Idolatry

Idolatry refers a major sin in the Abrahamic religions which involves improper use of images. The word is formed from the Greek word eidololatria, a compound of eidolon (image) and latreia ("adoration" or "worship"), translating to "adoration of images." Although the Greek appears to be a loan translation of the Hebrew phrase avodat elilim, which is attested in rabbinic literature (e.g., bChul., 13b, Bar.), the Greek term itself is not found in the Septuagint, Philo, Josephus, or in other Hellenistic Jewish writings. It is also not found in Greek pagan literature. In the New Testament, the Greek word is found only in the letters of Paul, 1 Peter, and Revelation, where it has a derogatory meaning. Hebrew terms for idolatory include avodah zarah (foreign worship) and avodat kochavim umazalot (worship of planets and constellations). In the Jewish and Islamic traditions, the creation of any imagery dedicated to portraying god itself as well as its worship constitutes idolatry. Christianity is more permissive, defining idolatry as worship of an image, idea or object, as opposed to the worship of a supreme being. However, images of Jesus, the human personification of god, are not forbidden. In other religions where such activity is not considered as sin, the term "idolatry" itself is absent. Some religious authorities and groups have used the term idolatry as a general category for all religions other than their own.

"The Adoration of the Golden Calf" by Nicolas Poussin

Forms of Idolatry

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Many religions hold that the purpose of worship is to bring one into connection with divinity. Any set of beliefs or practices which significantly interferes with this may, at some point, be termed idolatry. Examples might include:

• A very strong belief in the inerrancy of a holy book, this would equate the book with God, see creationism
• A very strong attachment to one's country that a religion considers inappropriate. In this case nationalism could be considered a form of idolatry.
• A very strong desire to gain sex and wealth that a religion considers inappropriate. In this case greed could be considered a form of idolatry.
• A very strong desire to gain fame or recognition that a religion considers inappropriate. In this case egocentrism could be considered a form of idolatry.
• Worshipping one of God's creations (The Sun, moon, water, a cow, sheep, or king) instead of the One God who created them.
• An obsessive desire to earn money could be classified as idolatry.

Idolatry in Judaism

Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible presents one of the first conceptualizations of idolatry known to humanity. According to the Hebrew Bible, idolatry originated in the age of Eber, though some interpret the text to mean in the time of Serug. Image worship existed in the time of Jacob, from the account of Rachel taking images along with her on leaving her father's house, which is given in the book of Genesis. Abraham's father, Terah, was both an idol manufacturer and worshipper who served a multiplicity of gods (as told in Joshua 24:2). When Abraham discovered the true God, he destroyed his father's idols (See Terah for story). The Bible records a struggle between the prophet's attempt to spread pure monotheism, and the tendency of some people, especially rulers such as Ahab to accept or to encourage others into polytheistic or idolatrous beliefs. The patriarch Abraham was called to spread the true knowledge of God, but with apparently little success, as it was necessary to include the commandment prohibiting idolatry among the others delivered in Exodus.

The concept of idolatry as sin was introduced to humanity through the Jewish tradition, specifically in the Second Commandment delivered by Moses upon Mount Sinai, described in Exodus as follows: "Thou shalt not make unto me any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them..." (Exodus 20.4-5). This of course follows the First Commandment in which god commands that the Isrealites must acknowledge no gods other than he. Thus, the conceptual link is clear: the concept of denying idolatry is closely related to the new Semitic tide of monotheism. The commandments in the Hebrew Bible were a direct vituperative toward the beliefs and practices of pagans who lived amongst the Israelites at the time, especially the religions of ancient Canaan, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, which were largely polytheistic. Further, these religions used icons in order to worship their various gods. In Mesopotamia, for example, immense temples called Ziggurats were built for purposes of worshipping each of the individual gods, while in Egypt numerous statuettes and paintings depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also regarded as divinely ordained. Some of these religions, it is claimed in the Bible, had a set of practices which were prohibited under Jewish law, such as sex rites, cultic male and female prostitution, passing a child through a fire to Molech, and child sacrifice.

Apparently, the long history of teaching against idolatry started by Abraham still had difficulty coming into effect even as late as the times of the prophets, whose books still reflect a continuing struggle against idolatry. For example, the Biblical prophet Jeremiah complains: "According to the number of thy cities are thy gods, O Judah" (2:28). The prophets fought the use of images in worship mostly because they feared the development of superstitions. Images, they claimed, were dangerous since they were distinct from god. Furthermore, after the trial of exile in 587 the prophets rallied the Jewish people again, making another call to reform importance of monotheism. This time, the prophets claimed that distancing themselves from idolatry was of the utmost imporatance in retaining Jewish monotheism and keeping Jewish culture and religion discernable from those surrounding polytheists in Palestine and Sumeria. Faith in the single god without the aid of idolatry helped the Jews unite, especially given Emperor Antiochus IV Epiphanes' attempt to syncretize the numerous gods which existed within his empire. In addition, the prophet's repeatedly speak of the ephemeral nature of false gods; that is, idols are mare of mere wood or stone, rather than any divine essence. Isaiah, for example, satirizes the Babylonian gods, claiming 'they are a burden to the weary beast" (46:1-2). The Wisdom of Solomon provides a synthesis of all these previous polemics against idolatry, claiming that idols seduce the consciousness of the idolator, leading to a lowering of moral standards.

There is no one section that clearly defines idolatry; rather there are a number of admonishments on this subject spread through the books of the Hebrew Bible, some of which were written in different historical eras, in response to different issues. The Bible has many terms for idolatry, and their usage represents the horror with which they filled the writers of the Bible [Adherents of Jewish faith maintain that the Torah is the literal and eternally binding word of G-d]. Thus idols are stigmatized "non-God" (Deut. 32:17, 21 [1]; Jer. 2:11 [2]), "things of naught" (Lev. 19:4 et passim [3]), "vanity" (Deut. 32), "iniquity" (1 Sam. 15:23 [4] ), "wind and confusion" (Isa. 41:29 [5]), "the dead" (Ps. 106:28 [6]), "carcasses" (Lev. 26:30; Jer. 16:18), "a lie" (Isa. 44:20 et passim [7]), and similar epithets. Taking these verses together, idolatry in the Hebrew Bible is defined as: the worship of idols (or images), the worship of polytheistic gods by use of idols (or images), the general worship of animals or people, the use of idols in the worship of the one God. The last category, the use of idols in the worship of God, is the basis of Judaism' strict monotheism. In a number of places the Hebrew Bible makes clear that God has no shape or form; thus no idol or image could ever capture God's essence. For example, when the Israelites are visited by God in Deut. 4:15, they see no shape or form. Many verses in the Bible use anthropomorphisms to describe God, (e.g. God's mighty hand, God's finger, etc.) but these verses have always been understood as poetic images rather than literal descriptions.

Idols were either designated in Hebrew by a term of general significance, or were named according to their material or the manner in which they were made. They said to have been were placed upon pedestals, and fastened with chains of silver or nails of iron lest they should fall over or be carried off (Isa. 40:19, 41:7; Jer. 10:14; Wisdom 13:15), and they were also clothed and colored (Jer. 10:9; Ezek. 16:18; Wisdom 15:4). Pagan idols, meanwhile, are generally described as being made of gold, silver, wood, and stone. They are described as being only the work of men's hands, unable to speak, see, hear, smell, eat, grasp, or feel, and powerless either to injure or to benefit. At first the gods and their images were conceived of as identical; but in later times a distinction was drawn between the god and the image. Nevertheless it was customary to take away the gods of the vanquished (Isa. 10:10-11, 36:19, 46:1; Jer. 48:7, 49:3; Hosea 10:5; Dan. 11:8), and a similar custom is frequently mentioned in the cuneiform texts. Most contemporary interpreters, such as Orestes Brownson have concluded that the pagans in the Hebrew Bible did not literally worship the objects themselves, so that the issue of idolatry becomes whether one is pursuing a false god or the true God.

Rabbinnic Tradition

Although the battle against idolatry was a central theme in the Hebrew Bible, it gradually faded into the background of Judaic thought during the period of the Second Temple, according to the Talmud (Tractate Yoma 69b). During this time period, the temples of Astarte and Baal were no longer considered significant enemies to Judaic religion. However, passages in the Talmud, the Rabbinical commentaries on the Torah, still maintain the sentiments opposed to idolatry. For instance, the Talmudic Tractate Avodah Zarah (translating to "Idolatry") still provides a thorough criticism of the pagan culture in which idolatry was spawned, and formulates the types of contact permissable between Jews and Pagans. Rabbis composing the biblical exegesis instruct Jews that they should not ascribe any attactive terms to idolators. Another Talmudic commentary from Sifre Deuteronmium 28 claims that "Whoever endorses idolatry, rejects the entire Torah; and whoever renounces idolatry, accepts the entire Torah." Hence, one's opinion toward idolatrous behaviour is portrayed, in these instances, in the single determinant factor of one's status as a Jew.

A similar sentiment was propouned by Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135–1204), who invoked once again the biblical battle against idolatry, this time taking on the more and more anthropomorphized conceptions of god within the Christianity of his surrounding European counterparts. Such conceptions were also having effects of European Jews at the time. In hopes of clearly formulating of Jewish principles of faith, Moses Maimonides laid out his thirteen principles of faith. The third of these reads "I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, blessed be His Name, is not a body, and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him whatsoever." This seems to reiterate the importance for Jews to avoid idolotrous acts. The fact that Maimonide's denigration of idolatry has been widely accepted as authorotative by most Jews illustrates the importance that the sin of idolatry has maintained within contemporary Judaism.

Contemporary Judaism

Contemporary Judaism strongly prohibits any form of idolatry, however, there has been much debate throughout the history of Judaism as to what constitutes this sin. The general consensus as to the definition is that idolatry involves the worship a power (such as the Sun, moon) or a thing (water, sheep, etc) instead of attributing the power to the One God who created these powers. It is considered a great insult to God to worship one of His creations instead of Him. Judaism holds that any beliefs or practices which significantly interferes with a Jew's relationship with God may, at some point, be deemed idolatry. In addition, Judaism holds that idolatry is not limited to the worship of an idol itself, but also worship involving any artistic representations of God. Most Jews will even neglect writing out the full name of God, as the written word even implies a kind of depiction which could be interpreted as idolatrous. Hence, the spelling "G-d" to represent the supreme entity. This is a modern extension of the Tetragrammaton the ineffable name of God which is not to be read aloud and appears in biblical scripture as the four letter combination YHWH. When scripture is read aloud, the Tetragrammaton is replaced with the phrase Adonai ("My Lords", commonly rendered as "the Lord"). Even non-Jews are subject to scrutiny in the context of idolatry, as they are forbidden from worshipping more than one god, or a non-divine object or person, by the Noahide Laws.

Idolatry in Christianity

Apostolic & Patristic Periods

Early Christianity adopted sentiments toward idolatry that were reminiscent of their Jewish roots. This developed not only because many of the early converts came by way of Judaism, but also because another large portion of converts came from pagan traditions and wanted to separate themselves from the idols they were leaving behind. The Second Testament also provides opposition to the use of idols. In Paul's first letter to the Corinthians (10:19), he notes that the veneration of idols is essentially the veneration of demons, reiterating the First Testament motif that it is demons which lie behind idols. Both the Greek and Latin apologists held similar viewpoints. Justin Martyr upheld most of his predecessor's diatribes against the emptiness of constructed idols, but came down even harder upon upon those who worship natural entities such as the earth, water and son. Tertullian, meanwhile, reiterates the point that statues are only matter, comparable to the banal, everyday objects of domestic life. Further, he denigrates the value of painting, sculpture and other artistic endeavours, claiming they are merely shrouds for idolotrous yearnings. None of the early church fathers had a greater influence than St. Augustine of Hippo, and thus his own displeasure with idolatry held particular levity in the early Christian consciousness. For Augustine, all gods were merely extensions of mortal men, which entered into the hearts of human beings and compelled them to confound parts of god's creation as parts of god Himself. Like Paul, Augustine claimed that idolatry presented an oppurtunity for demons to become animate in the person of the idolator.

Byzantine iconoclasm

By the eighth century, Christianity was well-established in many areas, including the Byzantine empire. In a 730 edict, Byzantine Emperor Leo III outlawed the worship of religious images, which excluded religious symbols such as the cross. This came shortly after he caused uproar among the Christian population by ordering the removal of an image of Jesus placed over the palace gate of Constantinople which he considered to be idolotrous. Leo may have implicated the image in evoking some divine wrath which in turn caused his failures on the battlefield. Leo died in 740, but his ban on icons was maintained under his son Constantine V (741-775) who summoned a council of bishops in Hieria in 754 ("the Iconoclast Council"). The monasteries argued vehemently in favour icon veneration, while Constantine ordered the destruction of all icons and halted the invocation of saints. Such iconoclasm continued until Leo IV's (775-80) wife Irene took power and initiated a new the Second Council of Nicaea (or the Seventh Ecumenical Council) which eventually reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council at the approval of the papacy. This lasted until Emperor Leo V instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in 813, again with fear that icons were becoming idolotrous and sullying his military fortunes. Leo was succeeded by Michael II, who confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754. Michael was in turn succeeded by his son, Theophilus, whose wife Theodora took the throne after his death and restored the use of icons in 843.

Catholic & Orthodox Views

The Christian view of idolatry may be divided into two general categories. The Catholic and Orthodox view (not necessary limited to the Eastern Orthodox or Oriental Orthodox communion, and sometimes further complicated when you add Anglicans and Methodists into the equation) and the Fundamentalist view. Eastern Orthodoxy today considers the Seventh Ecumenical Council the last genuine ecumenical council, hence, the use of icons in worship is apropo. Iconography, of course, plays a particularly large role in the Orthdox church.

The Roman Catholic and particularly the Orthodox Churches cite St. John of Damascus' work "On the Divine Image" to defend the use of icons. He wrote in direct response to the iconoclastic controversy that begun in the eighth century by the Byzantine emperor Leo III and continued by his successor Constantine V. St. John maintains that depicting the invisible God is indeed wrong, but he argues that the incarnation, where "the Word became flesh" (John 1:14), indicates that the invisble God became visible, and as a result it is permissible to depict Jesus Christ. He argues, "When He who is bodiless and without form... existing in the form of God, empties Himself and takes the form of a servant in substance and in stature and is found in a body of flesh, then you draw His image..." He also observes that in the Old Testament, images and statues were not absolutely condemned in themselves: examples include the graven images of cherubim over the Ark of the Covenant or the bronze serpent mentioned in the book of Numbers. He also defends external acts of honour towards icons, arguing that there are "different kinds of worship" and that the honour shown to icons differs entirely from the adoration of God. He continues by citing Old Testament examples of forms of "honour": "Jacob bowed to the ground before Esau, his brother, and also before the tip of his son Joseph's staff (Genesis 33:3). He bowed down, but did not adore. Joshua, the Son of Nun, and Daniel bowed in veneration before an angel of God (Joshua 5:14) but they did not adore him. For adoration is one thing, and that which is offered in order to honour something of great excellence is another". He cites St. Basil who asserts, "the honour given to the image is transferred to its prototype". St. John argues therefore that venerating an image of Christ does not terminate at the image itself - the material of the image is not the object of worship - rather it goes beyond the image, to the prototype.

Fundamentalist Protestants often accuse Catholic and Orthodox Christians of Traditionalism, Idolatry, Paganism and Iconolatry since they do not "cleanse their faith" of the use of images.

Catholic and Orthodox Christians use religious objects such as Icons, incense, the Gospel, Bible, candles and religious vestments. Icons are mainly in two and rarely in three dimensional form. These are in dogmatic theory venerated as objects filled with God's grace and power — (therefore Eastern Orthodoxy declares they are not "hollow forms" {see idol} and hence, not idols). Evidence for the use of these, they claim, is found in the Old Testament and in Early Christian worship (see Wikipedia article under heading "Icons").

The offering of veneration in the form of latreía (the veneration due God) is doctrinally forbidden by the Orthodox Church; however veneration of religious pictures or Icons in the form of douleía is not only allowed but obligatory. The distinction in levels of veneration, which is doctrinally technical and not distinguishable in the form of actual practice, was and is often lost on the ordinary observer. The distinction is maintained and taught by believers in many of the hymns and prayers that are sung and prayed throughout the liturgical year.

In Orthodox apologetics for icons, a similarity is asserted between icons and the manufacture by Moses (under God's commandment) of The Bronze Snake, which was, Orthodoxy says, given the grace and power of God to heal those bitten by real snakes. "And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any person, when he beheld the serpent of brass, they lived"(Numbers 21:9). Another similarity is declared with the Ark of the Covenant described as the ritual object above which Yahweh was present (Numbers 10:33-36); or the burning bush which , according to Exodus, allowed God to speak to Moses; or the Ten Commandments which were the Word of God "Dabar Elohim" in tablet form. These inanimate objects became a medium by which God worked to teach, speak to, encourage and heal the Hebrew faithful.

Veneration of icons through latreía was codified in the Seventh Ecumenical Council during the Byzantine Iconoclast controversy. Icon veneration is also practiced in the Catholic Church, which accepts the declarations of the Seventh Ecumenical Council, but it is practiced to a lesser extent, since Catholics today do not usually prostrate and kiss icons, and the Second Vatican Council enjoined moderation in the use of images. Eastern-Rite Catholics still use icons in their Divine Liturgy however.

Protestantism

The Puritan Protestant groups adopted a similar view to Islam, denouncing all forms of religious objects whether in three dimensional or two dimensional form. The problem springs from differences in interpretation of the Decalogue commonly known as the Ten Commandments. "You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments." (RSV Exodus 20:3-6).

Most Protestant groups avoid the use of images in any context suggestive of veneration. Protestantism from its beginnings treated images as objects of inspiration and education rather than of veneration and worship. Occasionally icons may be seen among some "high" church communities such as Anglicans, but they are not viewed or used in the same manner described in Orthodox doctrine, and their presence sometimes causes controversy.

Some of the Protestant reformers, in particular Andreas Karlstadt, Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin encouraged the destruction of religious images by invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry and the manufacture of graven images of God. As a result, statues and images were damaged in spontaneous individual attacks as well as unauthorised iconoclastic riots. However, in most cases images were removed in an orderly manner by civil authorities in the newly reformed cities and territories of Europe.

Significant iconoclastic riots took place in Zürich (in 1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537) and Scotland (1559). The Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands and Belgium) were hit by a large wave of Protestant iconoclasm in the summer of 1566. This is called the Beeldenstorm and included such acts as the destruction of the statuary of the Monastery of Saint Lawrence in Steenvoorde after a Hagenpreek, or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte; and the sacking of the Monastery of Saint Anthony after a sermon by Jacob de Buysere. The Beeldenstorm marked the start of the revolution against the Spanish forces and the Catholic church. See Flanders for more on its history.

In England, Bishop Joseph Hall of Norwich described the events of 1643 when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and idolatry, behaved thus: 'Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together'.

Protestant Christianity, however, was not uniformly hostile to the use of religious images. Martin Luther argued that Christians should be free to use religious images as long as they did not worship them in the place of God.

Very conservative Protestant groups avoid any use of religious images, even for inspiration or instruction, as incitement to what they view as idolatry.

Christianity and Other Religions

Christian theology requires proselytizing, the spreading of the faith by gaining converts by use of trained missionaries. This has brought them into contact with a wide variety of other religions. The polemical views against idolatry often caused hostile relationships with polytheistic religions and other Christian groups who used images in some manner as part of religious practice. It would appear that both Orthodox and Protestant views of idolatry condemn idolatry as it is practiced in non-Christian religions. The Catholic missionary Saint Francis Xavier referred to Hinduism as idolatry, and Protestant Christian apologetics makes similar claims about various non-Christian religions.

Idolatry in Islam (Shirk)

Shirk (Arabic شرك) is the Islamic concept of the sin of polytheism specifically, but in a more general way refers to serving anything other than the One God; i.e. wealth, lust, the ego, etc. It is the vice which is opposed to the virtue of tawhid, literally "declaring [that which is] one", often translated into the English theological term "monotheism" for lack of a better word. The word is not related to the English verb "shirk" related to neglect. The word shirk is derived from the Arabic root ShRK (ش ر ك). This consonantal root has the general meaning of to share (Nadwi - Vocabulary of the Qur'an). In the context of the Qur'an, the particular sense of "sharing as an equal partner" is usually understood, so that polytheism is "attributing a partner to God". In the Qur'an shirk and the related word (plural Stem IV active participle) mushrikun (مشركون) "those who commit shirk" often clearly refers to the enemies of Islam (as in verse 9.5) but sometimes it also refers to erring Muslims (verse 6.122).

Islam forbids idolatry and polytheism. Most sects of Islam forbid any artistic depictions of human figures, even those of Muhammad, this being shirk, which originally means "partnership": the sin of associating some other being with the one God, Allah. This is considered akin to idolatry, if not idolatry outright. Furthermore, images of God are even banned outright in most sects of Islam, reinforcing absolute monotheism in Islam and attempting to eliminate any and all forms of idolatry.

The following words are used by most Muslims, as loose synonyms or translations for idolators and idolatry, although some have used them to define all non-Muslims.

• Kafir: a person who refuses to submit himself to Allah (God), a disbeliever in God.
• Kuffar: plural form of kafir.
• Kufr (verb): to show ungratefulness to Allah and not to believe in Him and His religion.

Qur'an

When the Qur'an describes shirk it frequently seems to be referring to and disparaging the Christian belief in the divinity of Jesus (4:171). Islamic commentators on the Qur'an have emphasized that pre-Islamic Arabic idolatry made a number of godlings (most memorably the three goddesses Manat, Lat and Uzza) equal associates of Allah (as the Qur'an discusses in the 53rd surat) and the word mushrikun is often translated into English as polytheists. Other forms of shirk, which are debatable, include the worship of wealth and other material objects. This is pointed in the Qur'an in one of the story of the Children of Israel, when they take calf made of gold for worship (7:148-150). Yet another form of shirk is to revere a leader (religious or not) beyond limits, as mentioned in (9:31).

Theology

In a theological context one commits shirk by associating some lesser being with Allah. This sin is committed if one imagines that there is some other spirit than Allah whom it is suitable to worship. Many Islamic theologians extend the sense of worship to include praying to some other being to intercede with Allah on one's behalf, rather than taking one's case to Allah Himself. The limits of the concept of worship are quite elastic and theologians often describe excessive veneration of some artifact here on earth as shirk.

Atheism is described as shirk because it denies the position of Allah as the unique creator and sustainer of the universe (tawhid ar-rububiyya, the unity of creation). In the same way, the act of shirk is extended to include such things as the notion that Allah possesses humanlike anthropomorphic qualities as well as acts of worship or piety whose inward goal is pride, caprice, or a desire for public admiration.

Shirk is the worst injustice, sin, or wrong-doing. Abu Malik commented about what Allah said:

[وَالْفِتْنَةُ أَشَدُّ مِنَ الْقَتْلِ]

(And Al-Fitnah is worse than killing.) Meaning what you (disbelievers) are committing is much worse than killing. Abu Al-`Aliyah, Mujahid, Sa`id bin Jubayr, `Ikrimah, Al-Hasan, Qatadah, Ad-Dahhak and Ar-Rabi` bin Anas said that what Allah said:

Categories of Shirk

Derived from the Qur'an and the Prophetic tradition(Sunnah), there are 4 main categories of Shirk in Islam.

1. Shirk in Ruboobeeyah (Lordship)

This category of Shirk refers to either the belief that others share Allah's Lordship over creation as His equal or near equal, or to the belief that there exists no Lord over creation at all.

(A) Shirk by Association

This is the shirk concerned with associating 'others' with Allah.Among some Muslim people, Shirk in Ruboobeeyah is manifested in their belief that the souls of saints and other righteous humans can affect the affairs of this world, even after their deaths. Their souls, it is believed, can fulfill one's needs, remove calamities and aid whoever calls on them. Therefore, grave worshippers assign to human souls the divine ability to cause events in this life which in fact only Allah can cause.

(B) Shirk by Negation

This sub-category represents the various philosophies and ideologies which deny the existence of God either explicitly or implicitly. That is, in some cases God's non-existence is stated (Atheism), while in other cases His existence is claimed, but the way in which He is conceived actually denies His existence (Pantheism).

2. Shirk in al-Asma was-Sifat (the Names and Attributes of Allah)

Shirk in this category includes both the common pagan practice of giving Allah the attributes of His creation as well as the act of giving created beings Allah's names and attributes.

(A) Shirk by Humanization

In this aspect of Shirk in al-Asma was-Sifat, Allah is given the form and qualities of human beings and animals. Due to man's superiority over animals, the human form is more commonly used by idolaters to represent God in creation. Consequently, the image of the Creator is often painted, moulded or carved in the shape of human beings possessing the physical features of those who worship them.

(B) Shirk by Deification

This form of Shirk in al-Asma was-Sifat relates to cases where created beings or things are given or claim Allah's names or His attributes. For example, it was the practice of the ancient Arabs to worship idols whose names were derived from the names of Allah. Their main three idols were: al-Lat taken from Allaah's name al-Elah, al-'Uzza taken from al-'Aziz and al-Manat taken from al-Mannan. During the Prophet Muhammad's era there was also a false prophet in a region of Arabia called Yamamah, who took the name Rahman which only belongs to Allah.

3. Shirk In al-'Ebadah (Worship)

In this category of Shirk, acts of worship are directed to other than God and the reward for worship is sought from the creation instead of the Creator. As in the case of the previous categories, Shirk in al-'Ebadah has two main aspects.

(A) Ash-Shirk al-Akbar (Major Shirk):

This form of Shirk occurs when any act of worship is directed to other than Allah. It represents the most obvious form of idolatry which the prophets were specifically sent by Allah to call the masses of mankind away from. This concept is supported by Allah's statement in the Qur'an:

(B) Ash-Shirk al-Asghar (Minor Shirk):

Minor Shirk

Mahmood ibn Lubayd reported, "Allah's messenger (saws) said: "The thing I fear for you the most is ash-Shirk al-Asghar (minor shirk)." The companions asked "Oh! messenger of Allah, what is minor Shirk?" He replied "Ar-Riya (showing off), for verily Allah will say on the Day of Resurrection when people are receiving their rewards, 'Go to those for whom you were showing off in the material world and see if you can find any reward from them."

Secret Shirk

Mahmood ibn Lubayd also said, "The Prophet (saws) came out and announced, 'O people, beware of secret Shirk!' The people asked, 'O messenger of Allah, what is secret Shirk?' He replied, 'When a man gets up to pray and strives to beautify his prayer because people are looking at him; that is secret Shirk."

4. Ar-Riya

Riya is the practise of performing any of the various forms of worship in order to be seen and praised by people. This sin destroys all the benefits that lie in righteous deeds and brings on the one who commits it a serious punishment.

Idolatry in Eastern Religions

Although there are many different interpretations of the term 'idolatry', it is essentially a term that belongs to the Abrahamic faiths (see etymology above), where the issue of idolatry is especially central to their ethics (see the 3rd Noahide Law, etc) as something that is prohibited.

As a rule, any interpretation of the term by the non-Abrahamic religious who feel that they have been subjected to the label of 'idolatry' will not effectively represent the reasons why they have been labelled as such.

Moreover, defending their activities based upon the existence of graven images, pictures or other aspects of their worship will not affect their status as idolators by those who accuse them of idolatry.

Many modern Abrahamics reject any views of idolatry addressed against the main religions of the world and feel a great sense of kinship with other world religions even though history has sometimes characterised a very different attitude.

Hinduism

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Contemporary Hinduism focuses on worship of either Vishnu or Shiva (whom adherents venerate as God) or God's power personified, Shakti or Devi. These personal aspects of God or His power are the only means to attain mukti or moksha. Moksha, unlike the Buddhist counterpart of nirvana, is union with God. The Bhagavad Gita condemns worship of demigods or deities as such worship is limited and does not lead to moksha.

Early Rig Vedic monism was realized in the Upanishads and Hinduism has multiple streams of thought that range from monotheist to monist. The multiple Hindu divinities ("divine aspects",) represent different aspects of one natural power, or more accurately, a singular being-non-being Brahman. The concept of God without form or Nirguna Brahman is not unique to Judaism or Islam and is in fact held in Hinduism. However, human beings are sensory beings and have a need to visualize God with form. The personal forms of God (i.e., Saguna Brahman is expressed through Vishnu or Shiva.

For this reason, murti, or icon worship, is very much a practice for most Hindus, who choose to connect through bhakti, loving devotion, with God. While murti worship is sometimes equated with idolatry, critics of this point of view argue that the Hindu concept of murti worship consists of veneration of the image or statue as representative of a higher ideal or principle, while idolatry objectifies divinity as the material object itself. Besides, some Hindu sects like Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj do not believe in using murtis as a way to focus on God since they worship God without attributes as Nirguna Brahman. Other sects argue that the human mind needs an Ishta Deva (chosen deity) to help him to concentrate on the Divine principle during sadhana (spiritual exercise). In particular, some Hindu sects like ISKCON will only consent to worship of icons that they consider the supreme God (i.e., Vishnu or Krishna) or His avatars.

When Hindus use idols in worship, they are worshipping God (Brahman) and not the idols themselves. The idol is just a piece of stone until God is invoked in it, and then it serves as a means to focus and meditate on God and is not believed to be the God in physical sense. As Hindus believe that God is Omnipresent; that God is within everyone and everything; that the soul and the supreme are not different; therefore, worshipping different Gods, deities, Goddesses, or Idols, is worshipping the Supreme because everyone and everything is God.

Hindus do not worship the idol as God, but worships the Almighty who resides in that 'idol', as God resides everywhere. His immanence in all that is animate and in all that is inanimate is a fundamental tenet of Hinduism. See [ http://www.geocities.com/profvk/WOVpage3.html 'Idol of a deity is deity itself']

Followers of Vishnu use the saligrama (a black stone pebble, found only in the Gandaki River at Mukti Kshetra and Damodar Kunda, one of the most sacred pilgrimage places in north-west Nepal) or sometimes some turmeric paste aggregated into a conical form ,in place of the idol, signifying that a form is not essential to be attributed to God. Similarly, followers of Shiva mediate on the Siva linga.

Just as some followers of Islam, Christianity and Judaism have called Hindus idolators or kafirs for not worshipping Yahweh or Allah, Hindus have a similar term for calling followers of non-Vedic religion, (i.e., foreigners) yavanas and mlecchas.

Shinto views of idolatry

Shintoism is a religion which worships kami or nature spirits; it often uses various objects to represent these spirits in its shrines, which often gives the appearance of idolatry to westerners. Claims of idolatry are present.

Buddhism

Buddhist art employed different measures to represent the Buddha. Empty gaps were firstly used in murals or in another case, a footprint. Statues actually appeared half a century later within the Mahayana school and were often used to represent Gautama Buddha in his exact pose during Enlightenment under the bodhi tree. Since a Buddha comes only by the form of a man, this practice was not considered idolatry by the remaining schools; it was the (exemplar) human being represented and not the Nirvanic state (which is believed to be unconditioned, unmade; formless) that the Enlightened One would enter.

Buddhists do not venerate the objects themselves, but rather the meaning and symbolism represented by the object, which is the beneficial practice of meditation. Often Buddhists will bow before the statue, not as an act of literal worship for the carved image, but to evoke faith and respect in the individual towards what the statue symbolizes; the doctrine and discipline that Gautama Buddha founded. It is considered a grave error in Buddhist thought to risk one's life (or the life of another) to rescue a statue — let alone worship one.

Chinese Religion

Daoism is a polytheistic and animistic religion which includes the conception of a pervasive universal principle called the Tao (道), which manifests through the mana-like energy called qi (氣). Early Daoism was in fact only partially aniconic, picturing most deities (even important ones such as Xiwangmu/西王母) while disallowing the anthropomorphic representation of the central deity Taishang Laojun (太上老君). As the manifestation of the ineffable Dao, He was represented either by an empty throne and canopy or vicariously through that of Shakyamuni Buddha.

However, since at least the Tang dynasty, Daoism has incorporated the use of divine images (called shen2xiang4/神像) even for its highest trinity, the San Qing (三清). In both Daoism and Chinese Folk Religion, statues, paintings, or name plaques of deities are given central place as focus of worship in temples and homes. While all representations of deities are afforded reverence and respect, images which have been ritually "opened to light" (kai1 guang1 dian4 yan3/開光點眼) or have been venerated through pious worship are exceptionally invested with and made conduit of the divine numen of the god, known as ling2qi4 (靈氣). Through ritual offerings and scriptural chants, such icons are believed to maintain the living presence of the deity, who gives guidance and bestows blessings upon the devout.

However, while the high gods of the Dao might be iconicized, they are still regarded as ultimately transcending both form and numen in a way unavailable to the deities of the popular religion. As beings directly emergent from and suffused with the primordial Dao, They may take on form through incarnations, icons, and in visualization mainly to aid humanity's spiritual advancement.

Daoism's complex theology, cosmology, and animistic worldview would might reject the Abrahamic conception of idolatry as materialistic nihilism. As a life-affirming religion, the manifest world is not considered intrinsically evil. Furthermore, being an admittedly polytheistic religion, a criticism on grounds of idolatry is a non sequitur. Daoist icons are simultaneously much more than mere symbols yet not literally synonymous with the gods. Indeed, the monotheism which informs the taboo of idolatry would be regarded as a blasphemous anthropocentrism of the Dao, denying divinity from plural manifestation and personal immediacy in the world, hence a "deviant view" (xie2jian4/邪見).

The question of whether Confucianism, and Chinese folk religion, consists of worshipping a God or veneration of a saint was important to the Catholic Church during the Chinese Rites controversy of the early 18th century. This dispute was between the Dominicans who argued that Confucianism and Chinese folk religion was worship, and therefore incompatible with Catholicism, and the Jesuits which argued the reverse. The pope ultimately ruled in favor of the Dominicans; a decision which greatly reduced the role of Catholic missionaries in China.

Idolatry in Polytheistic Religions

Adherents of polytheism and animism reject the charge of idolatry as an inaccurate description of their religious beliefs and practices. Polytheists generally do not believe that their statues (or other physical objects) are gods; rather, they are symbols of immaterial gods. Rather, they maintain that physical idols are simply the representational form of a divine deity — the act of "worship" is not for the object, but for the divinity that the object is believed to represent.

Polytheistic and Animistic beliefs that have given rise to the charge of idolatry include:

• Certain objects or places have supernatural powers independent of God.
• Prayer or rituals within the presence of certain objects or places are likelier to have an effect then when performed elsewhere.
• Prayer is paid to images, paintings or statues of polytheistic pantheons, or to relics of polytheistic religious figures.

These beliefs are generally held to be at variance with monotheism, which holds that all power comes from God alone, and not from any other gods or agents. In such systems, "God" at best is only the stronger of many other gods, and thus God would not be omnipotent or omniscient.

Scholars of religion generally do not equate idolatry with polytheism, primarily because polytheists accused of idolatry usually do not have the beliefs ascribed to them. Specifically, most polytheists hold that their idols or icons are only symbols of the gods they worship, and these idols or icons do not possess supernatural powers.

See also

• Aniconism
• Anthropocentrism
• Ethnocentrism
• Religious pluralism
• Sociology

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Brichto, Herbert Chanan. The Worship of the Golden Calf: A Literary Analysis of a Fable on Idolatry. Hebrew Union College Annual, 54, 1983.
• Brownson, Orestes Augustus Saint Worship and the Worship of Mary Manchester, NH: Sophia Institute Press 2004 ISBN 1928832881
• Burggraeve, R., de Tavernier, J., Pollefeyt, D., & Hanssens, J. "True Faith in God and Forms of Religious Idolatry." In Desirable God?: Our Fascination with Images, Idols, and New Deities. eds. Roger Burggraeve, Johan de Tavernier, Didier Pollefeyt, and Jo Hanssens. Leuven-Dudley, MA: Peeters, 2003. 7-38. ISBN 9042913169
• Dorff, Elliot N. "Judaism and Idolatry: In Defense of Images" in Proceedings of the Academy for Jewish Philosophy Ed. David Novak and Norbert M. Samuelson, University Press of America, 1992.
• Halbertal, Moshe & Avishai, Margalit. Idolatry. Cambridge, MS: Harvard University Press. 1992. ISBN 0674443128
• "Idolatry." Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987.
• "Idolatry". The Encyclopedia Judaica. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing. 1994.
• Kaufman, Yehezkel. The Religion of Israel: From its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile. Moshe Greenberg, trans. 1960 Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press ISBN 0226427285
• Kogan, Bary S. "Judaism and the Varieties of Idolatrous Experience" in Proceedings of the Academy for Jewish Philosophy Ed. David Novak and Norbert M. Samuelson, University Press of America, 1992.
• Roth, Norman. Maimonides: essays and texts : 850th anniversary. Madison, WSC: Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 1985. ISBN 0942260597

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