Jesus as a great prophet who had commanded the end of animal sacrifices and the end of the eating of animal flesh. Other than that, they were observant Jews and did not believe in Jesus as God. They followed Jacob ("James" in the English New Testament), the brother of Jesus, and insisted that Paul's teachings were without authority and totally alien to what Jesus taught.

The Arians believed that the Father was the only true God based on John 17:3.

Unitarians

Unitarianism developed out of theological arguments about whether or not Jesus is God. Trinitarians coined the term 'unitarian' to describe the arguments of those who believed God, as one being, is a single person and not three. This historical argument gave birth to the Unitarian denomination and later the Unitarian Universalist Association in the USA. Many Unitarians regard themselves as Christian, although some, while acknowledging Christian roots, do not self-identify as Christain. In the United Kingdom, the association of Unitarian Churches (each of which is self-governing) is the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches, indicating that members do not have to subscribe to any creed, so are free to be Trinitarian if they wish. Most Universalists believe in universal reconciliation — that eventually everyone will be saved. Many Muslims writers believe that Christianity was originally Unitarian, and it has been suggested that Unitarians might help to bridge the differences between Christianity and Islam (see discussion in Bennett, 2001: 283-285). Bawany (1977) argued thus:

[Unitarianism can] act as a bridge between the Islamic and the Christian world, leading to a better understanding between the two so they can put up a united front to counteract the forces of anti-God movement that are out to destroy all the religions of the world' (193).

Islam

Mainstream Muslims believe that:

• Jesus (Isa in the Qur'an) was one of God's highest ranked and most beloved prophets, ranked amonmg the righteous. He was sent specifically to guide the Children of Israel (see Q6:85).
• He was neither God nor the son of God, but rather a human prophet, one of many prophets sent over history to guide mankind. Jesus' message to mankind was originally the same as all of the other prophets, from Adam to Mohammad, but has been distorted by those who claim to be its adherents. Q4: 171. Christians exaggerate Jesus' importance, committimg excess in their religion. He is not nor did he claim to be one of Three (4: 171). Q5: 117 appears to describe a Trinity of Father, mother and Son. Jesus taught his followers to 'worship Allah, my Lord'.
• Jesus was born miraculously without a human biological father by the will of God (Q19: 20-21). His mother, Mary ("Maryam" in Arabic), is among the most saintly, pious, chaste, and virtuous women ever (Q 19 is called Maryam).
• Jesus was able to perform miracles, but only by the will or 'permission' of God. Besides his miraculous birth, his first miracle was when, although only a few days old, Jesus spoke and defended his mother against accusations of adultery. The Qur'an mentions, among other miracles, that he raised the dead, restored sight to the blind, and cured lepers. He also made clay bird fly a story also found in the Arabic Infancy Gospel [24]. (seeQ3: 49 and Q5: 109-110).
• Jesus is compared with Adam, whom God 'created from dust' (Q3: 59).
• Jesus renounced all worldly possessions and lived a life of strict nonviolence, abstaining from eating animal flesh and from drinking alcohol. The simplicity of Jesus life-style, his kindness to animals and his other-worliness are stressed in Sufi writings (see Bennett, 2001: 279-280). Jalal al-Din Rumi (d 1273) founder of the Mevelvi order equated Jesus with divine love, whose selfless, other-centered nature poured out in 'healing love' of others.
• Jesus received a Gospel from God, called (in Arabic) the "Injeel", and corresponding to the New Testament (Q3: 3). However, Muslims hold that the New Testament we have today has been changed and does not accurately represent the original. Some Muslims accept the Gospel of Barnabas as the most accurate testament of Jesus. Muslims attribute this to Barnabas, who parted company from Saint Paul in Acts 16: 39. Almost all non-Muslim scholars regard this text as a medieval production, and thus not an authentic text.
• Jesus was neither killed nor crucified but God made it appear so to his enemies (Q4: 157). Some Muslim scholars (notably Ahmad Deedat) maintain that Jesus was indeed put up on the cross, but did not die on it. He was revived and then ascended bodily to heaven, while others say that it was actually Judas who was mistakenly crucified by the Romans. However, Q19: 34 has Jesus say, 'peace is on me the die I was born, the day I shall die and the day I shall be raised up', which gives the Christian order of events. Thus, the Qur'an does say that Jesus will die but most Muslims regard this as a future event, after his return. Q3:55 says that God will 'raise' Jesus to Himself.
• Jesus is called Al-Masih (Messiah) but the meaning of this is vague and carries little significance.
• Jesus is alive in heaven and will return to the world in the flesh with Imam Mahdi to defeat the dajjal (the anti-Christ in Islamic belief), once the world has become filled with injustice. Many Muslims think that Jesus will then marry, have children, and die a natural death.
• Jesus predicted Muhammad (see Q61: 6).
• Many Muslims (see Rahim, 1992) argue that what passes for Christianity was invented by Saint Paul and that Christianity was originally Unitarian (see below). Christianity is a concoction of pagan and other notions, a 'metaphysical fiction, a fantasy' (3, 5). Rahim also thinks that Jesus was essentially an Essene who 'took care not to deviate from their teaching' (33).

Ahmadiyya Muslim Movement

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Movement, wrote in his book Jesus in India (April 1896) that Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled to India, where he lived as a prophet (and died) under the name of Yuz Asaf.Ahmad argued that when Jesus was taken down from the cross, he had lapsed into a state similar to Jonah's state of 'swoon' in the belly of a fish [Matthew 12:40] (see swoon hypothesis). A medicine known as Marham-e-Issa (Ointment of Jesus) was applied to his wounds and he revived. Drawing from Biblical, Quranic and Buddhist scriptures, Ahmad wrote that Jesus appeared to Mary, his apostles and others with the same (not resurrected) human body, evidenced by his human wounds and his subsequent clandestine rendezvous over about forty days in the Jerusalem surroundings. The book uses historical documents to evidence Jesus' travel to Nasibain (Nisbis), Afghanistan and then to Kashmir, India in search of some of the lost tribes of Israel, who had settled in the east some 700 years prior.

Ahmadiyya Muslims also believe that references to the Second Coming of Jesus in religious scriptures are allegorical and refer to the arrival of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.

Hinduism

Hinduism is divided on the issue of Jesus—some hold that it is unlikely he existed, or that he was just a man, others say he was a great guru or yogi, still others equate Jesus with an avatar. A great deal of earlier inclusion of Jesus within the Hindu pantheon is connected to the emergence of the Saint Thomas Christians. The Hare Krishna sect of Hinduism believes that Jesus is the son of Krishna (who they believe is God the Father that Jesus spoke of), and they accept many of his teachings.

Judaism

Judaism does not see Jesus as a messiah and also rejects the Muslim belief that Jesus was a prophet. Religious Jews are still awaiting the coming of the Messiah (a notable exception concerns many members of the Chabad Lubavitch sect, who view their last Rebbe as being the Messiah). As for the historical personality of Jesus, Judaism has fewer objections to quotes attributed to him than they do with subsequent confessions by early Christian adherents, Paul in particular. Some Jewish scholars believe that Jesus is mentioned as Yeshu in the Jewish Talmud, although other scholars dispute this. Joseph Klausner, a prominent Israeli scholar, was vigorous in asserting the Judaism of Jesus.

The primary reasons why Jesus is not accepted as the Jewish Messiah are as follows:

• The many Biblical prophecies regarding the Messiah (bringing the Jews back to the Land of Israel and bringing peace on earth, the dead rising, all people knowing God, the Messiah ruling from the throne in Jerusalem, etc.) have not been fulfilled.
• According to the New Testament Jesus' father is God, but according to the Hebrew Bible, the Messiah must descend patrilineally from King David.
• According to the New Testament Jesus was killed. Maimonides rules (Laws of Kings 11:4) concerning one who is killed that “it is certain the he is not the one whom the Torah has promised.”

Other perspectives

Saviour Not Made by Hands is the most popular iconography of Christ in the Eastern Orthodoxy. This version was written by Simon Ushakov in 1658.

Atheists, by definition, have no belief in a divinity—and thus not in any divinity of Jesus. Some doubt he lived, some regard him as an important moral teacher, and some as a historical preacher like many others.

The Bahá'í Faith considers Jesus to be a manifestation (prophet) of God, while not being God incarnate. Some Buddhists believe Jesus may have been a Bodhisattva, one who gives up his own Nirvana to help others reach theirs. Many in the Surat Shabda Yoga tradition regard Jesus as a Sat Guru.

Mandaeanism regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet John the Baptist (whom they nonetheless believe to have baptised him).

The New Age movement has reinterpreted the life and teaching of Jesus in a large variety of ways (e.g, see A Course in Miracles). He has also been claimed as an Ascended Master by Theosophy and some of its offshoots; related speculations have him studying mysticism in the Himalaya or hermeticism in Egypt in the period between his childhood and his public career.

A Zen Buddhist interpretation of Jesus, based on the Gospel of Thomas, is also possible.

The Multidinarian Doctrine teaches that Jesus is not one of three Persons in God (as taught by Trinitarian Doctrine), but one of a hundred trillion Persons in God.

The discipline of Christology discusses who Jesus was or was not from a philosophical and theological perspective. The Christological argument attempts to prove the existence of God based on the existence of Jesus and his claims about himself as presented in the Gospels.

The question of the divinity of Jesus was discussed and decided on by Ecumenical Councils, starting with the First Council of Nicaea and others of Constantine I's attempts at producing unity, enforcement of the resulting decision thus suggesting an air of politicisation to the religious issue. It is not the case that all scholars reject Jesus' divinity, yet some may choose to describe the social and cultural implications of claiming divinity in the 1st century. As such, scholars are interested in providing an historical context to the beliefs and tenets of Jesus' apparent Kingdom of God movement. As a consequence, some secular scholars believe he was simply a Jewish apocalyptic teacher and faith healer who was crucified, and was subsequently the inspiration for Christianity.

Date of birth and death

Brief timeline of Jesus
of important years from
empirical sources.

c. 6 B.C.E./BCE	Suggested birth. {Earliest)
c. 4 B.C.E./BCE	Herod's death.
c. AD 6/6 C.E.	Quirinius census. Suggested birth. (Latest)
c. 26/27	Pilate appointed Judea governor.
c. 27	Suggested death (Earliest)
c. 36	Suggested death. (Latest)
c. 36/37	Pilate removed from office.

The most detailed information about Jesus' birth and death is contained in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. There is considerable debate about the details of Jesus' birth even among Christian scholars. Few, if any, scholars claim to know either the year or the date of his birth or of his death.

Based on the accounts in the Gospels of the shepherds' activities, the time of year depicted for Jesus' birth could be spring or summer. However, as early as 354, Roman Christians celebrated it following the December solstice in an attempt to replace the Roman pagan festival of Saturnalia. Before then, Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on January 6 as part of the feast of Theophany, also known as Epiphany, which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by John in the Jordan and possibly additional events in Jesus' life.

In the 248th year of the Diocletian Era (based on Diocletian's acsension to the Roman throne), Dionysius Exiguus attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being December 25 1 ACN (for "Ante Christum Natum", or "before the birth of Christ"), and assigned AD 1 to the following year — thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: Anno Domini (which translates as "in the year of the Lord"). This system made the then current year 532, and almost two centuries later it won acceptance and became the established calendar in Western civilization due to its championing by the Venerable Bede. The Eastern Church celbrates Jesus' birth of January 6th. The choice of December 25th was influenced by the date of the Winter solstice, being a date on which Festivals were already held. A popular association of Jesus with the sun is also reflected in some Christian art. Similarity between the Jesus' story and the dying and rising myths associated with other popular deities, including Mithras of Iran and Horus of Egypt, have been taken to indicate outside influence, especially on the theology of St Paul.

An image in one of the oldest parts of the vatican portraying Jesus as the mythical Sol Invictus

However, based on a lunar eclipse that Josephus reports shortly before the death of Herod the Great, the birth of Christ would have been some time before the year 4 B.C.E./BCE, probably 5 or 6 B.C.E./BCE. This estimate itself relies on the historicity of the New Testament story involving Herod around the time of Jesus' birth. Having fewer sources and being even further removed in time from the authors of the New Testament, details surrounding Jesus' birth are regarded, even by many believers, as less likely to be historical fact, and therefore establishing a reliable birth date is particularly difficult.

As for Jesus' death, the exact date is also unclear. The Gospel of John depicts the crucifixion just before the Passover festival on Friday 14 Nisan, called the Quartodeciman, whereas the synoptic gospels describe the Last Supper, immediately before Jesus' arrest, as the Passover meal on Friday 15 Nisan. Further, the Jews followed a lunisolar calendar with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. According to John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, allowing for the time of the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably on April 7, 30 or April 3, 33 or March 30, 36.

Hyam Maccoby and other scholars have pointed out that several details of the Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem - the waving of palm fronds, the Hosanna cry, the proclamation of a king - are connected with the Festival of Sukkot or Tabernacles, not with Passover. It is possible that the Entry (and subsequent events, including the Crucifixion and Resurrection)in historical reality took place at this time - the month of Tishri in the Autumn, not Nisan in the Spring. There could have been confusion due to a misunderstanding, or a deliberate change due to doctrinal points.

Life and teachings

According to the texts of Christianity, Jesus was born in Bethlehem to Mary, a virgin, via the Holy Spirit. Joseph, Mary's betrothed husband, appears only in stories of Jesus' childhood; this is generally taken to mean that he was dead by the time of Jesus' ministry. In the Gospels, Jesus' birth is attended by visits from shepherds who were told of the birth by angels. Magi ("Wise Men") from the East were guided by a star to his location some months later (the number three is a deduction from the qunatity of gifts mentioned in the gospels).

Mark 6:3 (and analogous passages in Matthew and Luke) reports that Jesus was "Mary's son and the brother of James, Joseph, Judas and Simon," and also states that Jesus had sisters. The 1st century Jewish historian Josephus and the Christian historian Eusebius (who wrote in the 4th century but quoted much earlier sources now unavailable to us) refer to James the Just as Jesus' brother. However, Jerome argued that they were Jesus's cousins, which the Greek word for "brother" used in the Gospels would allow. This was based on the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition that Mary remained a perpetual virgin, thus having no biological children before or after Jesus. Luke's Gospel records that Mary was a relative of Elizabeth, mother of John the Baptist (Luke 1:36). The Bible, however, does not exactly reveal how Mary and Elizabeth were related.

The Baptism of Christ, by Piero della Francesca, 1449.

Nazareth in Galilee is represented as his childhood home. Only one incident between his infancy and his adult life is mentioned in the canonical Gospels (although New Testament apocrypha go into these details, some quite extensively). At the age of twelve, Jesus was left behind by his parents after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On being missed, he was found 'instructing the scholars in the temple'.

Just after he was baptized by John the Baptist he began his public teaching; he is generally considered to have been about thirty years old at that time. Jesus used a variety of methods in his teaching, such as paradox, metaphor and parable. His teaching frequently centered on the Kingdom of God, or Kingdom of Heaven. Some of his most famous teachings are in the Sermon on the Mount, which also contains the Beatitudes. His parables (or stories with a hidden meaning) include the parable of the Good Samaritan, and the Prodigal Son. Jesus had a number of disciples. Scholars think that Jesus did not explain his parables, thus when an explanation follows this is taken to be a later addition. His closest followers were twelve apostles, headed by Peter. According to the New Testament, Jesus also performed various miracles in the course of his ministry, including healings, exorcisms, and raising Lazarus from the dead. Some scholars think that Jesus may have possessed some healing ability, although many regard them as added enthusiastic followers of Jesus when the gospels were redacted or edited.

Jesus frequently appears to have placed himself in opposition to the Jewish religious leaders including the opposing forces of Sadducees and Pharisees. His teaching castigated the Pharisees primarily for their legalism and hypocrisy, although he also had followers among the religious leaders, such as Nicodemus). In his role as a social reformer, and with his followers holding the inflammatory view that he was the Jewish Messiah, Jesus threatened the status quo. Sanders (1993) does not think that Jesus had a social message. saying that nowwhere does Jesus urge people to 'get together ... and create the kingdom by reforming social, religious and political institutions' (179).

Jesus preachings included the forgiveness of sin, life after death, and resurrection of the body. Jesus also appears to have preached the imminent end of the current era (αίών) of history, or even the literal end of the world; in this sense he was an apocalyptic preacher. This is based on a passage such as Luke 21: 32's reference to 'this generation not passing away' until the 'son of man' returns. The Jesus Seminar, Borg and Crossan and others, however, think that Jesus did not anticipate the end of the world as we know it but taught a 'here already' Kingdom; Jesus 'conceived of God's rule as all around him but difficult to discern' (Funk, 1997: 137). This derives from 'the kingdom of God is within you' (Luke 17: 21). Some interpretations of the text, particularly amongst Protestants, suggest that Jesus opposed stringent interpretations of Jewish law, supporting the spirit more than the letter, thus the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath (Mk 2: 27).

Jesus as a Leader of Nonviolent Resistance

File:Michelangelo Petersdom Pieta.jpg

Michelangelo's Pietà shows Mary holding the dead body of Jesus.

In Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 1, we learn that Pontius Pilate began his administration of Judea by ordering Eagle Standards with images of the emperor set up in Jerusalem ("whereas our law forbids us the very making of images"). Thousands of Jewish people descended on Caesarea Palaestina to ask the standards' removal. When Pilate refused, the Jews fell prostrate around his house for five days and nights. Pilate threatened them with death, ordering his soldiers to circle around them. They "laid their necks bare", and replied that they would rather die than see the Torah violated. Pilate gave in and ordered the standards removed. Josephus does not say who inspired and organized this major act of Nonviolent Resistance, but in the third paragraph, just two paragraphs later, he tells of the Crucifixion of Jesus by Pilate - though he does not say for what crime was he executed, if any. (This section of Josephus contains obvious Christian interpolations in most texts, but the Arabic version seems to be free of these.) It could be plausibly argued that the organizer of the Caesarea resistance was Jesus himself - no alternative candidate presents himself - though it may be that the activitiy was generated spontaneously from general reports. It is rather implausible that such a major popular action was carried out, and kept within the bounds of nonviolence, without a very charismatic leader to inspire it and lead it. If Jesus did have a hand in this action, the Gospels show no sign of it. This would be part of the general tendency of the Gospel writers to distance Jesus from his own people and to absolve the Romans for his death. Such an action as the Caesarea Protest would have offered a major reason for Pilate to order his Crucifixion. Therefore, Gospel writers would have good reason, from their point of view, to avoid any mention of it. Their silence also reflects their tendency to try to present Jesus as purely a religious leader, without any political activities.

Arrest and trial

Jesus Ecce Homo ("Behold the Man!"), Antonio Ciseri's depiction of Pontius Pilate presenting a scourged Jesus of Nazareth to the people of Jerusalem

Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival, and created a disturbance at the Temple by overturning the tables of the moneychangers there. He was subsequently arrested on the orders of the Sanhedrin and the High Priest, Joseph Caiaphas. He was identified to the guards by one of his apostles, Judas Iscariot, who is portrayed as having betrayed Jesus by a kiss.

File:Cristo Velazquez lou2.jpg

Jesus' crucifixion as portrayed by Diego Velázquez

He was condemned for blasphemy by the Sanhedrin and turned over to the Romans for execution - not for blasphemy, but for sedition against the Empire. According to the canonical gospel accounts (Matthew 27:24-26, Mark 15:15, Luke 23:24-25, John 19:16a), Pontius Pilate, bowing to the Jewish religious leaders' pressure, handed Jesus over (paredōken) (to his Roman soldiers) to be crucified. Some scholars argue that it was an ordinary Roman trial of a rebel, whose Messianic claims made him especially dangerous, but the Gospels consistently paint the sedition charge as a strained treatment of Jesus' theological position, a tactic used by the Jewish religous leadership as a method to force Pilate's hand(See Barabbas.). All four Gospel accounts mention that the charge noted on the tablet called the titulus crucis, attached by orders of Pilate atop the cross, included the term "King of the Jews", though Pilate is represented as having found nothing inherently seditous in Jesus' kingdom conception. In art the titulus crucis is often written as INRI, the Latin acronym for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews."

Following the crucifixion, Joseph of Arimathea obtained Pilate's permission to take down Jesus' body and lay it into his own new tomb. This was observed by Mary and other women, notably Mary Magdalene.

Resurrection and Ascension

A 16th century painting of the resurrection of Jesus by Matthias Grünewald.

In accordance with the four canonical Gospel accounts Christians believe that Jesus was raised from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion. This article of faith is referred to in Christian terminology as the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; and each year at Easter (on a Sunday) it is commemorated and celebrated by most groups who consider themselves Christians.

No one was a witness to the event of the Resurrection of Jesus. However, the women who had witnessed the entombment and the closure of the tomb with a great stone, found it empty when they arrived on the third day to anoint the body. The Synoptic Gospel accounts further state that an angel was waiting at the tomb to explain to them that Jesus had been resurrected, though the Gospel according to John makes no mention of this encounter. The sight of the same angel had apparently left the guards unconscious (cf. Matthew 28:2-4) that according to Matthew 27:62-66 the high priests and Pharisees, with Pilate's permission, had posted in front of the tomb to prevent the body from being stolen by Jesus' disciples. Mark 16:9 says that Mary Magdalene was the first to whom Jesus appeared very early that morning. John 20:11-18 states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognise Jesus – even by his voice – until he called her by her name. The Gospel accounts and the Acts of the Apostles tell of several appearances of Jesus to various people in various places over a period of forty days before he "ascended into heaven". Just hours after his resurrection he appeared to two travellers on the road to Emmaus. To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection, when Thomas was however absent, though he was present when Jesus repeated his visit to them a week later. Thereafter he went to Galilee and showed himself to several of his disciples by the lake and on the mountain; and they were present when he returned to Bethany and was lifted up and a cloud concealed him from their sight.

The resurrection of Jesus is almost universally denied by those who do not follow the Christian religion. Most Christians — even those who do not hold to the literal truth of everything in the canonical Gospel accounts — accept the New Testament presentation of the Resurrection as a historical account of an actual event central to their faith. Therefore, belief in the resurrection is one of the most distinctive elements of Christian faith; and defending the historicity of the resurrection|historicity of the resurrection is usually a central issue of Christian apologetics. However, some Christians do not accept that Jesus was raised bodily from the dead. The Jesus Seminar say that Jesus' body rotted in a tomb, like eveyone else's (Funk, 1997: 462). Some writers (Thiering, Baigent, et el among them) argue that Jesus physically survived the resurrection, went to India (Prophet, 1987) and established a dynasty.

Second Coming

Christian belief in Jesus' return is evident in the New Testament (see I Thessalonians 4: 16-17). However, many Biblical scholars think that this belief developed within the theology of the early church. Tom Wright, for example, writes that the 'bizarre idea ... touted around the learned halls of New Testament scholarship all this century ...' that Jesus expected the end of the world 'should now be given a pauper's funeral' (1992: 100).

Preparation of apostles

According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus' preaching was that of apocalyptic repentance. During his public ministry Jesus extensively trained twelve Apostles to continue after his departure his leadership of the many who had begun to follow him mainly in the towns and villages throughout Galilee, Samaria, and the Decapolis. Most Christians who hold that Jesus' miracles were literally true, not allegory, think that the Apostles gained the power to perform healing for both Jews and Gentiles alike after they had been empowered by the Holy Spirit of Truth (to pneuma tēs alētheias, John 14:17, 26; Luke 24:49, Acts 1:8, 2:4) that he had promised the Father would send them after his departure – a promise that according to Acts 2:4 was fulfilled at Pentecost, poignantly the Jewish feast that, in addition to other Scriptural events, commemorates also the giving of the Law to Moses. ^[25]

Names and titles

Jesus is derived from the Koine Greek Ιησους (Iēsoûs) via Latin. The earliest uses of Iēsoûs are found in the writings of Philo of Alexandria, Josephus, and the Septuagint, as a transliteration of the Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושע — known in English as Joshua when transliterated directly from Hebrew), and also Yeshua (ישוע). Jesus' original name is not reported by contemporary or near-contemporary sources, but modern scholars have suggested that Jesus' name was the Aramaic ישׁוע / Yēšûaʿ (as in the Syriac New Testament) a shortened form of Yehoshua used in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles), which was a fairly common name at the time. Josephus, a first century Jewish historian, mentions no fewer than nineteen different people with this name, about half of them contemporaries of Jesus of Nazareth. Other Aramaic forms of the name include Yeshu`, Ishu`, and Eshu`. His patronymic would have been, bar Yosef, for "son of Joseph".

Some scholars speculate that Jesus was also known as "Bar Abba" ("Son of the Father") because many times in the Gospels he addressed God as "Father". The Aramaic word for "father" (Abba) survives still untranslated in Mark 14:36. Such speculations are largely in connection with further theories concerning Barabbas.

The Arabic form of the name used by Christians, following Syriac, is Yasu`. Muslims, following Qur'anic usage, refer to him by the name `Isa (possibly cognate with the Hebrew name Esau).

Christ is not a name but a title, which comes from the Greek Χριστός (Christos) via Latin, meaning anointed with chrism. The Greek form is a liberal translation of Messiah from Hebrew mashiach (משיח) or Aramaic m'shikha (משיחא), a word which occurs often in the Hebrew Bible and typically refers to the "high priest" or "king". The word mashiach in Hebrew means anointed (a cognate in English is "massage," from the Arabic for "vigorous rubbing with aromatic oils") , because the Israelite kings were anointed with oil. The title does not imply, either in Greek or in Hebrew, a divine nature for the possessor of it. In fact, it would seem prima facie that an inherently divine being would not be in need of being anointed. The title Christ is also sometimes identified with the Greek chrestos, meaning "good", although the words are unrelated in terms of etymology, and Chrestus was often used as a pet name for slaves.

The Gospels record Jesus referring to himself both as Son of Man and as Son of God, but not as God the Son. However, some scholars have argued that Son of Man was an expression that functioned as an indirect first person pronoun, and that Son of God was an expression that signified "a righteous person". Evidence for these positions is provided by similar use by other persons than Jesus at a similar time to the writing of the Gospels, such as Jewish priests and judges. Although Jesus most commonly used Son of Man, this title is hardly ever used by Christians of Jesus.

In the Gospels, Jesus has many other titles, including Prophet (a title that he applied to himself, unlike others), Lord, and King of the Jews. Together, the majority of Christians understand these titles as attesting to Jesus' divinity. Some historians argue that when used in other Hebrew and Aramaic texts of the time, these titles have other meanings, and therefore may have other meanings when used in the Gospels as well.

The title Jesus the Nazarene may be a reference to a place of origin called Nazareth, or to a Jewish movement called the Nazarenes. It is often translated Jesus of Nazareth to support the former hypothesis. The early Christians, especially the Jewish Christian movement, may have been known by this name (see Acts 24:5) which also almost certainly the origin of the Qur'anic terms for Christians, Nasara'. In different scenarious derived from interpretation of the Dead Sea scrolls (see below) Jesus has been identified as the Teacher of Rightousness and as the Wicked Priest of the Qumran documents.

Cultural and historical background

Map of First Century Palestine: the Land of Jesus

The world in which Jesus lived was volatile, marked by cultural and political dilemmas. Culturally, Jews had to grapple with the values and philosophy of Hellenism, and the imperialism of Rome, together with the paradox that their Torah applied only to them, but revealed universal truths. This situation led to new interpretations of the Torah, influenced by Hellenic thought and in response to Gentile interest in Judaism.

All of the land of Israel belonged to the Roman Empire at the time of Jesus' birth. It was directly ruled by the Idumaean Herod the Great who was appointed King of the Jews in Rome in 39B.C.E. by Mark Antony and Octavian. In 66C.E., Octavian, recently designated Roman Emperor and renamed as Augustus, deposed Herod's son Herod Archelaus. He combined Judea, Samaria, and Idumea into Iudaea Province which was placed under direct Roman administration and supervision by a Roman prefect who appointed a Jewish High Priest for Herod's Temple in Jerusalem. This situation existed, more or less, till 64 and the start of the Great Jewish Revolt. Galilee, where Jesus grew up according to the Gospels, remained under the jurisdiction of another of Herod's sons, Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, from 4B.C.E. to 39 C.E.

At this time Jesus' childhood hometown of Nazareth (Hebrew, Natserath) was, as revealed by archaeology, a tiny hamlet of a few hundred inhabitants. It had no synagogue, nor any public buildings. No gold, silver or imported goods have been found in it by archaeological excavation.

According to Josephus, within 1st century Judaism there were several sects, primarily the Sadducees, closely connected with the priesthood and the Temple, and the Pharisees, who were teachers and leaders of the synagogues. They resented Roman occupation, but, according to historian Shaye Cohen (1988), were in Jesus' time relatively apolitical. In addition, isolated in small communities from these main groups, by choice, some even taking to remote desert caves in anticipation of the end times, lived the Essenes, whose theology and philosophy are thought, by some scholars, to have influenced Jesus and/or John the Baptist. The Dead Sea Scrols found at Qumran belonged to a community of celibate Jews who may have been Essenes. Their founder, known as the Teacher of Righteousness, had parted company from the High Priest and set up his own alternative establishment on the shore of the Dead Sea, probably around about 140B.C.E. Divided into 12 tribes, each led by a 'prince' (nasi) they saw themselves as a faithful remnant, ready to restore Israel. They expected not one but two Messiahs, a kingly and a princely Messiah. Like the Essenes they were celibate although some supporters continued to live in society. The High Priest was represented as the 'Wicked Priest' and the community offered true prayers at exactly the time that sacrifices were offered in the Jedrusalem temple. Property was held in common. Ritual purity, including bathing, was practiced as was some type of baptismal initiation. The Teacher of Righteousness interpreted scripture, unveling the hidden words of the Prophets. Jesus may have regarded his 12 disciples as representing the New Israel. He, too, was celibate but he did not demand this of his followers. Unlike the Essenes, he disdained purity rules and would have offended Essene sensitivities by eating with 'tax collectors and sinners' which also offended the Pharisees (Luke 15: 2). The Acts community at Acts 2: 44-5 may have owed something to the Essenes' practice of common ownership. The Essenes were renowned healers. Jesus also healed. yet Jesus was not a priest, so could not be regarded as the Priestly Messiah nor did he speak of a mighty battle that would inaugarate the End but rather of descending from heaven. Thiering places Jesus firmly in the context of the Qum'ran community, as does Eisenmann (1988).

Many Jews hoped that the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king (or Messiah) of the line of King David — in their view the last legitimate Jewish regime. Most people at that time believed that their history was governed by God, meaning that even the conquest of Judea by the Romans was a divine act. Therefore the Romans would be replaced by a Jewish king only through divine intervention. Some, like John the Baptist in the first half of the century, and Yehoshua ben Ananias in the second half, claimed that a messianic age was at hand. Josephus' Jewish Antiquities book 18 states there was a "fourth sect", in addition to Sadducees, Pharisees and Essenes, which scholars associate with those he called Zealots. They were founded by Judas of Galilee and Zadok the Pharisee in the year 6 against Quirinius' tax reform and "agree in all other things with the Pharisaic notions; but they have an inviolable attachment to liberty, and say that God is to be their only Ruler and Lord." (18.1.6) They believed that the kingdom should be restored immediately, even through violent human action, and advocated direct action against the Romans. Roman reaction to the Zealots eventually led to the destruction of Herod's Temple by Vespasian in August of 70C.E., and the subsequent decline of the Zealots, Sadducees and Essenes.

Some scholars have asserted that, despite the depictions of him as antagonistic towards the Pharisees, Jesus was a member of that group ^[26]. In this view, antipathy towards the Pharisees in such passages as Matt 23 were created by the Church after it had parted company from Judaism and had started to accuse the Jews of having committed deicide (killing God). The Pharisees are represented as constantly trying to trick Jesus and of plotting to kill him (see Mark 3: 6; Luke 6: 7; Mtt 16: 1; 19: 3; 21: 46). Many Pharisees, as did Jesus, emphasized the spirit not the letter of the Law but their goal of purity was nationalistic while Jesus' saw his mission in universal terms. What most offended the Pharisees was that Jesus seemed to place himself above the law by, in their view, changing it, 'who gave you this authority?', they asked (Matt 21: 23). The gospel's representation of the Pharisees plotting to kill him ignores the fact that it was the Sadducees who controlled the High Priesthood, and were in good standing with the Roman authorities. The Pharisses operated from synagogues, not from the Temple. Jesus has also been identified with the Zealots, based on several of his desciples being described as Zaelots (Luke 6: 15) and on his violence in the Temple (see John 3:15). See also Pharisees and Christianity

Jesus' language was most probably Aramaic. He may also have spoke other languages of the time, such as the Jewish liturgical language, Hebrew, and the administrative language, Greek. Some Aramaic has been preserved in the Gospels, such as Mark 7: 34 and Jesus' characeristic way of addressing God as 'Abba' (Father).

Relics

There are many items that are purported to be authentic relics of the Gospel account. The most famous alleged relics of Jesus are the Shroud of Turin, which is claimed to be the burial shroud used to wrap his body, the Sudarium of Oviedo, which is claimed to be the cloth which was used to cover his face, and the Holy Grail which is said to have been used to collect his blood during his crucifixion and possibly used at the Last Supper. Many modern Christians, however, do not accept any of these as true relics. Indeed, this skepticism has been around for centuries, with Erasmus joking that so much wood formed parts of the True Cross, that Jesus must have been crucified on a whole forest.

Artistic portrayals

The Baptism of Christ, by Piero della Francesca, 1449

Jesus has been portrayed in countless paintings and sculptures throughout the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and modern times. Often he is portrayed as looking like a male from the region of the artist creating the portrait. According to historians, forensic scientists, and genetics experts, he was most likely a bronze-skinned man—resembling a modern-day man of Middle Eastern descent.

Jesus has been featured in many films and media forms, sometimes seriously, and other times satirically. The British musical stage play Jerry Springer - The Opera is a notable recent example of the latter. Many of these portrayals have attracted controversy, either when they were intended to be based on genuine Biblical accounts (such as Mel Gibson's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ and Pier Pasolini's The Gospel According to St. Matthew) or based on alternative interpretations (such as Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ). In this film, Jesus is tempted to step down from the Cross, to marry and have children. Later, when he realizes that he had been tempted to do this by Satan, he returns to the Cross, and dies. Other portrayals have attracted less controversy, such as the television ministery's Jesus of Nazareth by Franco Zeffirelli. Another theme is bringing Jesus's story into the present day (such as in Jesus of Montreal) or imagining his Second Coming (in The Seventh Sign, for example). In many films Jesus himself is a minor character, used to develop the overall themes or to provide context. For example, in the screen adaptaion of Lew Wallace's classic Ben-Hur and The Life of Brian Jesus only appears in a few scenes.

In music, many songs refer to Jesus and Jesus provides the theme for many classical works throughout music history.

In literature, we find Yeshua, the historical original of Jesus, as a character in the fantasy novel The Master and Margarita, by the 20th century Russian writer Mikhail Bulgakov and in the science fiction short novel Riverworld by the 20th century American writer Philip Jose Farmer. The portrayal in these two works is so similar that Farmer's narrative can easily be read as a sequel to Bulgakov's. A mystical version of Jesus as the Eternal Holy Child can be read in the story The Selfish Giant by Oscar Wilde. Also the portuguese Nobel Prize winner José Saramago wrote his novel The Gospel According to Jesus Christ based on his atheist view of Jesus and the Gospels.

Notes

1. ^ Paul Barnett, Is the New Testament Reliable?, p.1.
2. ^  catechism entry on grace and justification catechism. Nostra Aetate, declaration of Vatican II
3. ^ Joint declaration ELCA Vatican
4. ^  Jewish Encyclopedia on Pentecost
5. ^ E. P. Sanders in Jesus and Judaism, pp.264-269, states: "I am one of a growing number of scholars who doubt that there were any substantial points of opposition between Jesus and the Pharisees ... We find no criticism of the law which would allow us to speak of his opposing or rejecting it."

Sources and further reading

• The New Testament of the Bible, especially the Gospels.
• Akers, Keith, "The Lost Religion of Jesus," ny: Lantern Books, 2000 ISBN 1930051263
• Aland, Kurt The Greek New Testament, American Bible Society, 4th ed, 1998 ISBN ISBN: 3438051133
• Albright, William F. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, NY: Doubleday, 1969 ISBN 0931464013
• Badenas, Robert. Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective, Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1985 ISBN 0905774930
• Baigent, Michael and Leigh, Richard and Lincoln, Henry Holy Blood, Holy Grail: The Secret History of Jesus, NY: Delacore Press, 1982 illustrated ed 2005 ISBN 038534001X
• Bawany, E. A Islam: The First and Final Religion, Karachi, Begum Aisha Bawany Waqf, 1977 ISBN
• Baigent, Michael and Leigh, Richard The Dead Seas Scrolls Deception, NY: Simon and Schuster, 3rd ed 1992 ISBN 0671734547
• Barnett, Paul Is the New Testament Reliable?, London: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005 ISBN 0830827684
• Bennett, Clinton In Search of Jesus: Insider and Outsider Images, NY & London: Continuum, 2001 ISBN 0826449166. Examines a wide range of views of Jesus including Buddhist, Hindu, humanist, Jewish and Muslim.
• Borg, Marcus J Conflict, Holiness and Politics in the Teaching of Jesus, Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 2nd ed 1998 ISBN 156338227X
• Brown, Dan The Da Vinci Code, NY: Random House, ISBN 0307277674
• Brown, Raymond. Does the NT call Jesus God?, Theological Studies #26, 1965
• Browne, Sir Thomas. Pseudodoxia Epidemica, 6th edition, 1672, V:vi.
• Bruce, F. F New Testament Documents: Are they reliable? London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982 ISBN 097784691X
• Carlson, Stephen C The Gospel Hoax: Morton Smith's Invention of Secret Mark, Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2005 ISBN 1932792481
• Cohen, Shaye J.D. 1988 From the Maccabees to the Mishnah Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988 ISBN 0664250173
• Crossan, John Dominic. Who Killed Jesus?: Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus, San Fransisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996 ISBN 0060614803
• Davenport, Guy and Urrutia, Benjamin. The Logia of Yeshua: The Sayings of Jesus, Jackson, TN: Counterpoint, 1996 ISBN 1887178708
• Doherty, Earl. The Jesus Puzzle. Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ?: Challenging the Existence of an Historical Jesus, Age of Reason Publications, 2005 ISBN 0968601405 [27]
• Dalai Lama, the 14th The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teaching of Jesus, Boston, Wisdom Publications, 1996 ISBN 0861711386
• Dunn, James D.G. Jesus, Paul and the Law, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1990 ISBN 0664250955
• Ehrman, Bart Jesus: apocalyptic prophet of the new millennium, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019512474X
• Ehrman, Bart The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, NY: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195154622
• Eisenman, Robert James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, NY: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 014025773X
• Fiorenza, Elizabeth S Sharing Her World: Feminist Interpretations in Context, Boston: Beacon Press, 1998 ISBN 0807012335
• Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity New York: Vintage, 2000 ISBN 0679767460
• Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180
• Funk, Robert W. The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus, San Fransisco, CA: HarperSanFransisco, reprint ed 1997 ISBN 006063040X
• Gaus, Andy. The Unvarnished New Testament, A new translation from the original Greek free of doctrines and dogmas, York Beach, NE: Phanes Press, 1991 ISBN 0933999992
• Gandhi, M. K The Message of Jesus Christ, Canton, Maine: Greenleaf Books, (original 1940), 1980 ISBN 0934676208
• Hahn, Thich Naht Living Buddha, Living Christ, New York, Riverhead, 1995 ISBN 1573225681
• Hudson, Donald, Teach Yourself NT Greek, NY: McGraw-Hill/NTC Publishing, 1999 ISBN 0844237892
• Kersten, Holger Jesus Lived in India, Shaftesbury, Dorset: Element Books, 1986 ISBN 1852305509
• Klausner, Joseph Jesus of Nazareth, NY: Macmillan, original 1925; NY: Bloch Publishing Company, 1997 ISBN 0819705659
• Lewis, C.S. "Mere Christianity" A book on Christianity and logical support for Jesus as God. Nashville, TE: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1999 ISBN 0805493476
• Lightfoot, J. B and Harmer, J. R The Apostolic Fathers, Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2003 (original 1891) ISBN 0766164985
• Marshall, Ian H I Believe in the Historical Jesus, Vancouver, BC: Regent College Publishing, 2001 ISBN 1573830194
• McDowell, Josh. The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, Two volumes looking at Jesus from the point of view of evidence. Nashville, TE: Nelson Reference, 1999Vol I: ISBN 0918956463 , Vol. II: ISBN 0918956730
• Meier, John P. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus NY: Doubleday, 1991 ISBN 0385264259
• Mendenhall, George E. The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973. ISBN 0801816548. A study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context.
• Mendenhall, George E. Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. ISBN 0-664-22313-3. Another, less technical, study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context.
• Messori, Vittorio Jesus hypotheses, introudction by Malcolm Muggeridge, Slough: St Paul Publications, 1977, ISBN 0854391541; The translation from Italian Ipotesi su Gesù. An amazing and very readable book that shows how Vittorio Messori, a recognized Italian historian, explores the question of Jesus, starting from two points of view, mythical (Jesus never lived) and critical (Jesus was not God) and finally comes to the third hypothesis, the one of the faith. The author is also famous as one of the rare who did an interview with Pope John Paul II.
• Metzger, Bruce Textual Commentary on the Greek NT, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2nd ed 1994 ISBN 3438060108
• Metzger, Bruce, The Canon of the New Testament Canon, NY: Oxford University Press, 1997 ISBN (page 254)0198269544
• Miller, Robert, The Complete Gospels, the Scholars Version translation of gospels from the first three centuries, includes canonical gospels, thomas, james, mary, infancy gospels, fragments, Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, expaned ed 1994 ISBN 0944344305
• Miller, Robert J (ed) The Apocalyptic Jesus: A Debate, Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 2001 ISBN 0944344895
• Mithraic Studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1975 ISBN 0874715571
• Pagels, Elaine 'The Meaning of Jesus', Books and Culture: A Christian Review, March/April 1999 (page 40)
• Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985 ISBN 0300034962; NY: HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; Yale University Press, 1999, ISBN 0300079877
• Prophet, Elizabeth Clare The Lost Years of Jesus, Corwin Springs, MT: Summit University Press, 1987 ISBN 091676687X
• Price, Robert M. Incredible Shrinking Son of Man: How Reliable Is the Gospel Tradition? Amherst, NY: Prometheous Books, ISBN 1591021219
• Rahim, Muhammad 'Ata-ur, Jesus: Prophet of Islam, Elmhurst, New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an, 1992 ISBN 1879402114
• Sanders, E.P. The historical figure of Jesus, NY: Penguin, 1993 ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but thoroughly scholarly book.
• Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Philadeslphia: Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, though not inaccessible.
• Schaberg, Jane. Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives, NY: Crossroad Press, ISBN 0940989603
• Schwietzer, Albert The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, NY: Scribner, 1968 ISBN 0020892403
• Smith, Morton Jesus the Magician, San Fransisco, Harper & Rowe, 1978 ISBN 0060674121
• Talbert, Charles (ed) Reimarus' Fragments, Philadeslphia: Fortress Press, 1970 ISBN 0800601521
• Theissen, Gerd, and Annette Merz. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, Philadephia: Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. Exceptionally detailed.
• Theissen, Gerd. The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987 ISBN 0800620577
• Thiering, Barbara Jesus the Man, London, Doubleday, 1992 ISBN 0868244449
• Tolstoy, Leo The Kingdom of God is Within You Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1985 ISBN 0803294042
• Vermes, Geza. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels London: SCM, 1973 ISBN 0800614437
• Walvoord, John F. Jesus Christ Our Lord. Chicago: Moody Press, 1969. ISBN 0802443265
• Wilson, Ian Jesus: The evidence London: Pan Books, 1985 ISBN 0297835297
• Yoder, John H The Politics of Jesus Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, 1994 ISBN 0802807348
• Yogananda, Paramahansa The Second Coming of Christ, (2 Vols) Self-Realization Fellowship, 2004 ISBN 0876125550
• In Quest of the Hero:(Mythos Series) — Otto Rank, Lord Fitzroy Richard Somerset Raglan and Alan Dundes, Princeton University Press, 1990, ISBN 0691020620
• Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History, London: Chapman and Hall, 1840
• The Superhuman life of Gesar of Ling — Alexandra David-Neel (A divine hero still in oral tradition)
• In some editions of Jewish Antiquities by the Jewish historian Josephus Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 3 www.josephus-1.com refer to Jesus. Most scholars believe that these passages were added to Josephus's text by later Christians. The Arabic version of Josephus is free of these apparent Christian interpolations, but still makes it clear that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus.
• Hart, Michael H, The 100, Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, ISBN 0806513500
• Kierkegaard, Soren: "Training in Christianity", Vintage Spiritual Classics
• Kumar V. and Panakal L.: "The Ancient Mother – I : The Key to the bible" and "The Ancient Mother – II : The Key to the bible", Identity Publishers, Switzerland, 1997. (Available online in PDF format - http://www.quicknet.ch/urech/online.htm)
• Vivekananda, Swami "Christ the Messenger", Complete Worls, V4, 138-53, Calcutta, Advaita Ashrama [28]
• Wallace, Lewis Ben Hur, NY: Oxford University Press, (1880) original 1998ISBN 0192831992
• Weiss, Johannes Jesus Proclamation of the Kingdomm of God, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971 (German original, 1892) ISBN 080060153X
• Wells, George Herbert Did Jesus Exist?, London: Elek Books, 1975 ISBN 0236310011
• Wheless, Joseph Forgery in Christianity: A Documented Record of the Foundations of the Christian Religion, New York, A. A. Knopf, 1930: Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing (first published 1930), 1997 ISBN 1564592251
• Wright, Tom Who was Jesus? London: SPCK, 1992; Grand Rapids, MI: William Eermands, North American ed 1993 ISBN 0802806945
• Wright, Tom Jesus and the Victory of God London, SPCK 1996 ISBN 0281047170. Second in a projected massive five or six volume series on Christian origins, dealing with the life and death of Christ from a very open Evangelical perspective. The author is now Bishop of Durham (Church of England) and enjoys a friendship with Marcus Borg.

External links

Christian views

• [29] - The Tony Alamo Christian Ministries, worldwide evangelical organisation
• Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The latin harmony of the Gospels (1)
• Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The latin harmony of the Gospels (2)
• Directory of sites about Jesus
• rejesus: UK interdenominational web site about Jesus
• Jesus claims to be God
• Was he God?
• 864 pictures
• Jesus Christ Only — Articles, Sermons & Quotes Dedicated to Jesus Christ
• All About Jesus Christ — Articles and FAQs
• Literature about Jesus in english and many other languages
• Jesus Gallery Full from http://St-Takla.org
• Christology from The Biblical Resource Database
• Did Jesus Claim To Be God?
• ISBN 0-310-22655-4 The Case for Christ by Lee Strobel

Islamic views

• Status of Jesus in Islam
• An Islamic perspective on Jesus - Islamic Perspective
• The Qur'an on Jesus' divinity
• Jesus' second coming in Islam
• Jesus the prophet of Allah
• Jesus in the Quran

Other religious views

• Jesus Christ (Christology) – Essays on the Deity of Jesus, Jesus' Offices of Prophet, Priest & King & The Historic Jesus.
• Christ Notes
• Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus of Nazareth
• EWTN's Jesus Christ webpage
• The Words – Website that organises Jesus' sayings by topic
• Jehovah's Witnesses' perspective
• Latter-day Saint (Mormon) beliefs about Jesus
• A Jewish response to Christian missionaries
• Jesus in Heaven on Earth: A Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement perspective - Ahmadiyya perspective
• Jesus Christ – A conservative Christian view
• Is Jesus God? – A fundamentalist view
• What think ye of Christ?
• Jesus'Divinity
• Unitarian Universalist Views of Jesus: prophet; dissident; one of many Christs

Other views

• The Jesus Puzzle
• Skeptic's Guide to Jesus
• Jesus Never Existed
• The Creation of Christ The theory that Jesus was a myth based on Julius Caesar.
• The theory that the story of Jesus is based on the older Hindu story of Krishna
• Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance - article about existence of Jesus
• The Many Quests for the Historical Jesus (Unitarian summary of historical quests)
• What did Jesus Really Say
• The theory and evidence of Jesus having lived in Ladakh, in the Himalaya from 12 to 29 years
• The Original Teaching of Jesus Christ Online book purporting to reconstruct the original teachings of Jesus.
• Jesus was actually called Yahushua
• Various articles related to the natural death of Jesus
• Jesus the Messiah at Hebrew for Christians.
• Jesus' Secret Message Estimated guess that Jesus was teaching how to exercise conscious thought
• Light and Sound in Three Great Religions in From Light to Sound, The Spiritual Progression
• http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm - The Origins of Christianity and the Quest for the Historical Jesus Christ
• Evidence that Jesus Never Existed

Historical

• Contemporary Scholarship and the Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of JesusArticle concerning the consensus of New Testament historians in regards to the historical facts surrounding the resurrection narrative.
• Overview of the Life of Jesus A summary of New Testament accounts.
• Perspectives on the Resurrection ABC News 20/20 Special
• From Jesus to Christ – A Frontline PBS_TV_series documentary on Jesus and early Christianity.
• Why I Believe The New Testament Is Historically Reliable by Dr. Gary Habermas
• The New Testament Documents Are they Reliable? By F. F. Bruce
• A reconstructed portrait of Jesus of Nazareth, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
• The Words and Life of Historical Jesus by Jesus Institute
• Jesus Gallery Portraits of Jesus Christ.. past and present
• The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ by Nicholas Notovitch
• The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
• Into His Own: Perspective on the World of Jesus
• A Portrait of Jesus: From Galilean Jew to the Face of God
• University of Birmingham: The Historical Jesus
• Did Jesus really rise from the dead?
• The Christ of India Alleged evidence of what happened during the "lost years".
• Historical context of Jesus' time
• Jewish sects during Jesus' time
• Christ and the Other Religions
• Free Video — renowned scholar Bruce Chilton discusses Jesus as the Rabbi
• The Unknown Lives of Jesus and Mary from the Apocrypha and other little known sources.
• The Mistaken J
• Missing J
• The Reliability of the Secular References to Jesus
• Confronting the pagan copycat Christs thesis

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