Difference between revisions of "Arsenic" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(added credit and category tags, deleted foreign language links)
Line 44: Line 44:
  
 
'''Arsenic''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈɑːsənik/}}) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''As''' and [[atomic number]] 33. This is a notoriously poisonous [[metalloid]] that has many [[allotropy|allotropic]] forms; yellow, black and gray are a few that are regularly seen. Arsenic and its compounds are used as [[pesticides]], [[herbicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s and various [[alloy]]s.
 
'''Arsenic''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈɑːsənik/}}) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''As''' and [[atomic number]] 33. This is a notoriously poisonous [[metalloid]] that has many [[allotropy|allotropic]] forms; yellow, black and gray are a few that are regularly seen. Arsenic and its compounds are used as [[pesticides]], [[herbicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s and various [[alloy]]s.
 +
 +
== Occurrence ==
 +
[[Image:Native arsenic.jpg|right|200px|left|thumb|Massive native arsenic.]]
 +
[[Arsenopyrite]] also called mispickel ([[iron|Fe]][[sulfur|S]]As) is the most common [[mineral]] from which, on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. Other arsenic minerals include [[realgar]], [[mimetite]], [[cobaltite]] and [[erythrite]].
 +
 +
The most important compounds of arsenic are [[white arsenic]], [[orpiment]], [[realgar]], [[Paris Green]], [[calcium arsenate]], and [[lead hydrogen arsenate]]. Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate have been used as [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[insecticide]]s and [[poison]]s. Orpiment and realgar were formerly used as painting pigments, though they have somewhat fallen out of use due to their toxicity and reactivity. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with [[silver]], [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[antimony]], or [[sulfur]].
 +
 +
In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the [[food chain]], are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of [[methylation]].
 +
 +
''See also [[:category:Arsenide minerals|Arsenide minerals]], [[:category:Arsenate minerals|Arsenate minerals]].''
 +
 +
== History ==
 +
 +
The word ''arsenic'' is borrowed from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word زرنيخ ''Zarnikh'' meaning "yellow [[orpiment]]". ''Zarnikh'' was borrowed by [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''arsenikon''. Arsenic has been known and used in [[Iran|Persia]] and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of [[arsenic poisoning]] were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for [[murder]] until the advent of the [[Marsh test]], a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the [[Reinsch test]].)  Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its incredible potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the ''Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons''.
 +
 +
During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy harder.
 +
 +
[[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the
 +
element in 1250. In 1649 [[Johann Schroeder]] published two ways of preparing arsenic.
 +
 +
The [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbol for arsenic is shown below.[[image:arsenic-symbol.png|75px|left|Alchemical symbol for arsenic]]
 +
 +
In the [[Victorian era]], arsenic was mixed with [[vinegar]] and [[chalk]] and eaten by women to improve the [[complexion]] of their faces, making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields.  Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion.
  
 
== Notable characteristics ==
 
== Notable characteristics ==
 +
 
Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor [[phosphorus]], so much so that it will partly substitute for [[phosphorus]] in biochemical reactions and is thus [[poison]]ous. When heated rapidly it [[oxidation|oxidizes]] to [[arsenic trioxide]]; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling [[garlic]]. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimate]] upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray/metallic, with [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively.
 
Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor [[phosphorus]], so much so that it will partly substitute for [[phosphorus]] in biochemical reactions and is thus [[poison]]ous. When heated rapidly it [[oxidation|oxidizes]] to [[arsenic trioxide]]; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling [[garlic]]. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimate]] upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray/metallic, with [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively.
 +
 +
=== Isotopes ===
 +
 +
Arsenic has been proposed as a "[[Salted bomb|salting]]" material for [[nuclear weapon]]s ([[cobalt]] is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of As-75, irradiated by the intense, high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope As-76 with a [[half-life]] of 1.0778 days and produce approximately 1.13 [[MeV]] of [[Gamma ray|gamma radiation]], significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] for several hours. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.
  
 
== Applications ==
 
== Applications ==
−
[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] has been used, well into the 20th century, as an [[insecticide]] on [[fruit tree]]s (resulting in [[brain damage]] to those working the sprayers), and [[Scheele's Green]] has even been recorded in the 19th century as a [[food dye|coloring agent]] in [[sweets]].  In the last half century, [[monosodium methyl arsenate]] (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.
 
  
−
The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of [[wood]] which has been treated with [[chromated copper arsenate]] ("CCA", or "[[Tanalith]]", and the vast majority of older "[[lumber#Preservatives|pressure treated]]" wood). CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural, and outdoor [[building material]], where there was a risk of [[rot]], or [[insect]] infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's [[playground]] equipment) into surrounding [[soil]], the most serious risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash). Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial, and domestic fires. Safe disposal of CCA timber remains patchy, and little practiced, there is concern in some quarters about the widespread [[landfill]] disposal of such timber.
+
[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] has been used, well into the twentieth century, as an [[insecticide]] on [[fruit tree]]s, (resulting in [[brain damage]]* to those working the sprayers), and [[Scheele's Green]] has even been recorded in the nineteenth century as a [[food dye|coloring agent]] in [[sweets]]. In the last half century, [[monosodium methyl arsenate]]* (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.
  
−
During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including [[arsphenamine]] (by [[Paul Ehrlich]]) and [[arsenic trioxide]] (by Thomas Fowler).
+
The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of [[wood]] which has been treated with [[chromated copper arsenate]]* ("CCA", or "[[Tanalith]]", and the vast majority of older, "[[lumber#Preservatives|pressure-treated]]*" wood). CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the twentieth century as a structural, and outdoor [[building material]], where there was a risk of [[rot]], or [[insect]] infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's [[playground]] equipment) into surrounding [[soil]], the most serious risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash). Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial, and domestic fires. Safe disposal of CCA timber remains patchy, and little practiced, there is concern in some quarters about the widespread [[landfill]] disposal of such timber.
−
Arsphenamine as well as [[Neosalvarsan]] was indicated for [[syphilis]] and [[trypanosomiasis]], but has been superseded by modern [[antibiotics]].
+
 
 +
During the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including [[arsphenamine]] (by [[Paul Ehrlich]]) and [[arsenic trioxide]] (by Thomas Fowler).
 +
Arsphenamine as well as [[Neosalvarsan]]* was indicated for [[syphilis]] and [[trypanosomiasis]], but has been superseded by modern [[antibiotic]]s.
 
Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly in the treatment of [[cancer]].  The [[Food and Drug Administration]] in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] that is resistant to [[all-trans retinoic acid|ATRA]].<ref>Antman, Karen H. (2001). [http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/content/full/6/suppl_2/1 The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy]. Introduction to a supplement to ''The Oncologist''. '''6''' (Suppl 2), 1-2. PMID 11331433.</ref> It was also used as [[Thomas Fowler|Fowler]]'s solution in [[psoriasis]].<ref>Huet ''et.al''. Noncirrhotic presinusoidal portal hypertension associated with chronic arsenical intoxication. ''Gastroenterology'' 1975;'''68'''(5 Pt 1):1270-7.
 
Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly in the treatment of [[cancer]].  The [[Food and Drug Administration]] in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] that is resistant to [[all-trans retinoic acid|ATRA]].<ref>Antman, Karen H. (2001). [http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/content/full/6/suppl_2/1 The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy]. Introduction to a supplement to ''The Oncologist''. '''6''' (Suppl 2), 1-2. PMID 11331433.</ref> It was also used as [[Thomas Fowler|Fowler]]'s solution in [[psoriasis]].<ref>Huet ''et.al''. Noncirrhotic presinusoidal portal hypertension associated with chronic arsenical intoxication. ''Gastroenterology'' 1975;'''68'''(5 Pt 1):1270-7.
 
PMID 1126603 </ref>
 
PMID 1126603 </ref>
Line 64: Line 93:
 
* [[Gallium arsenide]] is an important [[semiconductor]] material, used in [[integrated circuit]]s. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in [[silicon]]. Unlike silicon it is [[direct bandgap]], and so can be used in [[laser diode]]s and [[LED]]s to directly convert [[electricity]] into [[light]].
 
* [[Gallium arsenide]] is an important [[semiconductor]] material, used in [[integrated circuit]]s. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in [[silicon]]. Unlike silicon it is [[direct bandgap]], and so can be used in [[laser diode]]s and [[LED]]s to directly convert [[electricity]] into [[light]].
 
* Also used in [[bronzing]] and [[pyrotechny]].
 
* Also used in [[bronzing]] and [[pyrotechny]].
−
 
−
== History ==
 
−
The word ''arsenic'' is borrowed from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word زرنيخ ''Zarnikh'' meaning "yellow [[orpiment]]". ''Zarnikh'' was borrowed by [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''arsenikon''. Arsenic has been known and used in [[Iran|Persia]] and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of [[arsenic poisoning]] were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for [[murder]] until the advent of the [[Marsh test]], a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the [[Reinsch test]].)  Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its incredible potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the ''Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons''.
 
−
 
−
During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy harder.
 
−
 
−
[[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the
 
−
element in 1250. In 1649 [[Johann Schroeder]] published two ways of preparing arsenic.
 
−
 
−
The [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbol for arsenic is shown below.[[image:arsenic-symbol.png|75px|left|Alchemical symbol for arsenic]]
 
−
 
−
In the [[Victorian era]], arsenic was mixed with [[vinegar]] and [[chalk]] and eaten by women to improve the [[complexion]] of their faces, making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields.  Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion.
 
  
 
==Arsenic in drinking water==
 
==Arsenic in drinking water==
 
{{main|Arsenic contamination of groundwater}}
 
{{main|Arsenic contamination of groundwater}}
 +
 
[[Arsenic contamination of groundwater]] has led to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in [[Bangladesh]]<ref>Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, [http://www.macmillanscience.com/1403944997.htm Macmillan Science], 2005.</ref> and neighbouring countries. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people<!--just Bangladesh, or total?—> are drinking [[groundwater]] with arsenic concentrations elevated above the [[World Health Organization]]'s standard of 10 [[Concentration#.22Parts-per.22 Notation|parts per billion]]. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] instigated a massive tube [[Water well|well]] drinking-water program in the late [[twentieth century]]. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially-contaminated surface waters, but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater.(2) Many other countries in [[Southeast Asia|South East Asia]], such as [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Tibet]], are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters.
 
[[Arsenic contamination of groundwater]] has led to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in [[Bangladesh]]<ref>Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, [http://www.macmillanscience.com/1403944997.htm Macmillan Science], 2005.</ref> and neighbouring countries. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people<!--just Bangladesh, or total?—> are drinking [[groundwater]] with arsenic concentrations elevated above the [[World Health Organization]]'s standard of 10 [[Concentration#.22Parts-per.22 Notation|parts per billion]]. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] instigated a massive tube [[Water well|well]] drinking-water program in the late [[twentieth century]]. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially-contaminated surface waters, but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater.(2) Many other countries in [[Southeast Asia|South East Asia]], such as [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Tibet]], are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters.
  
Line 84: Line 102:
  
 
Arsenic can be removed from drinking water through co-precipitation of iron minerals by oxidation and filtering.  When this treatment fails to produce acceptable results, adsorptive arsenic removal media may be utilized.  Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for point of service use in a study funded by the United States [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (U.S.EPA) and the [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF).
 
Arsenic can be removed from drinking water through co-precipitation of iron minerals by oxidation and filtering.  When this treatment fails to produce acceptable results, adsorptive arsenic removal media may be utilized.  Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for point of service use in a study funded by the United States [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (U.S.EPA) and the [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF).
−
 
−
== Occurrence ==
 
−
[[Image:Native arsenic.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Massive native arsenic]]
 
−
[[Arsenopyrite]] also called mispickel ([[iron|Fe]][[sulfur|S]]As) is the most common [[mineral]] from which, on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. Other arsenic minerals include [[realgar]], [[mimetite]], [[cobaltite]] and [[erythrite]].
 
−
 
−
The most important compounds of arsenic are [[white arsenic]], [[orpiment]], [[realgar]], [[Paris Green]], [[calcium arsenate]], and [[lead hydrogen arsenate]]. Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate have been used as [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[insecticide]]s and [[poison]]s. Orpiment and realgar were formerly used as painting pigments, though they have somewhat fallen out of use due to their toxicity and reactivity. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with [[silver]], [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[antimony]], or [[sulfur]].
 
−
 
−
In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the [[food chain]], are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of [[methylation]].
 
−
 
−
''See also [[:category:Arsenide minerals|Arsenide minerals]], [[:category:Arsenate minerals|Arsenate minerals]].''
 
  
 
== Precautions ==
 
== Precautions ==
 
[[Image:Skull and crossbones.svg|left|80px|thumb]]
 
[[Image:Skull and crossbones.svg|left|80px|thumb]]
 +
 
Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms including  [[allosteric inhibition]] of the metabolic [[enzyme]] [[lipothiamide pyrophosphatase]] (need citation here) part of glycolysis. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits succinate dehydrogenase and by competeing for phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy linked reduction of NAD+,  mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. Arsenic kills by enzyme inhibtion, this is because enzymes are the best documented targets of metals; in this case, it causes toxicity but can also play a protective role (Casarett and Doull's Essentials of Toxicology 2003). These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system [[organ failure]] (see [[arsenic poisoning]]) probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A [[post mortem]] reveals brick red colored [[mucosa]], due to severe [[haemorrhage]].   
 
Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms including  [[allosteric inhibition]] of the metabolic [[enzyme]] [[lipothiamide pyrophosphatase]] (need citation here) part of glycolysis. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits succinate dehydrogenase and by competeing for phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy linked reduction of NAD+,  mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. Arsenic kills by enzyme inhibtion, this is because enzymes are the best documented targets of metals; in this case, it causes toxicity but can also play a protective role (Casarett and Doull's Essentials of Toxicology 2003). These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system [[organ failure]] (see [[arsenic poisoning]]) probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A [[post mortem]] reveals brick red colored [[mucosa]], due to severe [[haemorrhage]].   
  
Line 120: Line 129:
 
''See also [[:Category:Arsenic compounds|Arsenic compounds]].''
 
''See also [[:Category:Arsenic compounds|Arsenic compounds]].''
  
−
== Isotopes ==
+
== See also ==
−
Arsenic has been proposed as a "[[Salted bomb|salting]]" material for [[nuclear weapon]]s ([[cobalt]] is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of As-75, irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope As-76 with a [[half-life]] of 1.0778 days and produce approximately 1.13 [[MeV]] of [[Gamma ray|gamma radiation]], significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] for several hours. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.
 
  
−
== See also ==
+
* [[Chemical element]]
 +
* [[Periodic table]]
 
* [[Aqua Tofana]]
 
* [[Aqua Tofana]]
 
* [[Arsenic poisoning]]
 
* [[Arsenic poisoning]]
 
* [[Arsenicosis]]
 
* [[Arsenicosis]]
−
* [[Fowler's solution]]
 
−
* [[Grainger challenge]]
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
 
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/33.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Arsenic]
 
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/33.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Arsenic]
  
−
== Endnotes ==
+
== Footnotes ==
 
<references />
 
<references />
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
{{Commons|Arsenic}}
+
 
−
{{wiktionarypar|arsenic}}
 
 
*[http://www.asmalldoseof.org/ A Small Dose of Toxicology]  
 
*[http://www.asmalldoseof.org/ A Small Dose of Toxicology]  
 
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/arsenic/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity]
 
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/arsenic/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity]
Line 145: Line 151:
 
* [http://www.origen.net/arsenic.html origen.net &ndash; CCA wood and arsenic: toxicological effects of arsenic]
 
* [http://www.origen.net/arsenic.html origen.net &ndash; CCA wood and arsenic: toxicological effects of arsenic]
 
* [http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ Contaminant Focus: Arsenic] by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]].
 
* [http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ Contaminant Focus: Arsenic] by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]].
−
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001] by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]].
+
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001] by the World Health Organization.
 
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/arsenic/arsenic-1.htm A summary of the above report] by [[GreenFacts]].  
 
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/arsenic/arsenic-1.htm A summary of the above report] by [[GreenFacts]].  
−
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol23/arsenic.html Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds] by the [[IARC]].
+
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol23/arsenic.html Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds] by the IARC.
−
 
 
−
{{ChemicalSources}}
 
  
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Physical sciences]]

Revision as of 06:27, 22 October 2006

33 germanium ← arsenic → selenium
P
↑
As
↓
Sb
As-TableImage.png
periodic table
General
Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33
Chemical series metalloids
Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p
Appearance metallic gray
As,33.jpg
Atomic mass 74.92160(2) g/mol
Electron configuration [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p3
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 5
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 5.727 g/cm³
Liquid density at m.p. 5.22 g/cm³
Melting point 1090 K
(817 °C, 1503 °F)
Boiling point subl. 887 K
(614 °C, 1137 °F)
Critical temperature 1673 K
Heat of fusion (gray) 24.44 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization ? 34.76 kJ/mol
Heat capacity (25 °C) 24.64 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 553 596 646 706 781 874
Atomic properties
Crystal structure rhombohedral
Oxidation states ±3, 5
(mildly acidic oxide)
Electronegativity 2.18 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more) 		1st: 947.0 kJ/mol
2nd: 1798 kJ/mol
3rd: 2735 kJ/mol
Atomic radius 115 pm
Atomic radius (calc.) 114 pm
Covalent radius 119 pm
Van der Waals radius 185 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering no data
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 333 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 50.2 W/(m·K)
Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) 8 m/s
Bulk modulus 22 GPa
Mohs hardness 3.5
Brinell hardness 1440 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-38-2
Notable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of arsenic
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
73As syn 80.3 d ε - 73Ge
γ 0.05D, 0.01D, e -
74As syn 17.78 d ε - 74Ge
β+ 0.941 74Ge
γ 0.595, 0.634 -
β- 1.35, 0.717 74Se
75As 100% As is stable with 42 neutrons

Arsenic (IPA: /ˈɑːsənik/) is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol As and atomic number 33. This is a notoriously poisonous metalloid that has many allotropic forms; yellow, black and gray are a few that are regularly seen. Arsenic and its compounds are used as pesticides, herbicides, insecticides and various alloys.

Occurrence

Massive native arsenic.

Arsenopyrite also called mispickel (FeSAs) is the most common mineral from which, on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. Other arsenic minerals include realgar, mimetite, cobaltite and erythrite.

The most important compounds of arsenic are white arsenic, orpiment, realgar, Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead hydrogen arsenate. Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons. Orpiment and realgar were formerly used as painting pigments, though they have somewhat fallen out of use due to their toxicity and reactivity. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with silver, cobalt, nickel, iron, antimony, or sulfur.

In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of methylation.

See also Arsenide minerals, Arsenate minerals.

History

The word arsenic is borrowed from the Persian word زرنيخ Zarnikh meaning "yellow orpiment". Zarnikh was borrowed by Greek as arsenikon. Arsenic has been known and used in Persia and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test.) Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its incredible potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons.

During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy harder.

Albertus Magnus is believed to have been the first to isolate the element in 1250. In 1649 Johann Schroeder published two ways of preparing arsenic.

The alchemical symbol for arsenic is shown below.

Alchemical symbol for arsenic

In the Victorian era, arsenic was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion.

Notable characteristics

Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor phosphorus, so much so that it will partly substitute for phosphorus in biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous. When heated rapidly it oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also sublimate upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray/metallic, with specific gravities of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively.

Isotopes

Arsenic has been proposed as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of As-75, irradiated by the intense, high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope As-76 with a half-life of 1.0778 days and produce approximately 1.13 MeV of gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's fallout for several hours. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.

Applications

Lead hydrogen arsenate has been used, well into the twentieth century, as an insecticide on fruit trees, (resulting in brain damage to those working the sprayers), and Scheele's Green has even been recorded in the nineteenth century as a coloring agent in sweets. In the last half century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.

The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of wood which has been treated with chromated copper arsenate ("CCA", or "Tanalith", and the vast majority of older, "pressure-treated" wood). CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the twentieth century as a structural, and outdoor building material, where there was a risk of rot, or insect infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's playground equipment) into surrounding soil, the most serious risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash). Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial, and domestic fires. Safe disposal of CCA timber remains patchy, and little practiced, there is concern in some quarters about the widespread landfill disposal of such timber.

During the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler). Arsphenamine as well as Neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis and trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern antibiotics. Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer. The Food and Drug Administration in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to ATRA.[1] It was also used as Fowler's solution in psoriasis.[2]

Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many different names, including Paris Green and Emerald Green. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings.

Other uses;

  • Various agricultural insecticides and poisons.
  • Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in silicon. Unlike silicon it is direct bandgap, and so can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to directly convert electricity into light.
  • Also used in bronzing and pyrotechny.

Arsenic in drinking water

Arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh[3] and neighbouring countries. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western NGOs instigated a massive tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially-contaminated surface waters, but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater.(2) Many other countries in South East Asia, such as Vietnam, Cambodia, and Tibet, are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters.

The northern United States, including parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas are known to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water.

Arsenic can be removed from drinking water through co-precipitation of iron minerals by oxidation and filtering. When this treatment fails to produce acceptable results, adsorptive arsenic removal media may be utilized. Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for point of service use in a study funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.EPA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF).

Precautions

Skull and crossbones.svg

Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms including allosteric inhibition of the metabolic enzyme lipothiamide pyrophosphatase (need citation here) part of glycolysis. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits succinate dehydrogenase and by competeing for phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. Arsenic kills by enzyme inhibtion, this is because enzymes are the best documented targets of metals; in this case, it causes toxicity but can also play a protective role (Casarett and Doull's Essentials of Toxicology 2003). These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure (see arsenic poisoning) probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A post mortem reveals brick red colored mucosa, due to severe haemorrhage.

Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as toxic and dangerous for the environment in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC.

The IARC recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.

Growing the Brake (fern) Pteris vittata will remove arsenic from the soil.

Arsenic is known to cause arsinicosis due to its manifestation in drinking water, “the most common species being arsenate [HAsO42- ; As(V)] and arsenite [H3AsO3 ; As(III)]”. The ability of arsenic to oxidized between As(III) and As(V) makes its availability in the environment possible. According to Croal, Gralnick, Malasarn, and Newman, “[the] understanding [of] what stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or limits As(V) reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Croal). The study of chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help the understanding of the oxidation and/or reduction of arsenic.[4]

Compounds

  • Arsenic acid (H3AsO4)
  • Arsenous acid (H3AsO3)
  • Arsenic trioxide (As2O3)
  • Arsine (Arsenic Trihydride AsH3)
  • Cadmium arsenide (Cd3As2)
  • Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
  • Lead hydrogen arsenate (PbHAsO4)

See also Arsenic compounds.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Antman, Karen H. (2001). The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy. Introduction to a supplement to The Oncologist. 6 (Suppl 2), 1-2. PMID 11331433.
  2. ↑ Huet et.al. Noncirrhotic presinusoidal portal hypertension associated with chronic arsenical intoxication. Gastroenterology 1975;68(5 Pt 1):1270-7. PMID 1126603
  3. ↑ Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, Macmillan Science, 2005.
  4. ↑ Croal, Laura R., Jeffrey A. Gralnick, Davin Malasarn, and Dianne K. Newman. "The Genetics of Geochemisty." Annual Review of Genetics 38.1 (2004): 175-206. 24 Apr. 2006 <http://web103.epnet.com>

External links

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Arsenic&oldid=125778

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki