Difference between revisions of "Balhae" - New World Encyclopedia
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t=振, ''then'' 渤海|s=振, ''then'' 渤海|p= Zhèn, ''then'' Bóhǎi |w=Chen, ''then'' Po-hai}} | t=振, ''then'' 渤海|s=振, ''then'' 渤海|p= Zhèn, ''then'' Bóhǎi |w=Chen, ''then'' Po-hai}} | ||
:''Alternate meaning: [[Bohai Sea]]'' | :''Alternate meaning: [[Bohai Sea]]'' | ||
− | '''Balhae''' (698 - 926) ('''Bohai''' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) | + | '''Balhae''' (698 - 926) ('''Bohai''' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) existed as an ancient [[kingdom]] established after the fall of [[Goguryeo]]. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to [[Unified Silla]], [[Dae Jo-young]], a former Goguryeo general of possible [[Mohe]] ethnicity, established Jin (振, Chinese, Zhen), later called Balhae, by uniting various Mohe and Goguryeo elements. Balhae emerged as the successor state to Goguryeo.<ref>[http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Bohai/id/1935427]</ref> |
− | Balhae occupied southern parts of [[Manchuria]]([[Northeast China]]) and [[Primorsky Krai]], and the northern part of the [[Korean peninsula]]. | + | Balhae occupied southern parts of [[Manchuria]]([[Northeast China]]) and [[Primorsky Krai]], and the northern part of the [[Korean peninsula]]. The [[Khitan people|Khitans]] defeated Balhae in 926, becoming mostly a part of the [[Liao Dynasty]] while [[Goryeo]] absorbed southern parts. |
== History == | == History == | ||
===Founding=== | ===Founding=== | ||
[[Image:Pressapochista4.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Stele from Balhae at the [[National Museum of Korea]].]] | [[Image:Pressapochista4.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Stele from Balhae at the [[National Museum of Korea]].]] | ||
− | The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the ''[[Book of Tang]]'', | + | The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the ''[[Book of Tang]]'', compiled between 941 to 945. Southern Manchuria(Northeast China) and northern Korea existed previously as the territory of [[Goguryeo]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of [[Silla]] and the [[Tang Dynasty]] in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the [[Korean Peninsula]] south of the [[Taedong River]] and became [[Unified Silla]]. The "[[New Book of Tang]]" recorded that the founder of [[Balhae]], [[Dae Joyeong]] (大祚榮) had served as a Goguryeo general of [[Sumo Mohe]] stock<ref>[[:s:zh:新唐書/卷219|Second Canonical History Records of Tang Dynasty, Volume 219]]</ref>. According to the "Book of Tang," Dae Joyeong belonged to a minority tribe in Goguryeo<ref>"[[:s:zh:舊唐書/卷199下|First Canonical History Records of Tang Dynasty, Volume 199-2]]</ref>. And the [[Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms]] (i.e., [[Samguk Yusa]]) written several hundred years later states that he had Goguryeo lineage. |
===Expansion and foreign relations=== | ===Expansion and foreign relations=== | ||
{{History of Korea}} {{History of Manchuria}} | {{History of Korea}} {{History of Manchuria}} | ||
− | The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, [[Silla]] and Black Water Mohe along the [[Amur River]], attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the [[Shandong Peninsula]] in 732. Later, | + | The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, [[Silla]] and Black Water Mohe along the [[Amur River]], attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the [[Shandong Peninsula]] in 732. Later, Tang and Balhae forged a compromise resuming tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to [[Japan]] in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region. |
− | The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] in the west. He also established [[Holhanseong]], the permanent capital near [[Lake Jingpo]] in the south of today's [[Heilongjiang]] province around 755. During his reign, a trade route with Silla, called Sillado | + | The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] in the west. He also established [[Holhanseong]], the permanent capital near [[Lake Jingpo]] in the south of today's [[Heilongjiang]] province around 755. During his reign, Balhae established a trade route with Silla, called Sillado. By the 8th century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria(Northeast China), the [[Liaodong peninsula]], and present day [[Primorsky Krai]] of Russia. Balhae's strength forced Silla to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defenses along the common border. |
− | |||
− | By the 8th century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria(Northeast China), the [[Liaodong peninsula]], and | ||
===Fall and legacy=== | ===Fall and legacy=== | ||
− | Traditionally, historians believed that the ethnic conflicts between ruling [[Koreans]] and underclass [[Mohe|Malgal]] weakened the state.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Recent study suggests that | + | Traditionally, historians believed that the ethnic conflicts between ruling [[Koreans]] and underclass [[Mohe|Malgal]] weakened the state.<!--{{Fact|date=June 2007}}—> Recent study suggests that the catastrophic eruption in the 10th century of [[Baekdu Mountain]] located at the center of Balhae territory led to the downfall of Balhae. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic caldera in the world [[Heaven Lake]]. Ashes of that eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern [[Japan]]. That massive explosion century created tremendous [[volcanic ash]], damaging the agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of that natural disaster. |
− | Eventually, Balhae | + | Eventually, Balhae succumb to the [[Khitan]]s, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of current [[Beijing]] area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet [[Dongdan Kingdom]], followed shortly thereafter by the annexation by [[Liao Dynasty|Liao]] in 936. Liao moved some Balhae aristocrats to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. 1 million), led by the last Crown Prince [[Dae Gwang-Hyun]] (대광현), fled southward to [[Goryeo]], the new self-claimed successor of [[Goguryeo]] (934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo, changed their family name to Tae (태,太) while Crown Prince Dae Kwang Hyun received the family name Wang (왕,王), the royal family name of Goryeo dynasty. Balhae stands as the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria(Northeast China), although later Korean dynasties continued to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. That began a series of northern expansions of later Korean dynasties. |
− | The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the [[Jurchen]] people, who founded the [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin Dynasty]]. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven [[Wuji (people)|Wuji]](勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family" | + | The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the [[Jurchen]] people, who founded the [[Jin Dynasty (1115 C.E. - 1234 C.E.)|Jin Dynasty]]. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the [[Khitans]]. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven [[Wuji (people)|Wuji]](勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family." Balhae consorts mothered the fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as [[Goryeo]], [[Khitan]] and Jurchen. That suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom. |
== Aftermath == | == Aftermath == | ||
After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, it was renamed [[Dongdan Kingdom|Dongdan]] by its new [[Khitan]] masters <ref> [Mote p. 49] </ref>, who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: [[Later Balhae]], [[Jung-Ahn Kingdom]], and [[Dae-Won Kingdom]]. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the [[Liaodong peninsula]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}, but they were all eventually decimated by the [[Liao Dynasty|Liao Empire]]. | After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, it was renamed [[Dongdan Kingdom|Dongdan]] by its new [[Khitan]] masters <ref> [Mote p. 49] </ref>, who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: [[Later Balhae]], [[Jung-Ahn Kingdom]], and [[Dae-Won Kingdom]]. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the [[Liaodong peninsula]] {{Fact|date=February 2007}}, but they were all eventually decimated by the [[Liao Dynasty|Liao Empire]]. | ||
− | In | + | In 934, [[Dae Gwang-Hyun]], the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against their Khitan masters. After being defeated, he fled to [[Goryeo]], where he was granted protection and the imperial surname. This resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Goryeo, but there was no threat to invade. <ref> [Mote p. 62] </ref> |
==Government and culture== | ==Government and culture== | ||
− | The people of Balhae | + | The people of Balhae derived from former Goguryeo people and of several [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic peoples]] present in Manchuria(Northeast China), of which the Mohe (Malgal) made up the largest element. |
− | + | Heavily influenced by Tang China's culture and government, Balhae modeled its system of government upon that of Tang China, and to an even greater extent than Silla. The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries, modeling its capital, Sanggyong, after [[Chang'an]], the capital of the Tang Dynasty. In addition, Balhae sent many students to Tang China to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese [[Imperial examination|civil service examinations]].([http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htm][http://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html]) | |
− | + | At the end of the 20th century, an important source of cultural information on Balhae had been discovered at the [[Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain]], especially the [[Mausoleum of Princess Jeong-Hyo]]. | |
== Characterization and political interpretation== | == Characterization and political interpretation== | ||
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Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but there is some dispute over his ethnicity, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive. | Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but there is some dispute over his ethnicity, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive. | ||
− | Koreans regard Balhae as a Korean state, particular from the [[Joseon Dynasty]] onwards. The 18th century, during the | + | Koreans regard Balhae as a Korean state, particular from the [[Joseon Dynasty]] onwards. The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the [[Yalu River|Yalu]] and [[Tumen River|Tumen]] rivers in 1712, and [[Jang Ji-yeon]] (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. [[Yu Deuk-gong]] in his eighteenth-century work ''Parhaego'' (An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria(Northeast China). Korean historian [[Sin Chae-ho]], writing about [[Jiandao]] in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu as their home” and that “half of our ancestor [[Dangun]] ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized [[Kim Busik]], author of the [[Samguk Sagi]], for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that [[Silla]] had achieved [[Unified Silla|unification]] of Korea.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Andre Schmid | title=Looking North toward Manchuria | journal=The South Atlantic Quarterly | volume=99 | issue=1 | year=2000 | pages=219-240 | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/south_atlantic_quarterly/v099/99.1schmid.html }}</ref> Inspired by ideas of [[Social Darwinism]], Sin wrote: |
− | :''How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. | + | :''How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreover, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years.''<ref>{{cite journal | author=Andre Schmid | title=Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics of Territorial History in Korea | journal=The Journal of Asian Studies | volume=56 | issue=1 | year=1997 | pages=30 | url = http://www.jstor.org/view/00219118/di014697/01p0187b/0 }} Sin was criticizing previous generations of Korean historians, who had traced Korean history back to the ancient peoples of the Korean peninsula. Sin believed that by doing so, and regarding "minor peoples" as their ancestors, they were diluting and weakening the Korean people and their history. He believed that the Korean race was in fact mainly descended from northern peoples, such as [[Buyeo]], [[Goguryeo]], and Balhae, and (re)claiming such a heritage would make them strong.</ref> |
Neither [[Silla]] nor the later [[Goryeo]] wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory. | Neither [[Silla]] nor the later [[Goryeo]] wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory. | ||
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In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "[[North South States Period]]" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including [[Mohe]], North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The ''[[Book of Tang]]'' says that Dae Joyeong was a minority of Goguryeo" (고려별종, 高麗別種),[http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/oldtangsu/jts_212.htm] and the ''[[New Book of Tang]]'' states that he is "from the [[Sumo Mohe]] of the former realm of Goguryeo." | In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "[[North South States Period]]" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including [[Mohe]], North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The ''[[Book of Tang]]'' says that Dae Joyeong was a minority of Goguryeo" (고려별종, 高麗別種),[http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/oldtangsu/jts_212.htm] and the ''[[New Book of Tang]]'' states that he is "from the [[Sumo Mohe]] of the former realm of Goguryeo." | ||
− | In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. {{dubious}} [http://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html] [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859140.html] [http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htm] [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/eak/ht06eak.htm] It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria(Northeast China) and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of | + | In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. {{dubious}} [http://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html] [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859140.html] [http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htm] [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/eak/ht06eak.htm] It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria(Northeast China) and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryeo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder [[Dae Joyeong]] was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic [[Mohe]] from Goguryeo. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058453?query=Parhae&ct=] |
[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9374564?query=Parhae&ct=][http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0700704647&id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&pg=PA340&lpg=PA340&sig=3fHVkhSsh9VJw_kto05aHF212XU] | [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9374564?query=Parhae&ct=][http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0700704647&id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&pg=PA340&lpg=PA340&sig=3fHVkhSsh9VJw_kto05aHF212XU] | ||
[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0631235914&id=0KHLEvqvET8C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&sig=LaPiOw3_z7I-f5uddLq5ibxFVlw] | [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0631235914&id=0KHLEvqvET8C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&sig=LaPiOw3_z7I-f5uddLq5ibxFVlw] | ||
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Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Holhan/Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own [[era name]]s. Chinese historians consider Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the [[Manchus]], considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal). According to the [[Book of Jin]] (金史), the history of the [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]], both the Jurchen and Balhae people originally descended from the seven tribes of the [[Wuji (people)|Wuji]]. After defeating the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]], the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family. (女直渤海本同一家) <ref>Book of Jin, 金史)</ref> The [[People's Republic of China]] continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. [http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-manchu.htm] | Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Holhan/Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own [[era name]]s. Chinese historians consider Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the [[Manchus]], considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal). According to the [[Book of Jin]] (金史), the history of the [[Jurchens|Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin Dynasty]], both the Jurchen and Balhae people originally descended from the seven tribes of the [[Wuji (people)|Wuji]]. After defeating the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]], the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family. (女直渤海本同一家) <ref>Book of Jin, 金史)</ref> The [[People's Republic of China]] continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. [http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-manchu.htm] | ||
− | The [[People's Republic of China]] is accused of limiting Korean | + | The [[People's Republic of China]] is accused of limiting Korean archaeologists access to historical sites located within [[Liaoning]] and [[Jilin]]. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic displays. This was aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of these archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000, which were widely believed to have been perpetrated by ethnic Koreans. <ref>{{cite paper | author=Mark Byington | title=The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided | date=2004 | url=http://hnn.us/articles/7077.html }}</ref> |
− | [[South Korean]] | + | [[South Korean]] archaeologist Song Ki-ho, who is a noted professor of [[Seoul National University]] and has published several papers criticizing the Chinese government, made several visits to China in the 1990s, 2000, 2003, and 2004, examined several historical sites and museums. However, he found himself restricted by limitations on note-taking and photography and even ejected from several sites by museum employees. [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0465084133&id=1yU6nMPALMwC&dq=parhae&lpg=PA198&pg=PA199&sig=4ZQu2Q28a6wPoOTIbjRmCm5UOCw] |
[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0465084133&id=1yU6nMPALMwC&dq=parhae&lpg=PA198&pg=PA198&sig=dLmVoLkjFhFfA9wuGfOAlVgupeo] | [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&vid=ISBN0465084133&id=1yU6nMPALMwC&dq=parhae&lpg=PA198&pg=PA198&sig=dLmVoLkjFhFfA9wuGfOAlVgupeo] | ||
[http://review.aks.ac.kr/AttachedFiles/05-Song%20Ki-ho.pdf] | [http://review.aks.ac.kr/AttachedFiles/05-Song%20Ki-ho.pdf] | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|0 | |0 | ||
− | |[[Dae Jung-sang]]<br> Qǐqǐ Zhòngxiàng | + | |[[Dae Jung-sang]]<br/> Qǐqǐ Zhòngxiàng |
− | |대중상 <br>大仲象 | + | |대중상 <br/>大仲象 |
|668-699 | |668-699 | ||
− | |Junggwang<br>Zhongguang | + | |Junggwang<br/>Zhongguang |
− | |중광<br>重光 | + | |중광<br/>重光 |
|Yeol/Liè | |Yeol/Liè | ||
− | |열왕<br>烈王 | + | |열왕<br/>烈王 |
− | |Sejo<br>Shizu | + | |Sejo<br/>Shizu |
− | |세조<br>世祖 | + | |세조<br/>世祖 |
|- | |- | ||
|1 | |1 | ||
− | |Dae Jo-young<br>Dà Zuòróng | + | |Dae Jo-young<br/>Dà Zuòróng |
− | |대조영<br>大祚榮 | + | |대조영<br/>大祚榮 |
|699-718 | |699-718 | ||
− | |Cheontong<br>Tiāntǒng | + | |Cheontong<br/>Tiāntǒng |
− | |천통<br>天統 | + | |천통<br/>天統 |
|[[Go of Balhae|Go/Gāo]] | |[[Go of Balhae|Go/Gāo]] | ||
− | |고왕<br>高王 | + | |고왕<br/>高王 |
− | |Taejo<br>Taizu | + | |Taejo<br/>Taizu |
− | |태조<br>太祖 | + | |태조<br/>太祖 |
|- | |- | ||
|2 | |2 | ||
− | |Dae Muye<br>Dà Wǔyì | + | |Dae Muye<br/>Dà Wǔyì |
− | |대무예<br>大武藝 | + | |대무예<br/>大武藝 |
|718-737 | |718-737 | ||
− | |Inan<br>Rěn’ān | + | |Inan<br/>Rěn’ān |
− | |인안<br>仁安 | + | |인안<br/>仁安 |
|[[Mu of Balhae|Mu/Wǔ]] | |[[Mu of Balhae|Mu/Wǔ]] | ||
− | |무왕<br>武王 | + | |무왕<br/>武王 |
− | |Kwangjong<br>Guangzong | + | |Kwangjong<br/>Guangzong |
− | |광종<br>光宗 | + | |광종<br/>光宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|3 | |3 | ||
− | |Dae Heummu<br>Dà Qīnmào | + | |Dae Heummu<br/>Dà Qīnmào |
− | |대흠무<br>大欽茂 | + | |대흠무<br/>大欽茂 |
|737-793 | |737-793 | ||
− | |Daeheung<br>Dàxīng * | + | |Daeheung<br/>Dàxīng * |
− | |대흥<br>大興 * | + | |대흥<br/>大興 * |
|[[Mun of Balhae|Mun/Wén]] | |[[Mun of Balhae|Mun/Wén]] | ||
− | |문왕<br>文王 | + | |문왕<br/>文王 |
− | |Sejong<br>Shizong | + | |Sejong<br/>Shizong |
− | |세종<br>世宗 | + | |세종<br/>世宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|4 | |4 | ||
− | |[[Dae Won-ui]]<br>Dà Yuányì | + | |[[Dae Won-ui]]<br/>Dà Yuányì |
− | |대원의<br>大元義 | + | |대원의<br/>大元義 |
|793-794 | |793-794 | ||
|None | |None | ||
Line 149: | Line 147: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|5 | |5 | ||
− | |Dae Hwa-yeo<br>Dà Huáyú | + | |Dae Hwa-yeo<br/>Dà Huáyú |
− | |대화여<br>大華與 | + | |대화여<br/>大華與 |
|794 | |794 | ||
− | |Jungheung<br>Zhòngxīng | + | |Jungheung<br/>Zhòngxīng |
− | |중흥<br>中興 | + | |중흥<br/>中興 |
|[[Seong of Balhae|Seong/Chéng]] | |[[Seong of Balhae|Seong/Chéng]] | ||
− | |성왕<br>成王 | + | |성왕<br/>成王 |
− | |Injong<br>Renzong | + | |Injong<br/>Renzong |
− | |인종<br>仁宗 | + | |인종<br/>仁宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|6 | |6 | ||
− | |Dae Sung-rin<br>Dà Sōnglín | + | |Dae Sung-rin<br/>Dà Sōnglín |
− | |대숭린<br>大嵩璘 | + | |대숭린<br/>大嵩璘 |
|794-808 | |794-808 | ||
− | |Jeongryeok<br>Zhènglì | + | |Jeongryeok<br/>Zhènglì |
− | |정력<br>正曆 | + | |정력<br/>正曆 |
|[[Gang of Balhae|Gang/Kāng]] | |[[Gang of Balhae|Gang/Kāng]] | ||
− | |강왕<br>康王 | + | |강왕<br/>康王 |
− | |Mokjong<br>Muzong | + | |Mokjong<br/>Muzong |
− | |목종<br>穆宗 | + | |목종<br/>穆宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|7 | |7 | ||
− | |Dae Won-yu<br>Dà Yuányú | + | |Dae Won-yu<br/>Dà Yuányú |
− | |대원유<br>大元瑜 | + | |대원유<br/>大元瑜 |
|808-812 | |808-812 | ||
− | |Yeongdeok<br>Yǒngdé | + | |Yeongdeok<br/>Yǒngdé |
− | |영덕<br>永德 | + | |영덕<br/>永德 |
|[[Jeong of Balhae|Jeong/Dìng]] | |[[Jeong of Balhae|Jeong/Dìng]] | ||
− | |정왕<br>定王 | + | |정왕<br/>定王 |
− | |Uijong<br>Yizong | + | |Uijong<br/>Yizong |
− | |의종<br>毅宗 | + | |의종<br/>毅宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|8 | |8 | ||
− | |Dae Eon-ui<br>Dà Yányì | + | |Dae Eon-ui<br/>Dà Yányì |
− | |대언의<br>大言義 | + | |대언의<br/>大言義 |
|812-817? | |812-817? | ||
− | |Jujak<br>Zhūqiǎo | + | |Jujak<br/>Zhūqiǎo |
− | |주작<br>朱雀 | + | |주작<br/>朱雀 |
|[[Hui of Balhae|Hui/Xī]] | |[[Hui of Balhae|Hui/Xī]] | ||
− | |희왕<br>僖王 | + | |희왕<br/>僖王 |
− | |Kangjong<br>Kangzong | + | |Kangjong<br/>Kangzong |
− | |강종<br>康宗 | + | |강종<br/>康宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|9 | |9 | ||
− | |Dae Myeongchung<br>Dà Míngzhōng | + | |Dae Myeongchung<br/>Dà Míngzhōng |
− | |대명충<br>大明忠 | + | |대명충<br/>大明忠 |
|817?-818? | |817?-818? | ||
− | |Taesi<br>Tàishǐ | + | |Taesi<br/>Tàishǐ |
− | |태시<br>太始 | + | |태시<br/>太始 |
|[[Gan of Balhae|Gan/Jiǎn]] | |[[Gan of Balhae|Gan/Jiǎn]] | ||
− | |간왕<br>簡王 | + | |간왕<br/>簡王 |
− | |Cheoljong<br>Zhezong | + | |Cheoljong<br/>Zhezong |
− | |철종<br>哲宗 | + | |철종<br/>哲宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|10 | |10 | ||
− | |Dae Insu<br>Dà Rénxiù | + | |Dae Insu<br/>Dà Rénxiù |
− | |대인수<br>大仁秀 | + | |대인수<br/>大仁秀 |
|818?-830 | |818?-830 | ||
− | |Geonheung<br>Jiànxīng | + | |Geonheung<br/>Jiànxīng |
− | |건흥<br>建興 | + | |건흥<br/>建興 |
|[[Seon of Balhae|Seon/Xuān]] | |[[Seon of Balhae|Seon/Xuān]] | ||
− | |선왕<br>宣王 | + | |선왕<br/>宣王 |
− | |Seongjong<br>Shengzong | + | |Seongjong<br/>Shengzong |
− | |성종<br>聖宗 | + | |성종<br/>聖宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|11 | |11 | ||
− | |[[Dae Ijin]]<br>Dà Yízhèn | + | |[[Dae Ijin]]<br/>Dà Yízhèn |
− | |대이진<br>大彝震 | + | |대이진<br/>大彝震 |
|830-857 | |830-857 | ||
− | |Hamhwa<br>Xiánhé | + | |Hamhwa<br/>Xiánhé |
− | |함화<br>咸和 | + | |함화<br/>咸和 |
|Hwa/He | |Hwa/He | ||
− | |화왕<br>和王 | + | |화왕<br/>和王 |
− | |Jangjong<br>Zhuangzong | + | |Jangjong<br/>Zhuangzong |
− | |장종<br>莊宗 | + | |장종<br/>莊宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|12 | |12 | ||
− | |[[Dae Geonhwang]]<br>Dà Qiánhuǎng | + | |[[Dae Geonhwang]]<br/>Dà Qiánhuǎng |
− | |대건황<br>大虔晃 | + | |대건황<br/>大虔晃 |
|857-871 | |857-871 | ||
− | |Daejeong<br>Dàdìng | + | |Daejeong<br/>Dàdìng |
− | |대정<br>大定 | + | |대정<br/>大定 |
|An | |An | ||
− | |안왕<br>安王 | + | |안왕<br/>安王 |
− | |Soonjong<br>Shùnzhong | + | |Soonjong<br/>Shùnzhong |
− | |순종<br>順宗 | + | |순종<br/>順宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|13 | |13 | ||
− | |Dae Hyeonseok<br>Dà Xuánxí | + | |Dae Hyeonseok<br/>Dà Xuánxí |
− | |대현석<br>大玄錫 | + | |대현석<br/>大玄錫 |
|871-895 | |871-895 | ||
− | |Cheonbok<br>Tianfú | + | |Cheonbok<br/>Tianfú |
− | |천복<br>天福 | + | |천복<br/>天福 |
|[[Gyeong of Balhae|Gyeong/Jǐng]] | |[[Gyeong of Balhae|Gyeong/Jǐng]] | ||
− | |경왕<br>景王 | + | |경왕<br/>景王 |
− | |Myeongjong<br>Mingzong | + | |Myeongjong<br/>Mingzong |
− | |명종<br>明宗 | + | |명종<br/>明宗 |
|- | |- | ||
|14 | |14 | ||
− | |[[Dae Wihae]]<br>Dà Wěijiē | + | |[[Dae Wihae]]<br/>Dà Wěijiē |
− | |대위해<br>大瑋瑎 | + | |대위해<br/>大瑋瑎 |
|895-906 | |895-906 | ||
|None | |None | ||
Line 259: | Line 257: | ||
|- | |- | ||
|15 | |15 | ||
− | |Dae Inseon<br>Dà Yīnzhuàn | + | |Dae Inseon<br/>Dà Yīnzhuàn |
− | |대인선<br>大諲譔 | + | |대인선<br/>大諲譔 |
|906-926 | |906-926 | ||
− | |Cheongtae<br>Qīngtài | + | |Cheongtae<br/>Qīngtài |
− | |청태<br>淸泰 | + | |청태<br/>淸泰 |
|[[Ae of Balhae|Ae/Āi]] | |[[Ae of Balhae|Ae/Āi]] | ||
− | |애왕<br>哀王 | + | |애왕<br/>哀王 |
|None | |None | ||
|None | |None | ||
Line 271: | Line 269: | ||
|} | |} | ||
− | Note : Dae Heummu had another era name Boryeok ([[Hangul]] :보력 [[Hanja]]: 寶曆; 774-?) <br> | + | Note : Dae Heummu had another era name Boryeok ([[Hangul]] :보력 [[Hanja]]: 寶曆; 774-?) <br/> |
== Media == | == Media == | ||
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* <!-- Dead note "3": —> {{cite conference | author=Mark Byington | title=“A Matter of Territorial Security: Chinese Historiographical Treatment of Koguryo in the Twentieth Century” | booktitle=International Conference on Nationalism and Textbooks in Asia and Europe, Seoul, The Academy of Korean Studies. | year=October 7 - 8, 2004}} | * <!-- Dead note "3": —> {{cite conference | author=Mark Byington | title=“A Matter of Territorial Security: Chinese Historiographical Treatment of Koguryo in the Twentieth Century” | booktitle=International Conference on Nationalism and Textbooks in Asia and Europe, Seoul, The Academy of Korean Studies. | year=October 7 - 8, 2004}} | ||
− | == | + | ==References== |
{{cite book|title=Imperial China, 900-1800|author=F.W. Mote|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1999|pages 49,61-62|id=ISBN 0674012127}} | {{cite book|title=Imperial China, 900-1800|author=F.W. Mote|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1999|pages 49,61-62|id=ISBN 0674012127}} | ||
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*{{ko icon}} [http://balhae.urinara.com/image/open/exit.gif Balhae creation and it's Extension] | *{{ko icon}} [http://balhae.urinara.com/image/open/exit.gif Balhae creation and it's Extension] | ||
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{{Credit|148321076}} | {{Credit|148321076}} |
Revision as of 22:31, 30 August 2007
Balhae | |||||||||
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260px
| |||||||||
Chinese name | |||||||||
Traditional Chinese: | 振, then 渤海 | ||||||||
Simplified Chinese: | 振, then 渤海 | ||||||||
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Korean name | |||||||||
Hangul: | 진, then 발해 | ||||||||
Hanja: | 振, then 渤海 | ||||||||
|
- Alternate meaning: Bohai Sea
Balhae (698 - 926) (Bohai in Chinese) existed as an ancient kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-young, a former Goguryeo general of possible Mohe ethnicity, established Jin (振, Chinese, Zhen), later called Balhae, by uniting various Mohe and Goguryeo elements. Balhae emerged as the successor state to Goguryeo.[1]
Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria(Northeast China) and Primorsky Krai, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula. The Khitans defeated Balhae in 926, becoming mostly a part of the Liao Dynasty while Goryeo absorbed southern parts.
History
Founding
The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the Book of Tang, compiled between 941 to 945. Southern Manchuria(Northeast China) and northern Korea existed previously as the territory of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla and the Tang Dynasty in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean Peninsula south of the Taedong River and became Unified Silla. The "New Book of Tang" recorded that the founder of Balhae, Dae Joyeong (大祚榮) had served as a Goguryeo general of Sumo Mohe stock[2]. According to the "Book of Tang," Dae Joyeong belonged to a minority tribe in Goguryeo[3]. And the Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms (i.e., Samguk Yusa) written several hundred years later states that he had Goguryeo lineage.
Expansion and foreign relations
History of Korea |
---|
Jeulmun Period
|
History of Manchuria |
---|
Not based on timeline |
Early tribes |
Gojoseon |
Yan (state) | Gija Joseon |
Han Dynasty | Xiongnu |
Donghu | Wiman Joseon |
Wuhuan | Sushen | Buyeo |
Xianbei | Goguryeo |
Cao Wei |
Jin Dynasty (265-420) |
Yuwen |
Former Yan |
Former Qin |
Later Yan |
Northern Yan |
Mohe | Shiwei |
Khitan | Kumo Xi |
Northern Wei |
Tang Dynasty |
Balhae |
Liao Dynasty |
Jin Dynasty (1115-1234) |
Yuan Dynasty |
Ming Dynasty |
Qing Dynasty |
Far Eastern Republic (USSR) |
Republic of China |
Manchukuo |
Northeast China (PRC) |
Russian Far East (RUS) |
The second king Mu, who felt encircled by Tang, Silla and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang and his navy briefly occupied a port on the Shandong Peninsula in 732. Later, Tang and Balhae forged a compromise resuming tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.
The third king Mun expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. He also established Holhanseong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 755. During his reign, Balhae established a trade route with Silla, called Sillado. By the 8th century, Balhae controlled northern Korea, all of Northeastern Manchuria(Northeast China), the Liaodong peninsula, and present day Primorsky Krai of Russia. Balhae's strength forced Silla to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defenses along the common border.
Fall and legacy
Traditionally, historians believed that the ethnic conflicts between ruling Koreans and underclass Malgal weakened the state. Recent study suggests that the catastrophic eruption in the 10th century of Baekdu Mountain located at the center of Balhae territory led to the downfall of Balhae. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic caldera in the world Heaven Lake. Ashes of that eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern Japan. That massive explosion century created tremendous volcanic ash, damaging the agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of that natural disaster.
Eventually, Balhae succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of current Beijing area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom, followed shortly thereafter by the annexation by Liao in 936. Liao moved some Balhae aristocrats to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. 1 million), led by the last Crown Prince Dae Gwang-Hyun (대광현), fled southward to Goryeo, the new self-claimed successor of Goguryeo (934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo, changed their family name to Tae (태,太) while Crown Prince Dae Kwang Hyun received the family name Wang (왕,王), the royal family name of Goryeo dynasty. Balhae stands as the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria(Northeast China), although later Korean dynasties continued to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. That began a series of northern expansions of later Korean dynasties.
The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji(勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family." Balhae consorts mothered the fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitan and Jurchen. That suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.
Aftermath
After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, it was renamed Dongdan by its new Khitan masters [4], who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae, Jung-Ahn Kingdom, and Dae-Won Kingdom. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Liaodong peninsula [citation needed], but they were all eventually decimated by the Liao Empire.
In 934, Dae Gwang-Hyun, the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against their Khitan masters. After being defeated, he fled to Goryeo, where he was granted protection and the imperial surname. This resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Goryeo, but there was no threat to invade. [5]
Government and culture
The people of Balhae derived from former Goguryeo people and of several Tungusic peoples present in Manchuria(Northeast China), of which the Mohe (Malgal) made up the largest element.
Heavily influenced by Tang China's culture and government, Balhae modeled its system of government upon that of Tang China, and to an even greater extent than Silla. The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries, modeling its capital, Sanggyong, after Chang'an, the capital of the Tang Dynasty. In addition, Balhae sent many students to Tang China to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations.([2][3])
At the end of the 20th century, an important source of cultural information on Balhae had been discovered at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Jeong-Hyo.
Characterization and political interpretation
Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but there is some dispute over his ethnicity, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive.
Koreans regard Balhae as a Korean state, particular from the Joseon Dynasty onwards. The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu and Tumen rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong in his eighteenth-century work Parhaego (An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria(Northeast China). Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Jiandao in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Dangun ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi, for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that Silla had achieved unification of Korea.[6] Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism, Sin wrote:
- How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreover, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years.[7]
Neither Silla nor the later Goryeo wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory. [4]
In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North South States Period" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including Mohe, North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tang says that Dae Joyeong was a minority of Goguryeo" (고려별종, 高麗別種),[5] and the New Book of Tang states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe of the former realm of Goguryeo."
In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. [dubious — see talk page] [6] [7] [8] [9] It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria(Northeast China) and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryeo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Mohe from Goguryeo. [10] [11][12] [13] [14] [15]
Like many ancient Korean and Japanese kingdoms, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and a heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Holhan/Huhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own era names. Chinese historians consider Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe (Malgal). According to the Book of Jin (金史), the history of the Jurchen Jin Dynasty, both the Jurchen and Balhae people originally descended from the seven tribes of the Wuji. After defeating the Khitan Liao Dynasty, the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family. (女直渤海本同一家) [8] The People's Republic of China continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. [16]
The People's Republic of China is accused of limiting Korean archaeologists access to historical sites located within Liaoning and Jilin. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic displays. This was aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of these archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000, which were widely believed to have been perpetrated by ethnic Koreans. [9]
South Korean archaeologist Song Ki-ho, who is a noted professor of Seoul National University and has published several papers criticizing the Chinese government, made several visits to China in the 1990s, 2000, 2003, and 2004, examined several historical sites and museums. However, he found himself restricted by limitations on note-taking and photography and even ejected from several sites by museum employees. [17] [18] [19]
North Korea has restricted independent archaeologists from its historical sites since at least the early 1960s. Foreign scholars have criticized political bias in North Korean historiography, and have accused North Korean scholars of reconstructing or even fabricating historical sites. [10]
Russian archaeologists and scholars, like those from China, think of Balhae as an independent Mohe state, with Central Asian and Chinese influence. [20]
In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed this as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. [21] [22] Modern Japanese scholars view Balhae as an independent state.
Sovereigns of Balhae 698-926
# | Personal name | Period of reign | Era name (年號) | Posthumous name (諡號) | Temple name (廟號) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | Westernized | Hangul/Chinese characters | ||
0 | Dae Jung-sang Qǐqǐ Zhòngxiàng |
대중상 大仲象 |
668-699 | Junggwang Zhongguang |
중광 重光 |
Yeol/Liè | 열왕 烈王 |
Sejo Shizu |
세조 世祖 |
1 | Dae Jo-young Dà Zuòróng |
대조영 大祚榮 |
699-718 | Cheontong Tiāntǒng |
천통 天統 |
Go/Gāo | 고왕 高王 |
Taejo Taizu |
태조 太祖 |
2 | Dae Muye Dà Wǔyì |
대무예 大武藝 |
718-737 | Inan Rěn’ān |
인안 仁安 |
Mu/Wǔ | 무왕 武王 |
Kwangjong Guangzong |
광종 光宗 |
3 | Dae Heummu Dà Qīnmào |
대흠무 大欽茂 |
737-793 | Daeheung Dàxīng * |
대흥 大興 * |
Mun/Wén | 문왕 文王 |
Sejong Shizong |
세종 世宗 |
4 | Dae Won-ui Dà Yuányì |
대원의 大元義 |
793-794 | None | None | None | None | None | None |
5 | Dae Hwa-yeo Dà Huáyú |
대화여 大華與 |
794 | Jungheung Zhòngxīng |
중흥 中興 |
Seong/Chéng | 성왕 成王 |
Injong Renzong |
인종 仁宗 |
6 | Dae Sung-rin Dà Sōnglín |
대숭린 大嵩璘 |
794-808 | Jeongryeok Zhènglì |
정력 正曆 |
Gang/Kāng | 강왕 康王 |
Mokjong Muzong |
목종 穆宗 |
7 | Dae Won-yu Dà Yuányú |
대원유 大元瑜 |
808-812 | Yeongdeok Yǒngdé |
영덕 永德 |
Jeong/Dìng | 정왕 定王 |
Uijong Yizong |
의종 毅宗 |
8 | Dae Eon-ui Dà Yányì |
대언의 大言義 |
812-817? | Jujak Zhūqiǎo |
주작 朱雀 |
Hui/Xī | 희왕 僖王 |
Kangjong Kangzong |
강종 康宗 |
9 | Dae Myeongchung Dà Míngzhōng |
대명충 大明忠 |
817?-818? | Taesi Tàishǐ |
태시 太始 |
Gan/Jiǎn | 간왕 簡王 |
Cheoljong Zhezong |
철종 哲宗 |
10 | Dae Insu Dà Rénxiù |
대인수 大仁秀 |
818?-830 | Geonheung Jiànxīng |
건흥 建興 |
Seon/Xuān | 선왕 宣王 |
Seongjong Shengzong |
성종 聖宗 |
11 | Dae Ijin Dà Yízhèn |
대이진 大彝震 |
830-857 | Hamhwa Xiánhé |
함화 咸和 |
Hwa/He | 화왕 和王 |
Jangjong Zhuangzong |
장종 莊宗 |
12 | Dae Geonhwang Dà Qiánhuǎng |
대건황 大虔晃 |
857-871 | Daejeong Dàdìng |
대정 大定 |
An | 안왕 安王 |
Soonjong Shùnzhong |
순종 順宗 |
13 | Dae Hyeonseok Dà Xuánxí |
대현석 大玄錫 |
871-895 | Cheonbok Tianfú |
천복 天福 |
Gyeong/Jǐng | 경왕 景王 |
Myeongjong Mingzong |
명종 明宗 |
14 | Dae Wihae Dà Wěijiē |
대위해 大瑋瑎 |
895-906 | None | None | None | None | None | None |
15 | Dae Inseon Dà Yīnzhuàn |
대인선 大諲譔 |
906-926 | Cheongtae Qīngtài |
청태 淸泰 |
Ae/Āi | 애왕 哀王 |
None | None |
Note : Dae Heummu had another era name Boryeok (Hangul :보력 Hanja: 寶曆; 774-?)
Media
Balhae is mentioned in a Korean film called Shadowless Sword, which is about the last prince of Balhae. Also, a Korean drama, coming out in September of 2006, will feature the founder of Balhae himself, Dae Joyeong.
References and notes
- ↑ [1]
- ↑ Second Canonical History Records of Tang Dynasty, Volume 219
- ↑ "First Canonical History Records of Tang Dynasty, Volume 199-2
- ↑ [Mote p. 49]
- ↑ [Mote p. 62]
- ↑ Andre Schmid (2000). Looking North toward Manchuria. The South Atlantic Quarterly 99 (1): 219-240.
- ↑ Andre Schmid (1997). Rediscovering Manchuria: Sin Ch'aeho and the Politics of Territorial History in Korea. The Journal of Asian Studies 56 (1): 30. Sin was criticizing previous generations of Korean historians, who had traced Korean history back to the ancient peoples of the Korean peninsula. Sin believed that by doing so, and regarding "minor peoples" as their ancestors, they were diluting and weakening the Korean people and their history. He believed that the Korean race was in fact mainly descended from northern peoples, such as Buyeo, Goguryeo, and Balhae, and (re)claiming such a heritage would make them strong.
- ↑ Book of Jin, 金史)
- ↑ Mark Byington (2004). "The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided".
- ↑ Leonid A. Petrov (2004). Restoring the Glorious Past: North Korean Juche Historiography and Goguryeo. The Review of Korean Studies 7 (3): 231-252.
- Mark Byington (October 7 - 8, 2004). "“A Matter of Territorial Security: Chinese Historiographical Treatment of Koguryo in the Twentieth Century”". International Conference on Nationalism and Textbooks in Asia and Europe, Seoul, The Academy of Korean Studies..
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
F.W. Mote (1999). Imperial China, 900-1800. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674012127.
See also
- History of China (Mohe,Jurchen,Manchu)
- History of Korea
- Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
- Mausoleum of Princess Zhenxiao
- List of Provinces of Balhae
External links
- Encyclopedia Britannica
- Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
- the state of Parhae (or Bohai in Chinese) from The Encyclopedia of World History Sixth Edition, Peter N. Stearns (general editor), © 2001 The Houghton Mifflin Company, at Bartleby.com.
- Columbia Encyclopedia
- U.S. Library of Congress: Country Studies
- Metropolitan Museum of Art
- (Korean)Provinces of Balhae Kingdom in 820
- (Korean) RootsInfo.co.kr
- (Korean) Balhae creation and it's Extension
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