Difference between revisions of "Psychology" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Psychology''' ([[Greek language|Classical Greek]]: ''psyche'' = "soul" or "mind", ''logos'' = "study of") is an [[academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] field involving the [[study]] of [[behavior]] and its relationship to the [[mind]] and [[brain]]. '''Psychology''' also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of [[mental illness]]. It is largely concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of [[animal]]s is also be part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g. [[animal cognition]] and [[ethology]]), or as a way of gaining an insight into human '''psychology''' by means of comparison ([[comparative psychology]]). Psychology is commonly defined as ''the science of behavior and mental processes''. Although its name derives from Greek word "psyche", psychology does not scientifically study the soul.
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'''Psychology''' (from Greek, literally "to talk about the soul," from {{lang|gr|ψυχή}}, "[[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]," soul, and {{lang|gr|λόγος}}, "[[logos]]") is both an [[academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] discipline involving the [[science|scientific study]] of [[Mental function|mental processes]] and [[behavior]]. Psychologists study such phenomena as [[perception]], [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[personality psychology|personality]], behavior, and [[interpersonal relationships]]. Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of [[Human behavior|human activity]], including issues related to [[everyday life|daily life]]—e.g. [[family]], [[Educational psychology|education]], and [[work]]—and the [[clinical psychology|treatment]] of [[mental health]] problems.
  
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Psychology differs from [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], [[economics]], and [[political science]], in part, by studying the behaviour of individuals (alone or in groups) rather than the behavior of the groups or aggregates themselves. Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the overall behavior of a system, and not simply the pattern of neural responses produced by the system.
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Psychology is one of the [[behavioral science]]s—a broad field that spans the [[social science|social]] and [[natural science]]s. Psychology attempts to understand the role human behavior plays in social dynamics while incorporating [[Psychophysiology|physiological]] and [[neuropsychology|neurological]] processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such areas as [[Developmental psychology|human development]], [[Sport psychology|sports]], [[Health psychology|health]], [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industry]], [[Psychology and law|law]], and [[transpersonal psychology|spirituality]].  
  
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Although psychological questions were asked in antiquity (see [[Aristotle]]'s ''De Memoria et Reminiscentia'' or ''"On Memory and Recollection"''), psychology emerged as a separate discipline only recently. The first person to call himself a "psychologist", [[Wilhelm Wundt]], opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.
 
  
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==History==
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{{Main|History of psychology}}
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===Beginning of the scientific era===
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In 1879, [[Wilhelm Wundt]], known as "the step-father of psychology," founded a laboratory for the study of psychology at [[Leipzig University]] in [[Germany]].<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt]</ref>  This is sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology.  The American philosopher [[William James]] published his seminal book, ''[[Principles of Psychology]]''<ref>The Principles of Psychology (1890), with introduction by George A. Miller, Harvard University Press, 1983 paperback, ISBN 0-674-70625-0 (combined edition, 1328 pages)</ref>, in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions that [[psychologist]]s would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of [[memory]] at the [[University of Berlin]]; and the [[Russia]]n [[physiology|physiologist]] [[Ivan Pavlov]] (1849-1936), who investigated the [[learning]] process now referred to as [[classical conditioning]].
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[[Image:Rodin The Thinker Laeken cemetery.jpg|thumb|left|[[Auguste Rodin]]'s ''The Thinker'', bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, [[Laeken]] Cemetery, [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]].]]
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Meanwhile, during the 1890s, the [[Austria]]n physician [[Sigmund Freud]], who was trained as a [[neurology|neurologist]] and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of [[psychotherapy]] known as [[psychoanalysis]]. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, [[introspection]] and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and [[psychopathology]]. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], [[psychological repression|repression]], and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered [[taboo]] subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Many of Freud's ideas have remained very influential in clinical work and other areas of psychology. Freud divided mind into the conscious mind or [[Ego]] and two parts of the [[Unconscious]]: the [[Id]] or instincts and the [[Superego]]. He used the idea of the unconscious in order to explain certain kinds of neurotic behavior. But Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in [[falsifiability|untestable]] form.<ref name="Popper">Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33-39; from Theodore Schick, ed., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9-13. [http://faculty.washington.edu/lynnhank/Popper.doc]</ref> Due to their subjective nature, Freud's theories are of limited (mostly historical) interest to modern academic psychology departments.  Followers of Freud who accept the basic ideas of psychoanalysis but alter it in some way are called [[neo-Freudian]]s.
  
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==History==
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===Rise and fall of behaviorism===
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''Main article: [[History of psychology]]''
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Partly in reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian [[psychodynamic]]s, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the [[20th century]], [[behaviorism]] gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Founded by [[John B. Watson]] and embraced and extended by [[Edward Thorndike]], [[Clark L. Hull]], [[Edward C. Tolman]], and later [[B.F. Skinner]], behaviorism was grounded in studies of animal behavior. Behaviorists shared the view that the subject matter of psychology should be operationalized with standardized procedures which led psychology to focus on ''behavior'', '''not''' the mind or consciousness.<ref name="MIT Cognitive Sciences">Keil, FC. Wilson, RA. (eds) 2001. "The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences" ''MIT Press'' ISBN 0262731444 p.xx</ref> They doubted the validity of introspection for studying internal mental states such as [[feelings]], [[sensations]], [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, and other unobservables.<ref name="MIT Cognitive Sciences"/> In "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913),<ref>Watson, John B. "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm</ref> Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods," and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute." Skinner rejected hypothesis testing as a productive method of research, considering it to be too conducive to speculative theories that would promote useless research and stifle good research.<ref>Skinner, B.F.: Are Theories of Learning Necessary? http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Theories/ </ref>
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Behaviorism reigned as the dominant model in psychology throughout the first half of the 20th century, largely due to the creation of [[Operant conditioning|conditioning]] theories as scientific models of human behavior, and their successful application in the workplace and in fields such as [[advertising]] and [[military science]].
  
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[[Image:wundt.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Wilihem Wundt]]
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However, it became increasingly clear that, although it had made some important discoveries, behaviorism was deficient as a guiding theory of human behavior.<ref name = "Miller">Miller, G.A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences.'' 7:141-144. [http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/~geo/Miller.pdf (online)]</ref> [[Noam Chomsky]] helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. F. Skinner's ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'', in which Chomsky challenged the behaviorist approach to the study of behavior and language dominant in the 1950s.<ref name = "Miller" /> In his theory of [[Generative Grammar]] Chomsky demonstrated that language could not be learned purely from conditioning, because people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language—implying that internal states of mind must be studied within the realm of science.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rso.cornell.edu/scitech/archive/96fal/lang.html|title=www.rso.cornell.edu/scitech/archive/96fal/lang.html<!--INSERT TITLE—>}}</ref> Similarly, work by [[Albert Bandura]] showed that children could [[social learning theory|learn by social observation]], without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal representations.<ref>Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref>
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The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year [[Germany|German]] [[scientist]] [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]]. Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (a pioneer in studies on [[memory]]), the [[Russia]]n [[Ivan Pavlov]] (who discovered the learning process of [[classical conditioning]]), and the [[Austria]]n [[Sigmund Freud]]. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in (scientific) psychology. Freud's basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious and instinctive "drives", and that the "self" existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of the internal [[Ego, Superego and Id|id, ego, and superego]].  
 
  
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The mid-20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories among many psychologists as being too unscientific, as well as a reaction against [[Edward Titchener]]'s abstract approach to the mind. This led to the formulation of [[behaviorism]] by [[John B. Watson]], which was popularized by [[B.F. Skinner]]. Behaviorism proposed [[epistemology|epistemologically]] limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be quantified and easily measured. Scientific knowledge of the "[[mind]]" was considered too [[metaphysics|metaphysical]], hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as [[cognitive science]]. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of [[evolutionary psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[computer science]], [[philosophy]], and [[neurobiology]]. This new form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as [[artificial intelligence]].
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===Existential-humanist movement===
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[[Humanistic psychology]] was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, arising largely from [[existential]] philosophy and writers like [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Søren Kierkegaard]]. By using [[phenomenological|phenomenology]], [[intersubjective|intersubjectivity]] and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.<ref>Rowan, John. (2001). ''Ordinary Ecstasy : The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology.'' London, UK : Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0415236339</ref> Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were [[Abraham Maslow]] who formulated a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of human needs]], [[Carl Rogers]] who created and developed [[Client-centered therapy]], and [[Fritz Perls]] who helped create and develop [[Gestalt therapy]]. It has become so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (preceded by behaviorism and psychoanalysis).<ref>Bugental, J. (1964). The Third Force in Psychology. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 4(1)'', 19-25.</ref>
  
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==Principles of psychology==
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===Cognitivism takes the stage===
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The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as [[information processing]]. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] as a popular model of the mind.
  
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Links between [[brain]] and [[nervous system]] function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people such as [[Charles Sherrington]] and [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald Hebb]], and partly due to studies of people with [[brain injury]] (see [[cognitive neuropsychology]]). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, [[neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuroscience]] have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology{{Fact|date=April 2007}}. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as [[philosophy]], [[computer science]] and [[neuroscience]]) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of [[cognitive science]] has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way{{Fact|date=April 2007}}.
  
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==Principles==
 
===Mind and brain===
 
===Mind and brain===
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Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. Since the 1980s, psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the [[brain]] or [[nervous system]]. It is still not clear how these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways? Or, is [[consciousness]] some sort of complicated 'illusion' that bears no direct relationship to neural processes? Perhaps to understand this, it is necessary to define "consciousness" and "brain state." An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neuropsychology]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]].
  
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Psychology does not necessarily refer to the [[brain]] or [[nervous system]] and can be framed purely in terms of [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] or [[information processing]] theories of mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neuropsychology]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]].
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===Schools of thought===
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{{main|List of psychological schools}}
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Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some [[psychologist]]s may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories.
  
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===Schools of thought===
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===Ideas of uniting psychology===
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Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behaviour can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. See [[psychological schools|psychological schools of thought]] for a comprehensive list.
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I. Journal of Clinical Psychology devoted two issues to discuss on unified theory of psychology <ref>
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[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jissue/109747885 Journal of Clinical Psychology, Volume 60, Issue 12, December 2004 (1203 - 1315), Special Issue: Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1)]</ref><ref>
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[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jissue/109856879 Journal of Clinical Psychology, Volume 61, Issue 1, January 2005 (1 - 139), Special Issue: Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2)]</ref>. Rand and Ilardi <ref>
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{{Citation
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  | last = Rand
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  | first = KL
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  | last2 = Ilardi
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  | first2 = SS
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  | title = Toward a consilient science of psychology
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  | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology
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  | volume = 61
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  | issue = 1
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  | pages = 7-20
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  | year = 2005
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  | doi = 10.1002/jclp.20088
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}}
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</ref> notice that from its inception as a distinct discipline psychology has been characterized by conceptual disarray, and that integration across research enclaves and theoretical factions is limited. Rand and Ilardi differentiate some dimensions where different representatives of psychology might be.
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* [[dualism]] or [[materialism]]: mind and body can be seen different (dual) entities or with one intertwined (material) entity
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* [[science]] and [[practice]]: applied psychologists are still able to maintain relative independence from the science of psychology
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* [[science]] and [[humanism]]: there can be disagreement on such fundamental philosophical issues as [[determinism]] versus indeterminism, [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objectivism]] versus [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuition]], [[data]] versus [[theory]], and [[nomothetic]] versus [[idiographic]] modes of investigation
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* [[behaviorism]] and [[Mentalism (psychology)|mentalism]]: conflict between so-called mentalists and behaviorists is one of the deepest rifts in psychology
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There have been several proposals for [[meta-theory]] such as [[Tree of Knowledge System]]. Rand and Ilardi notice that advancement of technology may drive towards unified theory in psychology, for example [[neuroimaging]] techniques have revealed previously unknown phenomenon.
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II. Historically there were no unification models in psychology because each model yield contradictory interpretations. 
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III.  It is possible that Correlational Holographic Opponent Processing model (http://u2ai.us) may be a unification model.  It would allow the incorporation of evolution, relativity, and all branches of psychology with little adjust.  The adjustment is the interpretation of what the research facts mean.  Even Freudian models could find a home under the model but not for the theoretical reasoning proposed for the model.
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==Subfields==<!-- This section is linked from [[List of academic disciplines]] —>
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Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology, divided into fields of research psychology and fields of applied psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the [[list of psychological topics]] and [[list of psychology disciplines]].
  
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===Fields of research===
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{{main|Qualitative psychological research|Quantitative psychological research}}
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Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in [[academic]] settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of [[abnormal psychology]], [[biological psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[comparative psychology]], [[developmental psychology]], [[personality psychology]], [[social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] and others. Research psychology is contrasted with [[applied psychology]].
  
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==Scope of psychology==
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====Abnormal psychology====
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{{main|Abnormal psychology}}
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[[Abnormal psychology]] is the study of [[Abnormality (behavior)|abnormal behavior]] in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of [[psychopathology]] and its causes, and this knowledge is applied in [[clinical psychology]] to treat a patient with psychological disorders.
  
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'''Psychology''' is an extremely broad field, and it encompasses many different approaches to the study of behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise '''psychology'''. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within '''psychology''' is given in the Related Topics section below.
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In the study of abnormal behavior, it can be difficult to define the line between which behaviors are considered normal and which are not. In general, abnormal behaviors must be maladaptive and cause an individual subjective discomfort (signs of emotional distress). Generally, abnormal behaviors are classified as:
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*Abnormal as in "infrequent" in relation to the overall population.
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*Abnormal as in "maladaptive." The behavior fails to promote well being, growth, and fulfillment of a person.
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*Abnormal as in "deviant." The behavior is not socially acceptable.
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*Abnormal as in "unjustifiable." The behavior that cannot be rationalized.
  
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===Biological basis: the brain===
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====Biological psychology====
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[[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px||Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.]]
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{{main|Biological psychology|Neuropsychology|Physiological psychology|Cognitive Neuroscience|Evolutionary psychology}}
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''Main articles: [[Behavioral neuroscience]], [[Cognitive neuroscience]], [[Neuropsychology]]''
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[[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px|left||Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the [[hypothalamus]].]]
  
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Since all behavior is rooted in the [[brain]], it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand bahavior. This is the approach taken in [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], and [[Neuropsychology]]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the [[brain]] relate to specific psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neurospychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of [[brain injury]] in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.
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Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the [[brain]] functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], and [[neuropsychology]]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the 'brain' relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.
  
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The approach of [[cognitive neuroscience]] to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use [[brain imaging]] tools, such as [[fMRI]], to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular behavioral task.
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The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use neuroimaging tools, such as to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.
  
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===Information processing: the mind===
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====Cognitive psychology====
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[[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork_english.png|thumb|150px|Neural network with two layers.]]
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{{main|Cognitive psychology}}
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''Main articles: [[Cognitive psychology]], [[Cognitive science]]''
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[[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork english.png|thumb|150px|Neural network with two layers]]
  
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The nature of [[thought]] is another core interest in '''psychology'''. [[Cognitive psychology]] is primarily concerned with the process by which [[perception]] results in behavior. [[Cognitive psychology]] uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. [[Perception]], [[learning]], [[problem solving]], [[memory]], [[attention]], [[language]] and [[emotion]] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is based on a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an [[information processing]] model of mental function, informed by [[positivism]] and [[experimental psychology]]. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology.
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The nature of [[thought]] is another core interest in psychology. [[Cognitive psychology]] studies [[cognition]], the [[mental function|mental processes]] underlying behavior. It uses [[information processing]] as a framework for understanding the mind. [[Perception]], [[learning]], [[problem solving]], [[memory]], [[attention]], [[language]] and [[emotion]] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by [[positivism]] and [[experimental psychology]].
  
 
[[Cognitive science]] is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing.
 
[[Cognitive science]] is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing.
  
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Both areas used [[computer model|computational models]] to simulate phenomena of interest. Since mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the brain and behavior. Such models allow cognitive psychologists to better understand the information processing requirements of behavior and explain hypotheses obtained from behavioral experiments.
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Both areas can use [[computer simulation|computational models]] to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.
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====Comparative psychology====
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{{main|Comparative psychology}}
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[[Comparative psychology]] refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of [[animal]]s other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as [[ethology]]. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., [[animal cognition]] and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., [[affective neuroscience]] and [[social neuroscience]]).
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====Developmental psychology====
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{{main|Developmental psychology}}
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[[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|thumb|150px|left|How do infants experience the world?]]
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Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [[moral development]]. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study [[aging]] and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]'s theory of development in context (''The Ecology of Human Development'' - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.
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====Personality psychology====
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{{main|Personality psychology}}
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[[Personality psychology]] studies enduring psychological patterns of [[behavior]], [[thought]] and [[emotion]], commonly called an individual's [[wikt:personality|personality]]. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. [[Trait theory|Trait theories]] attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of [[factor analysis]]. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of [[Hans Eysenck]], which had three dimensions: [[extroversion]]&mdash;[[introversion]], [[neuroticism]]&mdash;emotional stability, and [[psychoticism]]. [[Raymond Cattell]] proposed a theory of [[16 Personality Factors|16 personality factors]]. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "[[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]]" theory, proposed by [[Lewis Goldberg]], and others.
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A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of [[Sigmund Freud]], whose ''structural theory of personality'' divided personality into the [[ego, superego, and id]]. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.
  
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===Change over time: development===
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====Quantitative psychology====
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[[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|thumb|150px|A baby thinking]]
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{{Main|Quantitative psychology}}
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''Main articles: [[Developmental psychology]], [[Educational psychology]]''
 
  
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Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these perceptions change as we age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to engage them in experimental tasks. These tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age).
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[[Quantitative psychology]] involves the application of [[mathematical modeling|mathematical]] and [[statistics|statistical]] modeling in psychological research, and the development of statistical methods for analyzing and explaining behavioral data. The term ''Quantitative psychology'' is relatively new and little used (only recently have Ph.D. programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it is loosely covers the longer standing subfields [[psychometrics]] and [[mathematical psychology]].
  
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[[Educational psychology]] largely seeks to apply much of this knowledge and understand how learning can best take place in [[education]]al situations. Because of this, the work of child psychologists such as [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Jerome Bruner]] has been influential in creating [[teaching]] methods and educational practices.
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Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological [[measurement]], which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Measurement of these unobservable [[phenomenon|phenomena]] is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of [[Laboratory equipment|instruments]] and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement.
  
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===Mental health===
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Whereas psychometrics is mainly concerned with individual differences and population structure, [[mathematical psychology]] is concerned with modeling of mental and motor processes of the average individual.
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''Main articles: [[Clinical psychology]], [[Health psychology]]''
 
  
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[[Clinical psychology]] is the application of psychology to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of [[psychopathology]], behavioural or mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with [[counselling]] and [[psychotherapy]], although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as [[psychiatry|psychiatrists]], clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [[brain injury]]. This area is known as [[clinical neuropsychology]].
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Psychometrics is more associated with [[educational psychology|educational]], [[personality psychology|personality]], and [[clinical psychology]]. Mathematical psychology is more closely related to [[psychonomics]]/[[experimental psychology|experimental]] and [[cognitive psychology|cognitive]], and [[physiological psychology]] and ([[cognitive neuroscience|cognitive]]) [[neuroscience]].
  
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In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness.  From the other side, these clinicians believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients.  The disagreement has resulted in the formation of the [[American Psychological Society]] by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the [[American Psychological Association]].
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====Social psychology====
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{{main|Social psychology (psychology)}}
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[[Image:Shibuya tokyo.jpg|thumb|150px|right||A crowd of people in [[Shibuya, Tokyo]].]]
  
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Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, [[health psychology]] is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behaviour including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on [[quality of life]] or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.
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[[social psychology (psychology)|Social psychology]] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]] or [[persuasion]]), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] or [[stereotype]]s about other people. [[Social cognition]] is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior.
  
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===Interaction with others===
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===Fields of application===
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''Main articles: [[Social psychology]], [[Personality psychology]]''
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{{main|Applied psychology}}
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[[Applied psychology]] encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as [[business management]], [[product design]], [[ergonomics]], [[nutrition]], [[law]] and [[clinical medicine]]. Applied psychology includes the areas of [[clinical psychology]], [[industrial and organizational psychology]], [[human factors]], [[psychology and law]], [[health psychology]], [[school psychology]], [[community psychology]] and others.
  
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[[Social psychology]] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behaviour (e.g., [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]] or [[persuasion]]), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] or [[stereotype]]s about other people. [[Social cognition]] is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behaviour.
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====Clinical psychology====
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{{main|Clinical psychology}}
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[[Clinical psychology]] includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or [[Mental illness|Psychological testing|psychological assessment]] and [[psychotherapy]], although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.<ref name="brain">Brain, Christine. (2002). ''Advanced psychology : applications, issues and perspectives.'' Cheltenham : Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0174900589></ref>
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Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [[brain injury]]—this area is known as [[clinical neuropsychology]]. In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated [[mental health professional|mental health profession]].
  
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===Applied psychology===
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The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client—usually an individual, couple, family, or small group—that employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. The four major perspectives are [[Psychodynamic psychotherapy|Psychodynamic]], [[Cognitive Behavioral Therapy|Cognitive Behavioral]], [[Humanistic psychology|Existential-Humanistic]], and [[Family therapy|Systems or Family therapy]]. There has been a growing movement to integrate these various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is growing evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.<ref>Leichsenring, Falk & Leibing, Eric. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. ''The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(7),'' 1223-1233.</ref><ref>Reisner, Andrew. (2005). The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change. ''The Psychological Record, 55(3),'' 377-400.</ref> Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an [[Integrative Psychotherapy|eclectic therapeutic orientation]].
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''Main articles: [[Applied psychology]], [[Industrial and organizational psychology]], [[Human factors]], [[Forensic psychology]]''
 
  
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The basic premise of '''applied psychology''' is the use of [[psychology|psychological]] principles and theories to overcome practical problems in other fields, such as [[business management]], [[product design]], [[ergonomics]], [[nutrition]], and [[clinical medicine]]. [[Applied psychology]] includes the areas of industrial/organizational psychology, [[human factors]], [[forensic psychology]], as well as many other areas.
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Clinical psychologists do not usually [[Medical prescription|prescribe]] medication, although there is a growing movement for psychologists to have limited prescribing privileges.<ref>Klusman, Lawrence. (2001). Prescribing Psychologists and Patients' Medical Needs; Lessons From Clinical Psychiatry. ''Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5),'' 496.</ref> In general, however, when medication is warranted many psychologists will work in cooperation with psychiatrists so that clients get all their therapeutic needs met.<ref name="brain"/> Clinical psychologists may also work as part of a team with other professionals, such as [[social work]]ers and [[nutrition]]ists.
  
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====Industrial and organizational====
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====Counseling psychology====
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[[Industrial and organizational psychology]] focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant pool which overall includes training, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, [[work behaviour]], [[stress]] at work and [[management]].
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{{main|Counseling psychology}}
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[[Counseling psychology]] is a psychology specialty that facilitates personal and [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal]] functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social, [[vocational education|vocational]], educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counselors are primarily clinicians, using psychotherapy and other interventions in order to treat clients. Traditionally, counseling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] rather than psychopathology, but this distinction has softened over time. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, hospitals, schools, governmental organizations, businesses, private practice, and community mental health centers.
  
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====Educational psychology====
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{{main|Educational psychology}}
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[[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in [[education]]al settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] of [[school]]s as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Jerome Bruner]] has been influential in creating [[teaching]] methods and educational practices.
 
====Forensic psychology====
 
====Forensic psychology====
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[[Forensic psychology]] is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to legal questions and issues. Most typically, this involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Forensic psychology refers to any application of psychological principles, methods or understanding to legal questions or issues. In addition to the applied practices,  it also includes academic or empircal research on topics involving law and human behavior.
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{{main|Forensic psychology}}
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[[Forensic psychology]] covers a broad range of practices primarily involving courtroom testimony on given issues. Forensic psychologists are appointed by the court to conduct competency to stand trial evaluations, competency to be executed evaluations, sanity evaluations, involuntary commitment evaluations, provide sentencing recommendations,  and sex offender evaluation and treatment evaluations and provide recommendations to the court through written reports and testimony. Most of the questions the court asks the forensic psychologist are not questions of psychology but rather legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal definition that varies from state to state in the United States and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychology is an intimate understanding of the law, especially criminal law.
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====Psychology and Law====
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{{main|Legal psychology}}
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'''Legal psychology''' is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although [[Social psychology (psychology)|social]] and [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive]] psychologists are typical). Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence, and legal policy. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related research.
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====Health psychology====
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{{main|Health psychology}}
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[[Health psychology]] is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on [[quality of life]] and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.
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====Human factors psychology====
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{{main|Human factors}}
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[[Human factors|Human factors psychology]] (sometimes called Engineering Psychology) is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.
  
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====Human factors====
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====Industrial and organizational psychology====
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[[Human factors]] is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human behavior.
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{{main|Industrial and organizational psychology}}
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[[Industrial and organizational psychology]] (I/O) is among the newest fields in psychology. [[Industrial Psychology]] focuses on improving, evaluating, and predicting job performance while [[Organizational Psychology]] focuses on how organizations impact and interact with individuals. In 1910, through the works and experiments of [[Hugo Munsterberg]] and [[Walter Dill Scott]], Industrial Psychology became recognized as a legitimate part of the social science.<ref name="IOPsych">Industrial and Organization Psychology, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.</ref> Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished. The [http://www.siop.org/ Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology] has approximately 3400 professional members and 1900 student members. These two numbers combine to make up only about four percent of the members in the [[American Psychological Association]] but the number has been rising since 1939 when there were only one hundred professional I/O psychologists.<ref name="IOPsych"/>
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I/O psychologists are employed by academic institutions, consulting firms, internal human resources in industries, and governmental institutions. Various universities across the United States are beginning to strengthen their I/O Psychology programs due to the increase of interest and job demand in the field.<ref name="IOPsych"/>
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Industrial organizational psychologists look at questions regarding things such as who to hire, how to define and measure successful job performance, how to prepare people to be more successful in their jobs, how to create and change jobs so that they are safer and make people happier, and how to structure the organization to allow people to achieve their potential.<ref name="IOPsych"/>
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====School psychology====
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{{main|School psychology}}
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[[School psychology]] is the area of discipline that is dedicated to helping young people succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school. They are trained to be experts in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx|title=nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx<!--INSERT TITLE—>}}</ref> Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the [[National Association of School Psychologists]] (NASP) recognizing the [[Specialist degree]] as the entry level. This is a matter of controversy as the [[American Psychological Association|APA]] does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and private practice.
  
 
==Research methods==
 
==Research methods==
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[[Image:Wundt-research-group.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right| Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (seated) was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of [[experimental psychology]].]]
  
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Psychology is conducted both scientifically and non-scientifically, but is to a large extent wholly rigorous. Mainstream psychology is based largely on [[positivism]], using [[quantitative psychological research|quantitative]] studies and the [[scientific method]] to test and disprove [[hypothesis|hypotheses]], often in an [[experiment]]al context. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand behaviour. However, not all psychological [[research methods]] strictly follow the empirical positivism philosophy. [[Qualitative psychological research|Qualitative]] research utilizes interpretive techniques and is descriptive in nature, enabling the gathering of rich clinical information unattainable by classical experimentation. Some psychologists, particularly adherents to [[humanistic psychology]], may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach, viewing psychology more as an art rather than a rigid science. However, mainstream psychology has a bias towards the [[scientific method]], which is reflected in the dominance of [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] as the guiding [[theory|theoretical framework]] used by most psychologists to understand thought and behaviour.
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Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the [[scientific method]], encompassing both [[qualitative research|qualitative]] [[ethology|ethological]] and [[quantitative psychological research|quantitative statistical]] modalities to generate and evaluate [[scientific explanation|explanatory]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] with regard to psychological [[phenomenon|phenomena]]. Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by [[experiment]]al protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. [[Qualitative psychological research]] utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including [[action research]], [[ethography]], [[exploratory statistics]], [[structured interview|structured]] [[interview]]s, and [[participant observation]], to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. Research in [[humanistic psychology]] is more typically pursued by [[ethnography|ethnographic]], [[historical method|historical]], and [[historiography|historiographic]] methods.
  
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The [[psychological testing|testing]] of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. [[Psychometric]] and [[statistics|statistical]] methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires.
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The [[psychological testing|testing]] of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. [[Psychometrics|Psychometric]] and [[statistics|statistical]] methods predominate, including various well-known standardized tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires.
  
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Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in [[applied psychology]] to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individual with psychological issues or use psychology to help others.
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Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in [[applied psychology]] to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their career. Clinical psychology, among many of the various disciplines of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others.
  
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Where an area of interest is considered to need specific training and specialist knowledge (especially in applied areas), psychological associations will typically set up a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.
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When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.
  
 
===Controlled experiments===
 
===Controlled experiments===
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''Main article: [[Experimental psychology]]''
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{{main|Experiment}}
  
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The majority of '''psychological''' research is conducted in the [[laboratory]] under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavor. Common measurements of behavior include [[reaction time]] and various [[psychometric]] measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular [[hypothesis]].
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Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the [[scientific method]] to understand behavior. Experiments use several types of measurements, including rate of response, [[reaction time]], and various [[Psychometrics|psychometric]] measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). They are important for psychological research because they allow researchers to establish causal relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. Importantly, in an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable). (See also [[hypothesis testing]].) Experiments are one of the primary research methodologies in many areas of psychology, particularly [[cognitive psychology|cognitive]]/[[psychonomics]], [[mathematical psychology]], [[psychophysiology]] and [[biological psychology]]/[[cognitive neuroscience]].
  
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As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different [[tone|tones]]. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See [[hypothesis testing]] for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human [[Absolute_threshold_of_hearing|threshold of hearing]].
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As an example, suppose an experimenter wanted to answer the following question: does talking on a phone affect one's ability to stop quickly while driving? To answer this, the experimenter would want to show that a subject's stopping time is different when they are talking on a phone versus when they are not. If the experiment is properly conducted in a controlled environment and a difference between the two conditions is found, the experimenter would be able to show a causal relationship between phone use and stopping time. In addition to potential practical benefits, this type of experiment may have important theoretical results, such as helping to explain the processes that underlie [[attention]] in humans.
  
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===Correlational studies===
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Experiments on humans have been put under some controls; namely informed and voluntary consent. After WWII, the [[Nuremberg Code]] was established, because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the [[Declaration of Helsinki]]. In the US, the [[NIH]] established the [[IRB]] in 1966. And in 1974, adopted the [[National Research Act]] (HR 7724). All of which cover informed consent of human participants in experimental studies. There were a number of influential studies which lead to the establishment of these rules, including the [[MIT]] & Fernald School radioisotope studies, the [[Thalidomide]] Tragedy, Willowbrook [[hepatitis]] study, Milgram's obedience to authority studies.
  
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A [[correlation|correlational]] study uses [[statistics]] to determine if one variable is likely to co-occur with another variable. For example, one might be interested in whether or not an individual smokes is correlated with their change of getting lung cancer. One way to answer this would be to simply take a group of people who smoke and measure the proportion of those that get lung cancer within a certain time. In this particular case, one would probably find a high correlation (since tobacco has a deletarious effect on the lungs). However, we cannot know for certain that smoking is the ''cause'' of lung cancer. It could be that those more prone to cancer are also more likely to take up smoking. A third alternative is that some other variable caused both conditons. This is a major limitation of correlational studies, and it is exemplified by the fact that [[Correlation implies causation (logical fallacy)|correlation does not imply causation]].
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===Animal studies===
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[[Image:One of Pavlov's dogs.jpg|thumb|One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted [[cannula]] to measure [[saliva]]tion, Pavlov Museum, 2005]] Animal learning experiments are important in many aspects of psychology such as investigating the biological basis of learning, memory and behavior. In the 1890s, [[Ivan Pavlov]] famously used dogs to describe [[classical conditioning]]. The original and most famous example of a classical conditioning study. [[Animal testing on non-human primates|Non-human primates]], cats, dogs, rats and other [[Animal testing on rodents|rodents]] are often used in psychological experiments.  Controlled experiments involve introducing only one [[variable]] at a time, which is why animals used for experiments are housed in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary widely, which makes it difficult to control important variables for human subjects. [http://www.ncabr.org/biomed/FAQ_animal/faq_animal_8.html]
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===Qualitative and descriptive research===
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{{Main|Qualitative research}}
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===Observation in natural settings===
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{{Main|Naturalistic observation}}
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In the same way [[Jane Goodall]] studied the role of [[chimpanzee]] social and family life, psychologists conduct similar observational studies in human social, professional and family lives. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed and other times it is covert, the participants do not know they are being observed. Ethical guidelines need to be taken into consideration when covert observation is being carried out.
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===Survey questionnaires===
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{{Main|Statistical survey}}
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Online surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, or checking the validity of experimental manipulations. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research.<ref>http://www.happypsych.com Sample web-based happiness study. Accessed 2007-11-02.</ref>  Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.
  
 
===Longitudinal studies===
 
===Longitudinal studies===
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A [[longitudinal study]] is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study [[specific language impairment]] (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, such studies can suffer from attrition due to drop-out or death of subjects. In addition, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.
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A [[longitudinal study]] is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study [[specific language impairment]] (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.
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Longitudinal study is a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years.Longitudinal studies answer vital questions about how people develop.This developmental research follows people over years and the outcome has been an incredible array of findings, especially relating to psychological problems.
  
 
===Neuropsychological methods===
 
===Neuropsychological methods===
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{{sectstub}}
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[[Neuropsychology]] involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either [[brain injury]] or [[mental illness]].
  
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===Computational modeling===
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[[Cognitive neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuropsychiatry]] study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociation's') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.
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[[computer model|Compuational modeling]] is a tool often used in [[cognitive psychology]] to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.
 
  
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Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. [[Connectionism]] uses [[neural nets]] to simulate the brain. Another method is [[symbolic modeling]], which represents different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include [[dynamic systems]] and [[stochastic process|stochastic]] modeling.
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In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or [[functional neuroimaging]] - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations.
  
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== Criticisms of psychology ==
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===Computational modeling===
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[[computer simulation|Computational modeling]] is a tool often used in [[mathematical psychology]] and [[cognitive psychology]] to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process extremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.
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Psychology has always been a controversial discipline. Some criticisms of psychology have been made on ethical and philosophical grounds. Some have argued that by subjecting the human mind to experimentation and statistical study, psychologists objectify persons.   Because it treats human beings as things, as objects that can be examined by experiment, psychology is sometimes portrayed as dehumanizing. It has been argued that ultimately, quantitative psychological research ignores or downplays what is most essential about being human.
 
  
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Another common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science.  Since it relies on "soft" methods such as statistical analysis and questionnaires, some have said, psychology is not as scientific as it claims to be. Many believe that the mind is not amenable to quantitative scientific research, and as support for their criticism cite the vast theoretical diversity of psychology, a discipline which agrees on very little about how the mind works. This criticism, however, cannot be applied universally to psychology, as some areas within the discipline, such as behaviorism or neuropsychology, advocate only the scientific method. In defending their discipline, psychologists will often point out that astronomy's claim to being a science is also open to argument because it's theories are largely untestable, being only open to observation (philosophically, a theory must be testable and able to be proven false for it to be scientific). This criticism does not reflect the vast majority of the type of research conducted in modern psychology.
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Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. [[Connectionism]] uses [[neural nets]] to simulate the brain. Another method is [[symbolic modeling]], which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include [[dynamic systems]] and [[stochastic process|stochastic]] modeling.
  
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==Criticism and controversies==
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===Controversy as a science===
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A common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Philosopher [[Thomas Kuhn]] suggested in 1962 that psychology is in a pre-paradigmatic state, lacking the agreement on facts found in mature sciences such as [[chemistry]] and [[physics]]. Because some areas of psychology rely on "[[soft science|soft]]" research methods such as surveys and [[questionnaire]]s, critics have claimed that psychology is not as scientific as psychologists assume. Methods such as [[introspection]] and [[psychoanalysis]], used by some psychologists, are inherently [[subjective]]. Objectivity, validity, and rigor are key attributes in science, and some approaches to psychology have fallen short on these criteria. On the other hand, greater use of statistical controls and increasingly sophisticated research design, analysis, and statistical methods, as well as a decline (at least within academic psychology departments) in the use of less scientific methods, have lessened the impact of this criticism to some degree.
  
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==Related topics==
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Debates continue, however, such as the questioned effectiveness of probability testing as a valid research tool. The concern is that this statistical method may promote trivial findings as meaningful, especially when large samples are used.<ref>Cohen, J. (1994). The Earth is round, p < .05. ''American Psychologist, 49'',.</ref> Psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the traditional ''p<.05'' decision rule.
  
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For a comprehensive list of psychological topics on wikipedia, please see the [[list of psychological topics]]. See [[List of psychologists]] for a full list of famous and influential psychologists. See [[List of publications in psychology]] for important publications in psychology.
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In recent years and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and the relevance of empirical examination for psychotherapy.<ref>Elliot, Robert. (1998). Editor's Introduction: A Guide to the Empirically Supported Treatments Controversy. ''Psychotherapy Research, 8(2),'' 115.</ref> One argument states that some therapies are based on discredited theories and are unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. The other side points to recent research suggesting that all mainstream therapies are of about equal effectiveness, while also arguing that controlled studies often do not take into consideration real-world conditions (e.g. the high co-morbidity rate or the experience of clinicians), that research is heavily biased towards CBT methodologies, and that it typically under-represents minority groups.
  
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Areas related to '''psychology''':
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===Concern about fringe clinical practices===
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{{npov-section}}
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There is also concern from researchers about a perceived gap between scientific theory and its application, in particular with the application of fringe practices. Exponents of evidence-based approaches to clinical psychology practice say that the gap is increasing, and researchers such as Beyerstein (2001) say there has been a large increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not emphasize science training.<ref name="Beyerstein2001">Beyerstein, B. L. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Re-view of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70–79</ref> According to Lilienfeld (2002) “a wide variety of unvalidated and sometimes harmful psychotherapeutic methods, including [[facilitated communication]] for infantile autism, suggestive techniques for memory recovery (e.g., hypnotic age-regression, guided imagery, [[Bodywork (alternative medicine)|body work]]), energy therapies (e.g., [[Thought Field Therapy]], [[Emotional Freedom Technique]]), and New Age therapies of seemingly endless stripes (e.g., [[rebirthing]], [[reparenting]], [[Past life regression|past-life regression]], [[Primal Scream therapy]], [[neurolinguistic programming]], [[alien abduction therapy]], [[angel therapy]]) have either emerged or maintained their popularity in recent decades."[http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html] Allen Neuringer made a similar point in the field of the experimental analysis of behavior in 1984.<ref>Neuringer, A.:"Melioration and Self-Experimentation" Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1348111</ref> There are some differences of opinion over the actual extent of the research practitioner gap, but the consensus is on the concern about fringe or quack practices, and the legal view favors the use of empirical validation for any psychological intervention (Faigman and Monahan­ 2005). The emphasis on improvement of evidence based practice has been made in order to increase the general public's confidence in the health professions, and to avoid instances whereby clients forgo evidence based treatments in favor of unvalidated fringe therapies.
  
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* [[Artificial consciousness]] (see also [[simulated consciousness]])
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==Notes==
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* [[Cognitive science]]
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{{reflist}}
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* [[Complex system]]s
 
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* [[Computer science]]
 
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* [[Counseling]]
 
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* [[Discourse analysis]]
 
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* [[Economics]] and [[marketing]]
 
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* [[Education]]
 
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* [[Ethology]]
 
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* [[Game theory]]
 
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* [[Hypnotherapy]]
 
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* [[Linguistics]] and especially [[psycholinguistics]]
 
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* [[Neuroscience]]
 
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* [[Philosophy of mind]]
 
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* [[Philosophy of psychology]]
 
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* [[Psychology of religion]]
 
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* [[Sociology]]
 
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* [[Systems theory]]
 
  
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==References==
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*Aristotle, Joe Sachs (translator). (350 B.C.E. / 2001) ''On Memory and Recollection'' ''(De Memoria et Reminiscentia)''. Santa Fe, NM : Green Lion Press. ISBN 1-888009-17-9
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*[[Urie Bronfenbrenner|Bronfenbrenner, U.]] (1979). ''The Ecology of Human Development''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22456-6
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*Chomsky, Noam. (1959). [http://cogprints.org/1148/index.html ''A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior'']. Language, 35, 26-58.
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*Krstic, K. (1964). Marko Marulic—The Author of the Term "Psychology." ''Acta Instituti Psychologici Universitatis Zagrabiensis'', no. 36, pp. 7-13. Reprinted at http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Krstic/marulic.htm
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*Spector, Paul E. "Industrial Organization Psychology." 4th Ed. Australia: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
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All links Retrieved December 1, 2007.
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===Learning about psychology===
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* [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
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* [http://www.learnpsychology.net/ Learn Psychology Glossary]
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* [http://www.mustbemental.com/ Must be Mental]
  
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===History of psychology===
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===Psychology Resources===
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* [http://www3.uakron.edu/ahap/ The Archives of the History of American Psychology]
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* [http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ AmoebaWeb Psychology Resources]
 
 
* [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)]
 
* [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)]
 
* [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology]
 
* [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology]
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* [http://www.gegenstandpunkt.com/english/psych/0-contents.html Psychology of the Private Individual] Critique of Bourgeois Consciousness
 
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* [http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ Dictionary of Psychology]
 
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* [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
 
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* [http://zerzan.dzabalesku.net/sadrzaj/textz/html/Z_mass-psychology-of-misery.html ''The Mass Psychology of Misery''] by [[John Zerzan]]; a criticism of the practice or implication of psychology
 
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* [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/psych.html Psychology Articles]
 
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* [http://www.abika.com/Help/Accuracy.htm Psychological Profiling]
 
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* [http://www.sonoma.edu/psychology/psychart.html Pictures of famous psychologists]
 
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* [http://www.conferencealerts.com/psychology.htm Psychology Conferences]
 
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* [http://www.perfectionnement.info/fr/agenda.php?i_pays=0&i_date=0&keywords=congr Psychology Congresses]
 
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* [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain.htm ScienceDaily Mind and Brain news]
 
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*[http://www.portalpsicologia.org/ Portalpsicologia.org]
 
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* [http://www.psychcentral.com PsychCentral]
 
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* [http://www.plebius.org/ Plebius Psychology News]
 
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===Psychology Societies===
 
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* [http://www.apa.org American Psychological Association]
 
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* [http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ American Psychological Society]
 
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* [http://www.psychology.org.au/ Australian Psychological Society]
 
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* [http://www.bps.org.uk British Psychological Society]
 
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* [http://www.apdeba.org Buenos Aires Psychoanalytic Association]
 
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* [http://www.cpa.ca Canadian Psychological Association]
 
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* [http://www.psykologienkustannus.fi/sps/seurasta/index.htm Finnish Psychological Society]
 
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* [http://www.bfp-fbp.be/ Belgian Psychological Association]
 
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Revision as of 02:56, 1 December 2007


Psychology
Senses brain.png
History
Psychologists
Divisions
Abnormal
Applied
Biological
Clinical
Cognitive
Comparative
Developmental
Differential
Industrial
Parapsychology
Personality
Positive
Religion
Social
Approaches
Behaviorism
Depth
Experimental
Gestalt
Humanistic
Information processing

Psychology (from Greek, literally "to talk about the soul," from ψυχή, "psyche," soul, and λόγος, "logos") is both an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including issues related to daily life—e.g. family, education, and work—and the treatment of mental health problems.

Psychology is one of the behavioral sciences—a broad field that spans the social and natural sciences. Psychology attempts to understand the role human behavior plays in social dynamics while incorporating physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, law, and spirituality.


History

Main article: History of psychology

Beginning of the scientific era

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt, known as "the step-father of psychology," founded a laboratory for the study of psychology at Leipzig University in Germany.[1] This is sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology[2], in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning.

File:Rodin The Thinker Laeken cemetery.jpg
Auguste Rodin's The Thinker, bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, Laeken Cemetery, Brussels, Belgium.

Meanwhile, during the 1890s, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, who was trained as a neurologist and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Many of Freud's ideas have remained very influential in clinical work and other areas of psychology. Freud divided mind into the conscious mind or Ego and two parts of the Unconscious: the Id or instincts and the Superego. He used the idea of the unconscious in order to explain certain kinds of neurotic behavior. But Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in untestable form.[3] Due to their subjective nature, Freud's theories are of limited (mostly historical) interest to modern academic psychology departments. Followers of Freud who accept the basic ideas of psychoanalysis but alter it in some way are called neo-Freudians.

Rise and fall of behaviorism

Partly in reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian psychodynamics, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the 20th century, behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Founded by John B. Watson and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner, behaviorism was grounded in studies of animal behavior. Behaviorists shared the view that the subject matter of psychology should be operationalized with standardized procedures which led psychology to focus on behavior, not the mind or consciousness.[4] They doubted the validity of introspection for studying internal mental states such as feelings, sensations, beliefs, desires, and other unobservables.[4] In "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913),[5] Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods," and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute." Skinner rejected hypothesis testing as a productive method of research, considering it to be too conducive to speculative theories that would promote useless research and stifle good research.[6]

Behaviorism reigned as the dominant model in psychology throughout the first half of the 20th century, largely due to the creation of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behavior, and their successful application in the workplace and in fields such as advertising and military science.

However, it became increasingly clear that, although it had made some important discoveries, behaviorism was deficient as a guiding theory of human behavior.[7] Noam Chomsky helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in which Chomsky challenged the behaviorist approach to the study of behavior and language dominant in the 1950s.[7] In his theory of Generative Grammar Chomsky demonstrated that language could not be learned purely from conditioning, because people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language—implying that internal states of mind must be studied within the realm of science.[8] Similarly, work by Albert Bandura showed that children could learn by social observation, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal representations.[9]

Existential-humanist movement

Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, arising largely from existential philosophy and writers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[10] Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed Client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. It has become so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (preceded by behaviorism and psychoanalysis).[11]

Cognitivism takes the stage

The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as a popular model of the mind.

Links between brain and nervous system function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people such as Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology[citation needed]. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as philosophy, computer science and neuroscience) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of cognitive science has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way[citation needed].

Principles

Mind and brain

Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. Since the 1980s, psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the brain or nervous system. It is still not clear how these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways? Or, is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' that bears no direct relationship to neural processes? Perhaps to understand this, it is necessary to define "consciousness" and "brain state." An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Schools of thought

Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories.

Ideas of uniting psychology

I. Journal of Clinical Psychology devoted two issues to discuss on unified theory of psychology [12][13]. Rand and Ilardi [14] notice that from its inception as a distinct discipline psychology has been characterized by conceptual disarray, and that integration across research enclaves and theoretical factions is limited. Rand and Ilardi differentiate some dimensions where different representatives of psychology might be.

  • dualism or materialism: mind and body can be seen different (dual) entities or with one intertwined (material) entity
  • science and practice: applied psychologists are still able to maintain relative independence from the science of psychology
  • science and humanism: there can be disagreement on such fundamental philosophical issues as determinism versus indeterminism, objectivism versus intuition, data versus theory, and nomothetic versus idiographic modes of investigation
  • behaviorism and mentalism: conflict between so-called mentalists and behaviorists is one of the deepest rifts in psychology

There have been several proposals for meta-theory such as Tree of Knowledge System. Rand and Ilardi notice that advancement of technology may drive towards unified theory in psychology, for example neuroimaging techniques have revealed previously unknown phenomenon.

II. Historically there were no unification models in psychology because each model yield contradictory interpretations.

III. It is possible that Correlational Holographic Opponent Processing model (http://u2ai.us) may be a unification model. It would allow the incorporation of evolution, relativity, and all branches of psychology with little adjust. The adjustment is the interpretation of what the research facts mean. Even Freudian models could find a home under the model but not for the theoretical reasoning proposed for the model.

Subfields

Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology, divided into fields of research psychology and fields of applied psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychological topics and list of psychology disciplines.

Fields of research

Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of abnormal psychology, biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. Research psychology is contrasted with applied psychology.

Abnormal psychology

Main article: Abnormal psychology

Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied in clinical psychology to treat a patient with psychological disorders.

In the study of abnormal behavior, it can be difficult to define the line between which behaviors are considered normal and which are not. In general, abnormal behaviors must be maladaptive and cause an individual subjective discomfort (signs of emotional distress). Generally, abnormal behaviors are classified as:

  • Abnormal as in "infrequent" in relation to the overall population.
  • Abnormal as in "maladaptive." The behavior fails to promote well being, growth, and fulfillment of a person.
  • Abnormal as in "deviant." The behavior is not socially acceptable.
  • Abnormal as in "unjustifiable." The behavior that cannot be rationalized.

Biological psychology

Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, Cognitive Neuroscience, and Evolutionary psychology
Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.

Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the 'brain' relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.

The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use neuroimaging tools, such as to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

Cognitive psychology

File:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork english.png
Neural network with two layers

The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology.

Cognitive science is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing.

Both areas can use computational models to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.

Comparative psychology

Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).

Developmental psychology

Main article: Developmental psychology
File:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg
How do infants experience the world?

Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.

Personality psychology

Main article: Personality psychology

Personality psychology studies enduring psychological patterns of behavior, thought and emotion, commonly called an individual's personality. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. Trait theories attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of factor analysis. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of Hans Eysenck, which had three dimensions: extroversion—introversion, neuroticism—emotional stability, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "Big Five" theory, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, and others.

A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of Sigmund Freud, whose structural theory of personality divided personality into the ego, superego, and id. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.

Quantitative psychology

Quantitative psychology involves the application of mathematical and statistical modeling in psychological research, and the development of statistical methods for analyzing and explaining behavioral data. The term Quantitative psychology is relatively new and little used (only recently have Ph.D. programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it is loosely covers the longer standing subfields psychometrics and mathematical psychology.

Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement.

Whereas psychometrics is mainly concerned with individual differences and population structure, mathematical psychology is concerned with modeling of mental and motor processes of the average individual.

Psychometrics is more associated with educational, personality, and clinical psychology. Mathematical psychology is more closely related to psychonomics/experimental and cognitive, and physiological psychology and (cognitive) neuroscience.

Social psychology

A crowd of people in Shibuya, Tokyo.

Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior.

Fields of application

Applied psychology encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, law and clinical medicine. Applied psychology includes the areas of clinical psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, human factors, psychology and law, health psychology, school psychology, community psychology and others.

Clinical psychology

Main article: Clinical psychology

Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or Psychological testing|psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[15] Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client—usually an individual, couple, family, or small group—that employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. The four major perspectives are Psychodynamic, Cognitive Behavioral, Existential-Humanistic, and Systems or Family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate these various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is growing evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[16][17] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.

Clinical psychologists do not usually prescribe medication, although there is a growing movement for psychologists to have limited prescribing privileges.[18] In general, however, when medication is warranted many psychologists will work in cooperation with psychiatrists so that clients get all their therapeutic needs met.[15] Clinical psychologists may also work as part of a team with other professionals, such as social workers and nutritionists.

Counseling psychology

Counseling psychology is a psychology specialty that facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counselors are primarily clinicians, using psychotherapy and other interventions in order to treat clients. Traditionally, counseling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday stress rather than psychopathology, but this distinction has softened over time. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, hospitals, schools, governmental organizations, businesses, private practice, and community mental health centers.

Educational psychology

Main article: Educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology covers a broad range of practices primarily involving courtroom testimony on given issues. Forensic psychologists are appointed by the court to conduct competency to stand trial evaluations, competency to be executed evaluations, sanity evaluations, involuntary commitment evaluations, provide sentencing recommendations, and sex offender evaluation and treatment evaluations and provide recommendations to the court through written reports and testimony. Most of the questions the court asks the forensic psychologist are not questions of psychology but rather legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal definition that varies from state to state in the United States and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychology is an intimate understanding of the law, especially criminal law.

Psychology and Law

Legal psychology is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although social and cognitive psychologists are typical). Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence, and legal policy. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related research.

Health psychology

Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

Human factors psychology

Human factors psychology (sometimes called Engineering Psychology) is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.

Industrial and organizational psychology

Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O) is among the newest fields in psychology. Industrial Psychology focuses on improving, evaluating, and predicting job performance while Organizational Psychology focuses on how organizations impact and interact with individuals. In 1910, through the works and experiments of Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, Industrial Psychology became recognized as a legitimate part of the social science.[19] Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished. The Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology has approximately 3400 professional members and 1900 student members. These two numbers combine to make up only about four percent of the members in the American Psychological Association but the number has been rising since 1939 when there were only one hundred professional I/O psychologists.[19]

I/O psychologists are employed by academic institutions, consulting firms, internal human resources in industries, and governmental institutions. Various universities across the United States are beginning to strengthen their I/O Psychology programs due to the increase of interest and job demand in the field.[19]

Industrial organizational psychologists look at questions regarding things such as who to hire, how to define and measure successful job performance, how to prepare people to be more successful in their jobs, how to create and change jobs so that they are safer and make people happier, and how to structure the organization to allow people to achieve their potential.[19]

School psychology

School psychology is the area of discipline that is dedicated to helping young people succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school. They are trained to be experts in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[20] Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) recognizing the Specialist degree as the entry level. This is a matter of controversy as the APA does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and private practice.

Research methods

Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (seated) was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of experimental psychology.

Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the scientific method, encompassing both qualitative ethological and quantitative statistical modalities to generate and evaluate explanatory hypotheses with regard to psychological phenomena. Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by experimental protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Qualitative psychological research utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including action research, ethography, exploratory statistics, structured interviews, and participant observation, to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. Research in humanistic psychology is more typically pursued by ethnographic, historical, and historiographic methods.

The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including various well-known standardized tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires.

Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their career. Clinical psychology, among many of the various disciplines of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others.

When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.

Controlled experiments

Main article: Experiment

Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the scientific method to understand behavior. Experiments use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). They are important for psychological research because they allow researchers to establish causal relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. Importantly, in an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable). (See also hypothesis testing.) Experiments are one of the primary research methodologies in many areas of psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience.

As an example, suppose an experimenter wanted to answer the following question: does talking on a phone affect one's ability to stop quickly while driving? To answer this, the experimenter would want to show that a subject's stopping time is different when they are talking on a phone versus when they are not. If the experiment is properly conducted in a controlled environment and a difference between the two conditions is found, the experimenter would be able to show a causal relationship between phone use and stopping time. In addition to potential practical benefits, this type of experiment may have important theoretical results, such as helping to explain the processes that underlie attention in humans.

Experiments on humans have been put under some controls; namely informed and voluntary consent. After WWII, the Nuremberg Code was established, because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the US, the NIH established the IRB in 1966. And in 1974, adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of which cover informed consent of human participants in experimental studies. There were a number of influential studies which lead to the establishment of these rules, including the MIT & Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide Tragedy, Willowbrook hepatitis study, Milgram's obedience to authority studies.

Animal studies

One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation, Pavlov Museum, 2005

Animal learning experiments are important in many aspects of psychology such as investigating the biological basis of learning, memory and behavior. In the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. The original and most famous example of a classical conditioning study. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Controlled experiments involve introducing only one variable at a time, which is why animals used for experiments are housed in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary widely, which makes it difficult to control important variables for human subjects. [2]

Qualitative and descriptive research

Observation in natural settings

In the same way Jane Goodall studied the role of chimpanzee social and family life, psychologists conduct similar observational studies in human social, professional and family lives. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed and other times it is covert, the participants do not know they are being observed. Ethical guidelines need to be taken into consideration when covert observation is being carried out.

Survey questionnaires

Online surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, or checking the validity of experimental manipulations. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research.[21] Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.

Longitudinal studies

A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study specific language impairment (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, such studies can suffer from attrition due to drop-out or death of subjects. In addition, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations. Longitudinal study is a developmental research strategy that involves testing an age group repeatedly over many years.Longitudinal studies answer vital questions about how people develop.This developmental research follows people over years and the outcome has been an incredible array of findings, especially relating to psychological problems.

Neuropsychological methods

Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness.

Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociation's') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.

In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations.

Computational modeling

Computational modeling is a tool often used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process extremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.

Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural nets to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.

Criticism and controversies

Controversy as a science

A common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Philosopher Thomas Kuhn suggested in 1962 that psychology is in a pre-paradigmatic state, lacking the agreement on facts found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics. Because some areas of psychology rely on "soft" research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have claimed that psychology is not as scientific as psychologists assume. Methods such as introspection and psychoanalysis, used by some psychologists, are inherently subjective. Objectivity, validity, and rigor are key attributes in science, and some approaches to psychology have fallen short on these criteria. On the other hand, greater use of statistical controls and increasingly sophisticated research design, analysis, and statistical methods, as well as a decline (at least within academic psychology departments) in the use of less scientific methods, have lessened the impact of this criticism to some degree.

Debates continue, however, such as the questioned effectiveness of probability testing as a valid research tool. The concern is that this statistical method may promote trivial findings as meaningful, especially when large samples are used.[22] Psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the traditional p<.05 decision rule.

In recent years and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and the relevance of empirical examination for psychotherapy.[23] One argument states that some therapies are based on discredited theories and are unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. The other side points to recent research suggesting that all mainstream therapies are of about equal effectiveness, while also arguing that controlled studies often do not take into consideration real-world conditions (e.g. the high co-morbidity rate or the experience of clinicians), that research is heavily biased towards CBT methodologies, and that it typically under-represents minority groups.

Concern about fringe clinical practices

Template:Npov-section There is also concern from researchers about a perceived gap between scientific theory and its application, in particular with the application of fringe practices. Exponents of evidence-based approaches to clinical psychology practice say that the gap is increasing, and researchers such as Beyerstein (2001) say there has been a large increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not emphasize science training.[24] According to Lilienfeld (2002) “a wide variety of unvalidated and sometimes harmful psychotherapeutic methods, including facilitated communication for infantile autism, suggestive techniques for memory recovery (e.g., hypnotic age-regression, guided imagery, body work), energy therapies (e.g., Thought Field Therapy, Emotional Freedom Technique), and New Age therapies of seemingly endless stripes (e.g., rebirthing, reparenting, past-life regression, Primal Scream therapy, neurolinguistic programming, alien abduction therapy, angel therapy) have either emerged or maintained their popularity in recent decades."[3] Allen Neuringer made a similar point in the field of the experimental analysis of behavior in 1984.[25] There are some differences of opinion over the actual extent of the research practitioner gap, but the consensus is on the concern about fringe or quack practices, and the legal view favors the use of empirical validation for any psychological intervention (Faigman and Monahan­ 2005). The emphasis on improvement of evidence based practice has been made in order to increase the general public's confidence in the health professions, and to avoid instances whereby clients forgo evidence based treatments in favor of unvalidated fringe therapies.

Notes

  1. ↑ Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt
  2. ↑ The Principles of Psychology (1890), with introduction by George A. Miller, Harvard University Press, 1983 paperback, ISBN 0-674-70625-0 (combined edition, 1328 pages)
  3. ↑ Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1963, pp. 33-39; from Theodore Schick, ed., Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 9-13. [1]
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Keil, FC. Wilson, RA. (eds) 2001. "The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences" MIT Press ISBN 0262731444 p.xx
  5. ↑ Watson, John B. "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm
  6. ↑ Skinner, B.F.: Are Theories of Learning Necessary? http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Theories/
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Miller, G.A. (2003). The cognitive revolution: a historical perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7:141-144. (online)
  8. ↑ www.rso.cornell.edu/scitech/archive/96fal/lang.html.
  9. ↑ Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
  10. ↑ Rowan, John. (2001). Ordinary Ecstasy : The Dialectics of Humanistic Psychology. London, UK : Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 0415236339
  11. ↑ Bugental, J. (1964). The Third Force in Psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 4(1), 19-25.
  12. ↑ Journal of Clinical Psychology, Volume 60, Issue 12, December 2004 (1203 - 1315), Special Issue: Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 1)
  13. ↑ Journal of Clinical Psychology, Volume 61, Issue 1, January 2005 (1 - 139), Special Issue: Defining Psychology: Articles and Commentaries on a New Unified Theory (Part 2)
  14. ↑ Rand, KL & SS Ilardi (2005), "Toward a consilient science of psychology", Journal of Clinical Psychology 61 (1): 7-20, DOI:10.1002/jclp.20088 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Brain, Christine. (2002). Advanced psychology : applications, issues and perspectives. Cheltenham : Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0174900589>
  16. ↑ Leichsenring, Falk & Leibing, Eric. (2003). The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy and cognitive behavior therapy in the treatment of personality disorders: A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(7), 1223-1233.
  17. ↑ Reisner, Andrew. (2005). The common factors, empirically validated treatments, and recovery models of therapeutic change. The Psychological Record, 55(3), 377-400.
  18. ↑ Klusman, Lawrence. (2001). Prescribing Psychologists and Patients' Medical Needs; Lessons From Clinical Psychiatry. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 496.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Industrial and Organization Psychology, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
  20. ↑ nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx.
  21. ↑ http://www.happypsych.com Sample web-based happiness study. Accessed 2007-11-02.
  22. ↑ Cohen, J. (1994). The Earth is round, p < .05. American Psychologist, 49,.
  23. ↑ Elliot, Robert. (1998). Editor's Introduction: A Guide to the Empirically Supported Treatments Controversy. Psychotherapy Research, 8(2), 115.
  24. ↑ Beyerstein, B. L. (2001). Fringe psychotherapies: The public at risk. The Scientific Re-view of Alternative Medicine, 5, 70–79
  25. ↑ Neuringer, A.:"Melioration and Self-Experimentation" Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1348111

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