Difference between revisions of "Nonviolence" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Currently working on''' —[[User:Jennifer Tanabe|Jennifer Tanabe]] ([[User talk:Jennifer Tanabe|talk]]) 20:30, 14 December 2019 (UTC)
 
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[[File:Portrait Gandhi.jpg|thumb|[[Mahatma Gandhi|Mohandas Gandhi]], often considered a founder of the nonviolence movement, spread the concept of [[ahimsa]] through his movements and writings, which then inspired other nonviolent activists.]]
 
[[File:Portrait Gandhi.jpg|thumb|[[Mahatma Gandhi|Mohandas Gandhi]], often considered a founder of the nonviolence movement, spread the concept of [[ahimsa]] through his movements and writings, which then inspired other nonviolent activists.]]
  
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'''Nonviolence''' is the personal practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. It comes from the belief that hurting people, animals, or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and refers to a general philosophy of abstention from violence. This may be based on moral, religious, or spiritual principles, or it may be for purely strategic or pragmatic reasons.  
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'''Nonviolence''' is the practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. It comes from the belief that hurting people, animals, or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and refers to a general philosophy of abstention from violence. This may be based on moral, religious, or spiritual principles, or it may be for purely strategic or pragmatic reasons.  
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The forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Religious or ethically based nonviolence is sometimes referred to as ''principled,'' ''philosophical,'' or ''ethical'' nonviolence, while nonviolence based on political analysis is often referred to as ''tactical,'' ''strategic,'' or ''pragmatic'' nonviolent action. Commonly, both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals.
 
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Nonviolence also has "active" or "activist" elements, in that believers generally accept the need for nonviolence as a means to achieve political and [[social change]]. Thus, for example, the non-violence of [[Tolstoy]] and [[Gandhi]] is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of [[violence]], but at the same time sees [[nonviolent action]] (also called [[civil resistance]]) as an alternative to passive acceptance of oppression or armed struggle against it. In general, advocates of an activist philosophy of nonviolence use diverse methods in their campaigns for social change, including critical forms of education and persuasion, mass noncooperation, [[civil disobedience]], nonviolent [[direct action]], and social, political, cultural, and economic forms of intervention.
 
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[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F065187-0014, Bonn, Pressekonferenz der Grünen, Bundestagswahl.jpg|thumb|right|[[Petra Kelly]] founded the German Green Party on nonviolence]]
 
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==Origins==
 
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Nonviolence or ''[[Ahimsa]]'' is one of the cardinal virtues<ref name=evpc/> and an important tenet of [[Jainism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism]]. It is a multidimensional concept,<ref name=arapura>John Arapura in K. R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji Ed. (1997), Hindu spirituality: Postclassical and modern, ISBN 978-81-208-1937-5; see Chapter 20, pages 392–417</ref> inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. It has also been related to the notion that any violence has [[Karma|karmic]] consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of ''Ahimsa'', the concept reached an extraordinary status in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.<ref name=evpc>Stephen H. Phillips & other authors (2008), in Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict (Second Edition), ISBN 978-0-12-373985-8, Elsevier Science, Pages 1347–1356, 701–849, 1867</ref><ref name=chapple1990>Chapple, C. (1990). Nonviolence to animals, earth and self in Asian Traditions (see Chapter 1). State University of New York Press (1993)</ref>
 
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According to Jain mythology, the first ''tirthankara'', [[Rishabhanatha|Rushabhdev]], originated the idea of nonviolence over a million years ago.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/?id=SXgEfiNY46sC&pg=PA271&dq=Rushabhdev+million#v=onepage&q=Rushabhdev%20million&f=false | title=Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect &#91;A Latter-Day Saint&#93;| isbn=9781606938461| last1=Patel| first1=Haresh| date=March 2009}}</ref>  Historically, [[Parsvanatha]], the twenty-third ''[[tirthankara]]'' of Jainism, advocated for and preached the concept of nonviolence in around the 8th century B.C.E.<ref>{{citation |title=Parshvanatha |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Parshvanatha |work=britannica.com }}</ref>  [[Mahavira]], the twenty-fourth and last ''tirthankara'', then further strengthened the idea in the 6th century B.C.E.<ref>{{citation |title=Mahavira |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher |work=britannica.com }}</ref>
 
  
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In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have been a powerful tool for social protest and revolutionary social and political change.<ref>Ronald Brian Adler, Neil Towne, ''Looking Out/Looking In: Interpersonal Communication'', 9th ed. Harcourt Brace College Publishers, p. 416, 1999. "In the twentieth century, nonviolence proved to be a powerful tool for political change."</ref><ref>Lester R. Kurtz, Jennifer E. Turpin, ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict'', p.557, 1999. "In the West, nonviolence is well recognized for its tactical, strategic, or political aspects. It is seen as a powerful tool for redressing social inequality."</ref><ref>[[Mark Kurlansky]], ''Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea'', Foreword by [[Dalai Lama]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=loIfgZgr9BsC&pg=PA7&dq=all+religions++nonviolence&ei=bw_nSqSdBKa2NMalmYcM#v=onepage&q=dangerous&f=false p. 5-6], Modern Library (April 8, 2008), ISBN 0-8129-7447-6 "Advocates of nonviolence — dangerous people — have been there throughout history, questioning the greatness of Caesar and Napoleon and the Founding Fathers and Roosevelt and Churchill."</ref> There are many examples of their use. Fuller surveys may be found in the entries on [[civil resistance]], [[nonviolent resistance]] and [[nonviolent revolution]]. Here certain movements particularly influenced by a philosophy of nonviolence should be mentioned, including [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]] leading a successful decades-long nonviolent struggle against [[British Raj|British rule in India]], [[Martin Luther King]]'s and [[James Bevel]]'s adoption of Gandhi's nonviolent methods in their campaigns to win [[civil rights]] for [[African American]]s,<ref>"James L. Bevel The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement" by Randy Kryn, a paper in [[David Garrow]]'s 1989 book ''We Shall Overcome Volume II'', Carlson Publishing Company</ref><ref>[http://cfm40.middlebury.edu/book/print/44 "Movement Revision Research Summary Regarding James Bevel" by Randy Kryn, October 2005], published by [[Middlebury College]]</ref> and [[César Chávez]]'s campaigns of nonviolence in the 1960s to protest the treatment of farm workers in California.<ref>Stanley M. Burstein and Richard Shek: ''"World History Ancient Civilizations "'', page 154. Holt, Rinhart and Winston, 2005. As Chavez once explained, "Nonviolence is not inaction. It is not for the timid or the weak. It is hard work, it is the patience to win."</ref> The 1989 "[[Velvet Revolution]]" in [[Czechoslovakia]] that saw the overthrow of the [[Communist]] government<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history15.html |title=RP's History Online - Velvet Revolution |access-date=2013-01-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717233817/http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history15.html |archive-date=2011-07-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent [[Revolutions of 1989]].<ref name=Ives2001>{{Cite web | title = No Fear | url = http://salsa.net/peace/article38.html | date = 19 October 2001 | location = Palo Alto College | author = Ives, Susan | accessdate = 2009-05-17 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080720084435/http://www.salsa.net/peace/article38.html | archivedate = 20 July 2008 }}</ref> Most recently the nonviolent campaigns of [[Leymah Gbowee]] and the women of [[Liberia]] were able to achieve peace after a 14-year civil war.<ref>Chris Graham, [http://augustafreepress.com/2009/10/26/peacebuilding-alum-talks-practical-app-of-nonviolence/ Peacebuilding alum talks practical app of nonviolence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028212601/http://augustafreepress.com/2009/10/26/peacebuilding-alum-talks-practical-app-of-nonviolence/ |date=2009-10-28 }}, Augusta Free Press, October 26, 2009.</ref> This story is captured in a 2008 documentary film ''[[Pray the Devil Back to Hell]]''.
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Forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Religious or ethically based nonviolence is sometimes referred to as ''principled,'' ''philosophical,'' or ''ethical'' nonviolence, while nonviolence based on political analysis is often referred to as ''tactical,'' ''strategic,'' or ''pragmatic'' nonviolent action. Both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals.
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{{toc}}
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Nonviolence also has "active" or "activist" elements, in that believers generally accept the need for nonviolence as a means to achieve political and [[social change]]. Thus, for example, the nonviolence of [[Tolstoy]] and [[Gandhi]] is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of [[violence]], but at the same time sees [[nonviolent action]] (also called [[civil resistance]]) as an alternative to passive acceptance of oppression or armed struggle against it. In general, advocates of an activist philosophy of nonviolence use diverse methods in their campaigns for social change, including critical forms of education and persuasion, mass noncooperation, [[civil disobedience]], nonviolent [[direct action]], and social, political, cultural, and economic forms of intervention.
  
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The term "nonviolence" is often linked with or used as a synonym for peace, and despite being frequently equated with passivity and pacifism, this is rejected by nonviolent advocates and activists.<ref>Ackerman, Peter and Jack DuVall (2001) "A Force More Powerful: A Century of Non-Violent Conflict"(Palgrave Macmillan)</ref> Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is always the choice to do no harm or the least harm, and passivity is the choice to do nothing. Sometimes nonviolence is passive, and other times it isn't. For example, if a house is burning down with mice or insects in it, the most harmless appropriate action is to put the fire out, not to sit by and passively let the fire burn. There is at times confusion and contradiction written about nonviolence, harmlessness and passivity. A confused person may advocate nonviolence in a specific context while advocating violence in other contexts. For example, someone who passionately opposes abortion or meat eating may concurrently advocate violence to kill an abortionist or attack a slaughterhouse, which makes that person a violent person.<ref>Adam Roberts, Introduction, in [[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]] and [[Timothy Garton Ash]] (eds.), ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present'', Oxford University Press, 2009 [https://books.google.com/books?id=BxOQKrCe7UUC&dq=Civil+resistance+and+power+politics&source=gbs_navlinks_s pp. 3 and 13-20.]</ref>
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==History==
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Nonviolence or ''[[Ahimsa]]'' is one of the cardinal virtues<ref name=evpc/> and an important tenet of [[Jainism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism]]. It is a multidimensional concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy.<ref name=arapura>K.R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji (eds.), ''Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern'' (Herder & Herder, 1997, ISBN 978-0824516710).</ref> Therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. It has also been related to the notion that any violence has [[Karma|karmic]] consequences.
  
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{{Quotation|"Nonviolence is a powerful and just weapon. Indeed, it is a weapon unique in history, which cuts without wounding and ennobles the man who wields it."|[[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]|The Quest for Peace and Justice (1964) <small>[https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king-lecture.html#footnote Martin Luther King's Nobel Lecture, delivered in the Auditorium of the University of Oslo at December 11, 1964]</small>}}
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While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of ''Ahimsa'', the concept reached an extraordinary status in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.<ref name=evpc>Lester R. Kurtz (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict'' (Academic Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0123695031).</ref><ref name=Chapple> Christopher Chapple, ''Non-violence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian Traditions'' (Sri Satguru Publications, 1995, ISBN 978-8170304265).</ref> According to Jain mythology, the first ''[[tirthankara]]'', [[Rishabhanatha|Rushabhdev]], originated the idea of nonviolence over a million years ago.<ref>Haresh Patel, ''Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A Latter-Day Saint]'' (Eloquent Books, 2009, ISBN  978-1606938461).</ref> Historically, [[Parsvanatha]], the twenty-third ''tirthankara'' of Jainism, advocated for and preached the concept of nonviolence in around the eighth century B.C.E. [[Mahavira]], the twenty-fourth and last ''tirthankara'', then further strengthened the idea in the sixth century B.C.E.
  
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Mahatma Gandhi was of the view:{{quote|No religion in the World has explained the principle of ''Ahimsa'' so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in [[Jainism]]. As and when the benevolent principle of ''Ahimsa'' or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond. Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahavira is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on ''Ahimsa''.<ref>{{citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmJnWrjnfjMC|last=Pandey|first=Janardan|date=1998|title=Gandhi and 21st Century|isbn=978-81-7022-672-7|p=50}}</ref>}}
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The idea of using nonviolent methods to achieve social and political change has been expressed in Western society over the past several hundred years: [[Étienne de La Boétie]]'s ''[[Discourse on Voluntary Servitude]]'' (sixteenth century) and [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|P.B. Shelley's]] ''[[The Masque of Anarchy]]'' (1819) contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence, while in 1838, [[William Lloyd Garrison]] helped found the [[Non-Resistance Society|New England Non-Resistance Society]], a society devoted to achieving racial and gender equality through the rejection of all violent actions.<ref>Nicolas Walter, David Goodway (ed.), ''Damned Fools in Utopia and Other Writings on Anarchism and War Resistance'' (PM Press, 2011, ISBN 978-1604862225).</ref>
  
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[[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] has credited Jainism with the cessation of slaughter of animals in the brahamanical religion.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} Some scholars{{Who|date=May 2016}} have traced the origin of Ahimsa to Jains and their precursor, the [[sramana]]s.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}} According to [[Thomas McEvilley]], a noted Indologist, certain seals of [[Indus Valley civilisation]] depict a meditative figure surrounded by a multitude of wild animals, providing evidence of proto yoga tradition in India akin to Jainism. This particular image might suggest that all the animals depicted are sacred to this particular practitioner. Consequently, these animals would be protected from harm.{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
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In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have become a powerful tool for social protest and revolutionary social and political change.<ref name=evpc/><ref>Mark Kurlansky, ''Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea'' (Modern Library, 2008, ISBN 978-0812974478).</ref> For example, [[Mohandas K. Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]] led a successful decades-long nonviolent struggle against [[British Raj|British rule in India]]. [[Martin Luther King]] and [[James Bevel]] adopted Gandhi's nonviolent methods in their campaigns to win [[civil rights]] for [[African American]]s. [[César Chávez]] led campaigns of nonviolence in the 1960s to protest the treatment of farm workers in California. The 1989 "[[Velvet Revolution]]" in [[Czechoslovakia]] that saw the overthrow of the [[Communist]] government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent [[Revolutions of 1989]].
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[[File:Non-Violence sculpture in front of UN headquarters NY.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The sculpture "Nonviolence" by Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd in front of the [[United Nations]] Headquarters in [[New York City]]]]
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Nonviolence has obtained a level of institutional recognition and endorsement at the global level. On November 10, 1998, the [[United Nations]] General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the twenty-first century and the third millennium, the years 2001 to 2010, as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World].<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/ga/62/plenary/peaceculture/bkg.shtml Culture of peace] General Assembly of the United Nations, 62nd session. Retrieved January 8, 2020.</ref>
  
 
==Ethical nonviolence==
 
==Ethical nonviolence==
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[[File:Semai - remaja.jpg|thumb|The Semai have principle called [[Semai people#Non-violence|punan]], which includes nonviolence]]
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[[File:Semai - remaja.jpg|thumb|250px|The Semai people of [[Malaysia]] have a belief called ''[[punan]]'', which includes nonviolence]]
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For many, practicing nonviolence goes deeper than abstaining from violent behavior or words. It means overriding the impulse to be hateful and holding love for everyone, even those with whom one strongly disagrees. In this view, because violence is learned, it is necessary to unlearn violence by practicing love and compassion at every possible opportunity. For some, the commitment to non-violence entails a belief in restorative or [[transformative justice]], an abolition of the death penalty and other harsh punishments. This may involve the necessity of caring for those who are violent.
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For many, practicing nonviolence goes deeper than abstaining from [[violence|violent]] behavior or words. It means overriding the impulse to be hateful and holding [[love]] for everyone, even those with whom one strongly disagrees. In this view, because violence is learned, it is necessary to unlearn violence by practicing love and compassion at every possible opportunity. For some, the commitment to nonviolence entails a belief in restorative or [[transformative justice]] and the abolition of the [[death penalty]] and other harsh punishments. This may involve the necessity of caring for those who are violent.
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Nonviolence, for many, involves a respect and reverence for all [[Sentience#Animal rights and sentience|sentient]], and perhaps even [[Biocentrism (ethics)|non-sentient, beings]]. This might include [[Abolitionism (animal rights)|abolitionism]] against animals as property, the practice of not eating animal products or by-products ([[vegetarianism]] or [[veganism]]), spiritual practices of [[Ahimsa|non-harm]] to all beings, and caring for the rights of all beings. [[Mohandas Gandhi]], [[James Bevel]], and other nonviolent proponents advocated vegetarianism as part of their nonviolent philosophy. [[Ahimsa#Buddhism|Buddhists extend this respect for life]] to [[animals]], [[plants]], and even [[minerals]], while [[Ahimsa#Jainism|Jainism]] extend this respect for [[life]] to [[animals]], [[plants]] and even small organisms such as [[insects]].<ref>[http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/features/animal-vegetable-mineral-the-making-of-buddhist-texts "Animal, Vegetable, Mineral: The Making of Buddhist Texts"] (12 July 2014).  [[University of Cambridge]] (''www.Cam.ac.uk'').  Retrieved 12 March 2019.</ref><ref>Vogeler, Ingolf.  [http://people.uwec.edu/ivogeler/w111/articles/jainism.htm "Jainism in India"] [[University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire]] (''UWEC.edu'').  Retrieved 12 March 2019.</ref>
 
  
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The classical Indian text of [[Tirukkuṛaḷ]] deals with the ethics of non-violence or non-harming through verses 311-320 in Chapter 32 of [[Aram (Kural book)|Book 1]],<ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm Tirukkuṛaḷ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216064046/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |date=2014-12-16 }} verses 311-320</ref> further discussing [[compassion]] in Chapter 25 (verses 241-250), [[vegetarianism]] or [[veganism]] in Chapter 26 (verses 251-260), and [[non-killing]] in Chapter 33 (verses 321-330).<ref>{{cite book | url=http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0153.pdf | title=Thirukkural English Translation and Commentary | publisher=W.H. Allen, & Co | first = GU |last = Pope <!--| authorlink=Thirukkural English Translation—> | year=1886 | pages=160}}</ref>
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Nonviolence, for many, involves a respect and reverence for all [[sentience|sentient]], and perhaps even non-sentient, beings. This might include the belief that all sentient beings share the basic right not to be treated as the [[property]] of others, the practice of not eating animal products or by-products ([[vegetarianism]] or [[veganism]]), spiritual practices of [[Ahimsa|non-harm]] to all beings, and caring for the rights of all beings. [[Mohandas Gandhi]], [[James Bevel]], and other nonviolent proponents advocated vegetarianism as part of their nonviolent philosophy. [[Buddhists]] extend this respect for [[life]] to [[animals]] and [[plants]], while [[Jains]] extend it to [[animals]], [[plants]], and even small organisms such as [[insects]].
  
 
==Religious nonviolence==
 
==Religious nonviolence==
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''[[Ahimsa]]'' is a Sanskrit term meaning "nonviolence" or "non-injury" (literally: the avoidance of himsa: violence). The principle of ahimsa is central to the religions of [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]], being a key precept in their ethical codes.
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''[[Ahimsa]]'' is a Sanskrit term meaning "nonviolence" or "non-injury" (literally: the avoidance of himsa: violence). The principle of ahimsa is central to the religions of [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]], being a key precept in their ethical codes.<ref> Claudia Eppert and Hongyu Wang (eds.), ''Cross-Cultural Studies in Curriculum: Eastern Thought, Educational Insights'' (Routledge, 2007, ISBN 978-1843153665).</ref> It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.
  
 
===Hinduism===
 
===Hinduism===
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The [[Hindu]] scriptures contain mixed messages on the necessity and scope of nonviolence in human affairs. Some texts insist that ahimsa is the highest duty while other texts make exceptions in the cases of war, hunting, ruling, law enforcement, and capital punishment.
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The [[Hindu]] scriptures contain mixed messages on the necessity and scope of nonviolence in human affairs. Some texts insist that ''[[ahimsa]]'' is the highest duty, while other texts make exceptions in the cases of [[war]], [[hunting]], ruling, [[law enforcement]], and [[capital punishment]].
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====Ancient Vedic texts====
 
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[[Ahimsa]] as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts.<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>Walli, Koshelya: ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought'', Varanasi 1974, p. 113–145.</ref> The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, but do not emphasise it. Over time, the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is increasingly refined and emphasised, ultimately Ahimsa becomes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 B.C.E.). For example, hymn 10.22.25 in the Rig Veda uses the words [[Satya]] (truthfulness) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra;<ref>Sanskrit: अस्मे ता त इन्द्र सन्तु '''सत्याहिंस'''न्तीरुपस्पृशः । विद्याम यासां भुजो धेनूनां न वज्रिवः ॥१३॥ [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda 10.22] Wikisource;<br>English: Unto Tähtinen (1964), Non-violence as an Ethical Principle, Turun Yliopisto, Finland, PhD Thesis, pages 23–25; {{oclc|4288274}};<br>For other occurrence of Ahimsa in Rigveda, see [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_५.६४ Rigveda 5.64.3], [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१.१४१ Rigveda 1.141.5];</ref> later, the [[Yajurveda|Yajur Veda]] dated to be between 1000 B.C.E. and 600 B.C.E., states, "may all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend".<ref name=chapple1990/><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html To do no harm] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017133837/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/himalayanacademy/sacredhinduliterature/lws/lws_ch-39.html |date=2013-10-17 }} Project Gutenberg, see translation for Yajurveda 36.18 VE;<br>For other occurrences of Ahimsa in Vedic literature, see [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/150/mode/2up A Vedic Concordance] [[Maurice Bloomfield]], Harvard University Press, page 151</ref>
 
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The term ''Ahimsa'' appears in the text [[Taittiriya Shakha]] of the [[Yajurveda]] (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself.<ref>Tähtinen p. 2.</ref> It occurs several times in the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'' in the sense of "non-injury".<ref>Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39.</ref> The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture.<ref name="houben 1999">Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., ''Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalisation of violence in "South Asian" cultural history.'' BRILL, 1999 page 30.</ref> The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals ("pashu-Ahimsa"), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century B.C.E.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–3.</ref>
 
  
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Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads.<ref>John Bowker, ''Problems of suffering in religions of the world.'' Cambridge University Press, 1975, page 233.</ref> Kaneda gives examples of the word ''Ahimsa'' in these Upanishads.<ref name=kaneda2008>Kaneda, T. (2008). Shanti, peacefulness of mind. C. Eppert & H. Wang (Eds.), Cross cultural studies in curriculum: Eastern thought, educational insights, pages 171–192, ISBN 978-0-8058-5673-6, Taylor & Francis</ref> Other scholars<ref name=arapura/><ref>Izawa, A. (2008). Empathy for Pain in Vedic Ritual. Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies, 12, 78</ref> suggest ''Ahimsa'' as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas, becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads.
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[[Ahimsa]] as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.<ref name=Chapple/><ref> Koshelya Walli, ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought'' (Bharata Manisha, 1974).</ref> The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention ahimsa, but do not emphasize it. Over time, the concept of ahimsa was increasingly refined and emphasized, ultimately becoming the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 B.C.).  
  
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The [[Chāndogya Upaniṣad]], dated to the 8th or 7th century B.C.E., one of the oldest [[Upanishads]], has the earliest evidence for the [[Vedas|Vedic era]] use of the word ''Ahimsa'' in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (''sarvabhuta'') and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of [[Reincarnation|rebirths]] (CU 8.15.1).<ref>Tähtinen pp. 2–5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631.</ref> Some scholars state that this 8th or 7th-century B.C.E. mention may have been an influence of Jainism on Vedic Hinduism.<ref>M.K Sridhar and Puruṣottama Bilimoria (2007), ''Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges,'' Editors: Puruṣottama Bilimoria, Joseph Prabhu, Renuka M. Sharma, Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3, page 315</ref> Others scholar state that this relationship is speculative, and though Jainism is an ancient tradition the oldest traceable texts of Jainism tradition are from many centuries after the Vedic era ended.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jeffery D. Long|title=Jainism: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlAgAAQBAJ|year=2009|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-625-5|pages=31–33}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Dundas|title=The Jains|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8iAAgAAQBAJ|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415266055|pages=22–24, 73–83}}</ref>
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The [[Mahabharata]], one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: nonviolence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Mahaprasthanika Parva]] has the following verse emphasizes the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism:<ref>[https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm Mahabharata 13.117.37–38] ''The Mahabharata in Sanskrit''. Retrieved January 2, 2020.</ref>
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<blockquote>
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Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa, along with Satyavacanam (truthfulness), Arjavam (sincerity), [[Dāna|Danam]] (charity), [[Tapas (Indian religions)|Tapo]] (penance/meditation), as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4).<ref name=arapura/><ref>Ravindra Kumar (2008), Non-violence and Its Philosophy, ISBN 978-81-7933-159-0, see page 11–14</ref>
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:अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मस तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।
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:अहिंसा परमं दानम अहिंसा परमस तपः।
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The Sandilya [[Upanishad]] lists ten forbearances: '''Ahimsa''', Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya, Daya, Arjava, Kshama, Dhriti, Mitahara and Saucha.<ref>Swami, P. (2000). Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Upaniṣads: SZ (Vol. 3). Sarup & Sons; see pages 630–631</ref><ref>Ballantyne, J. R., & Yogīndra, S. (1850). A Lecture on the Vedánta: Embracing the Text of the Vedánta-sára. Presbyterian mission press.</ref> According to Kaneda,<ref name=kaneda2008/> the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It literally means 'non-injury' and 'non-killing'. It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.
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:अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञस तथाहिस्मा परं बलम।
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:अहिंसा परमं मित्रम अहिंसा परमं सुखम।
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====The Epics====
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:अहिंसा परमं सत्यम अहिंसा परमं शरुतम॥
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The [[Mahabharata]], one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: non-violence is the highest moral virtue. For example, [[Mahaprasthanika Parva]] has the verse:<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/mbs/mbs13117.htm Mahabharata 13.117.37–38]</ref>
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</blockquote>
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<blockquote><poem>
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The literal translation is as follows:
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अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मस तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।
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<blockquote>
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अहिंसा परमं दानम अहिंसा परमस तपः।
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:Ahimsa is the highest virtue, Ahimsa is the highest self-control,  
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अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञस तथाहिस्मा परं बलम।
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:Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best suffering,  
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अहिंसा परमं मित्रम अहिंसा परमं सुखम।
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:Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength,  
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अहिंसा परमं सत्यम अहिंसा परमं शरुतम॥
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:Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness,  
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</poem></blockquote>
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:Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.<ref name=ecological>Christopher Chapple, "Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition" In V.K. Kool, (ed.). ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'' (Springer New York, 2011, ISBN 978-1461287834).</ref></blockquote>  
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The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism, and literally means: Ahimsa is the highest [[virtue]], Ahimsa is the highest self-control, Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best suffering, Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength, Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness, Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In Perspectives on Nonviolence (pp. 168–177). Springer New York.</ref><ref>[http://www.hinduismtoday.com/pdf_downloads/what_is_hinduism/Sec6/WIH_Sec6_Chapter45.pdf Ahimsa: To do no harm] Subramuniyaswami, What is Hinduism?, Chapter 45, Pages 359–361</ref> Some other examples where the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' are discussed include [[Adi Parva]], [[Vana Parva]] and [[Anushasana Parva]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], among other things, discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defence and the [[Just war theory|theories of just war]]. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considers this debate about non-violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.<ref name=fischer1954>Fischer, Louis: ''Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World'' Mentor, New York 1954, pp. 15–16</ref>
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Some other examples where the phrase ''Ahimsa Paramo Dharma'' are discussed include [[Adi Parva]], [[Vana Parva]], and [[Anushasana Parva]]. The [[Bhagavad Gita]] discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defense and the [[Just war theory|theories of just war]]. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considered this debate about nonviolence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.<ref>
 +
Louis Fischer, ''Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World'' (Signet, 2010, ISBN 978-0451531704).</ref>
  
 
====Self-defense, criminal law, and war====
 
====Self-defense, criminal law, and war====
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The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa, can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defence and theories of proportionate punishment.<ref name=balkaran2012>Balkaran, R., & Dorn, A. W. (2012). [http://www.sareligionuoft.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/JAAR-Article-Violence-in-the-Valmiki-Ramayana-Just-War-Criteria-in-an-Ancient-Indian-Epic-.pdf Violence in the Vālmı̄ki Rāmāyaṇa: Just War Criteria in an Ancient Indian Epic], Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 80(3), 659–690.</ref><ref name=klos1996>[[Klaus K. Klostermaier]] (1996), in Harvey Leonard Dyck and Peter Brock (Ed), The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective, see ''Chapter on Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism'', ISBN 978-0-8020-0777-3, University of Toronto Press, pages 230–234</ref> [[Arthashastra]] discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.<ref name=robinson2003>Paul F. Robinson (2003), Just War in Comparative Perspective, ISBN 0-7546-3587-2, Ashgate Publishing, see pages 114–125</ref><ref>Coates, B. E. (2008). Modern India's Strategic Advantage to the United States: Her Twin Strengths in Himsa and Ahimsa. Comparative Strategy, 27(2), pages 133–147</ref>
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The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussion of what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa can and must do when they are faced with [[war]], violent threat, or need to sentence someone convicted of a [[crime]]. These discussions have led to theories of [[just war]], theories of reasonable [[self-defense]], and theories of proportionate punishment.<ref name=klos1996>Klaus K. Klostermaier, "Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism" in Harvey L. Dyck (ed.), ''The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective'' (University of Toronto Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0802007773).</ref> [[Arthashastra]] discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.<ref name=robinson2003>Paul F. Robinson (ed.), ''Just War in Comparative Perspective'' (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0754635871).</ref>
  
 
;War
 
;War
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The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=robinson2003/> War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction.<ref>Subedi, S. P. (2003). The Concept in Hinduism of 'Just War'. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 8(2), pages 339–361</ref> All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not designed to cause misery to the opponent; for example, use of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment.<ref name=robinson2003/> Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=balkaran2012/><ref name=klos1996/>
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The precepts of Ahimsa in Hinduism require that war must be avoided if at all possible, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.<ref name=robinson2003/> War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not designed to cause misery to them; for example, use of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to safety and given medical treatment.<ref name=robinson2003/> Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.<ref name=klos1996/>
  
 
;Self-defense
 
;Self-defense
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In matters of self-defence, different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered. For example, Tähtinen suggests self-defence is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 96, 98–101.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.</ref> Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 91–93.</ref>
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In matters of self-defense, different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered, such as that self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker.<ref name=Tahtinen> Unto Tähtinen, ''Ahimsa: Non-violence in Indian Tradition'' (Rider, 1976, ISBN 978-0091233402).</ref><ref>Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.</ref> Ahimsa does not imply [[pacifism]].<ref name=Tahtinen/>
  
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Alternate theories of self-defence, inspired by Ahimsa, build principles similar to theories of just war. [[Aikido]], pioneered in Japan, illustrates one such principles of self-defence. [[Morihei Ueshiba]], the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as Ahimsa.<ref>[http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts] Nebojša Vasic, University of Zenica (2011); Sport SPA Vol. 8, Issue 2: 47–51; see page 46, 2nd column</ref> According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self-defence, one must not assume that the world is free of aggression. One must presume that some people will, out of ignorance, error or fear, attack other persons or intrude into their space, physically or verbally. The aim of self-defence, suggested Ueshiba, must be to neutralise the aggression of the attacker, and avoid the conflict. The best defence is one where the victim is protected, as well as the attacker is respected and not injured if possible. Under Ahimsa and Aikido, there are no enemies, and appropriate self-defence focuses on neutralising the immaturity, assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174614/http://www.aiki-extensions.org/pubs/conflict-body_text.pdf SOCIAL CONFLICT, AGGRESSION, AND THE BODY IN EURO-AMERICAN AND ASIAN SOCIAL THOUGHT] Donald Levine, University of Chicago (2004)</ref><ref>Ueshiba, Kisshōmaru (2004), ''The Art of Aikido: Principles and Essential Techniques'', Kodansha International, ISBN 4-7700-2945-4</ref>
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Inspired by Ahimsa, principles of self-defense have been developed in the martial arts. [[Morihei Ueshiba]], the founder of [[Aikido]], described his inspiration as ahimsa.<ref>Nebojša Vasic, [http://www.sportspa.com.ba/images/dec2011/full/rad8.pdf The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts] ''Sport SPA'' 8(2) (2011): 47-51. Retrieved January 2, 2020.</ref>  
  
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; Criminal law
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;Criminal law
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Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 96, 98–99.</ref>
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Some have concluded that Hindus have no misgivings about the [[death penalty]]. Their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.<ref name=Tahtinen/>
  
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Other scholars<ref name=klos1996/><ref name=robinson2003/> conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportional and not cruel.
+
Other scholars have concluded that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportionate, and not cruel.<ref name=klos1996/><ref name=robinson2003/>
  
 
====Non-human life====
 
====Non-human life====
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The Hindu precept of 'cause no injury' applies to animals and all life forms. This precept isn't found in the oldest verses of Vedas, but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 B.C.E. and 400 C.E.<ref name=chapple16>Christopher Chapple (1993), Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-1498-1, pages 16–17</ref><ref>W Norman Brown (February 1964), [http://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1964_16/5-6-7/the_sanctity_of_the_cow_in_hinduism.pdf ''The sanctity of the cow in Hinduism''], The Economic Weekly, pages 245–255</ref> In the oldest texts, numerous ritual sacrifices of animals, including cows and horses, are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of Ahimsa to non-human life.<ref>D.N. Jha (2002), ''The Myth of the Holy Cow'', ISBN 1-85984-676-9}, Verso</ref><ref>Steven Rosen (2004), Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights, ISBN 1-59056-066-3, pages 19–39</ref>
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Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without universal consensus.  
  
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Hindu scriptures, dated to between 5th century and 1st century B.C.E., while discussing human diet, initially suggest ''kosher'' meat may be eaten, evolving it with the suggestion that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten, then that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots and fruits alone.<ref name=chapple16/><ref>[[Baudhayana]] Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; [[Apastamba]] Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26–2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12.</ref>
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This precept is not found in the oldest verses of Vedas, but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 B.C.E. and 400 C.E.<ref name=Chapple/>  In the oldest texts, numerous ritual sacrifices of animals, including cows and horses, are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of ahimsa in relation to non-human life.<ref>D.N. Jha, ''The Myth of the Holy Cow'' (Verso, 2004, ISBN 978-1859844243).</ref> However, the ancient Hindu texts discourage wanton destruction of nature, including wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.<ref>Rod Preece, ''Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities'' (University of British Columbia Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0774807241).</ref>
  
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Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues, declare any killing or harming any life as against ''dharma'' (moral life). Finally, the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics<ref>Manu Smriti 5.30, 5.32, 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207), 3.199.5 (3.207.5), 3.199.19–29 (3.207.19), 3.199.23–24 (3.207.23–24), 13.116.15–18, 14.28; Ramayana 1-2-8:19</ref> shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa precept, given the constraints of life and human needs.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 592–593.</ref><ref>Mahabharata 13.115.59–60; 13.116.15–18.</ref> The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors, but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. [[Sushruta Samhita]], a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century, in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses, and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women,<ref>Kaviraj Kunja Lal Bhishagratna (1907), An English Translation of the Sushruta Samhita, Volume I, Part 2; see Chapter starting on page 469; for discussion on meats and fishes, see page 480 and onwards</ref><ref>Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25.</ref> and the [[Charaka Samhita]] describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents.<ref>Sutrasthana 27.87.</ref>
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Hindu scriptures dated to between the fifth century and first century B.C.E., in discussing human diet, initially suggest ''kosher'' meat may be eaten, suggesting that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten. This evolved into the belief that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone.<ref name=Chapple/>
  
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Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without a universal consensus.<ref>Mahabharata 3.199.11–12 (3.199 is 3.207 elsewhere); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17; Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13–14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1).</ref> Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant. Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa.<ref>Alsdorf pp. 572–577 (for the Manusmṛti) and pp. 585–597 (for the Mahabharata); Tähtinen pp. 34–36.</ref><ref>The Mahabharata and the Manusmṛti (5.27–55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter.</ref><ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m12/m12b095.htm Mahabharata 12.260] (12.260 is 12.268 according to another count); 13.115–116; 14.28.</ref> In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m03/m03207.htm Mahabharata 3.199] (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count).</ref>
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Later Hindu texts declare Ahimsa one of the primary [[virtue]]s, and that killing or harming any life to be against ''dharma'' (moral life). Finally, the discussion in the [[Upanishads]] and the Hindu epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa, given the constraints of life and human needs.  
  
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Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non-violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 39–43.</ref><ref>Alsdorf p. 589–590; Schmidt pp. 634–635, 640–643; Tähtinen pp. 41–42.</ref>
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Many of the arguments proposed in favor of nonviolence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.<ref name=Tahtinen/> For example, ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]],'' written between 200 B.C. and 400 C.E., says that Ahimsa applies to all life forms. It dedicates several chapters to the virtue of ahimsa, namely, [[moral vegetarianism]], non-harming, and [[non-killing]], respectively.<ref> G.U. Pope, ''Tirukkural: English Translation and Commentary'' (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017, ISBN 978-1975616724).</ref>
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The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non-animal life. They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants. Hermits ([[sannyasa|sannyasin]]s) were urged to live on a [[fruitarian]] diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.<ref>Schmidt pp. 637–639; Manusmriti 10.63, 11.145</ref><ref>Rod Preece, Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities, ISBN 978-0-7748-0725-8, University of British Columbia Press, pages 212–217</ref> Scholars<ref>Chapple, C. (1990). Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition. In ''Perspectives on Nonviolence'' (pages 168–177). Springer New York</ref><ref>Van Horn, G. (2006). Hindu Traditions and Nature: Survey Article. Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology, 10(1), 5–39</ref> claim the principles of ecological non-violence is innate in the Hindu tradition, and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue.
 
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The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages. For example, ''[[Tirukkuṛaḷ]],'' written between 200 BC and 400 AD, and sometimes called the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Veda]], is one of the most cherished classics written in a South Indian language. Tirukkuṛaḷ dedicates Chapters 26, 32 and 33 of Book 1 to the virtue of Ahimsa, namely, [[moral vegetarianism]], [[non-violence|non-harming]], and [[non-killing]], respectively. ''Tirukkuṛaḷ'' says that Ahimsa applies to all life forms.<ref>[http://www.projectmadurai.org/pm_etexts/pdf/pm0153.pdf Tirukkuṛaḷ] Translated by Rev G.U. Pope, Rev W.H. Drew, Rev John Lazarus, and Mr F W Ellis (1886), WH Allen & Company; see pages 40–41, verses 311–330</ref><ref>[http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm Tirukkuṛaḷ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216064046/http://ebooks.gutenberg.us/HimalayanAcademy/SacredHinduLiterature/weaver/content.htm |date=16 December 2014 }} see Chapter 32 and 33, Book 1</ref><ref>[http://www.worldcat.org/title/tirukkural-tirukkural/oclc/777453934?referer=di&ht=edition Tirukkuṛaḷ] Translated by V.V.R. Aiyar, Tirupparaithurai : Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam (1998)</ref>
 
  
 
===Jainism===
 
===Jainism===
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[[file:Ahimsa Jainism Gradient.jpg|thumb|150px|The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. The word in the middle is "Ahimsa." The wheel represents the [[dharmacakra]] which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and nonviolence.]]
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In [[Jainism]], the understanding and implementation of ''Ahimsā'' is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. The statement ''{{IAST|ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ}}'' is often found inscribed on the walls of the [[Jain temple]]s.<ref name=Dundas>Paul Dundas, ''The Jains'' (Routledge, 2002, ISBN 978-0415266062).</ref><ref> Peter Flugel (ed.), ''Studies in Jaina History and Culture'' (Routledge, 2006, ISBN 978-0415360999).</ref> Killing any living being out of passion is considered ''hiṃsā'' (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is ''ahimsā'' (noninjury).<ref name=Vijay>Vijay K. Jain, ''Acharya Amritchandra's Purusartha Siddhi Upaya'' (Vikalp Printers, 2012, ISBN 978-8190363945). </ref> Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.
  
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[[file:Ahimsa Jainism Gradient.jpg|thumb|The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. The word in the middle is "Ahimsa". The wheel represents the [[dharmacakra]] which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence.]]
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[[Mahatma Gandhi]] expressed the view:
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In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of ''Ahimsā'' is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion.<ref>Laidlaw, pp. 154–160; Jindal, pp. 74–90; Tähtinen p. 110.</ref> Killing any living being out of passions is considered ''hiṃsā'' (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is ''ahimsā'' (noninjury).{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=34}} The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the 'five vows of Jainism'. Other vows like truth (Satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=33}} In the practice of Ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons ([[sravakas]]) who have undertaken ''anuvrata'' (Smaller Vows) than for the [[Jain monasticism|Jain monastics]] who are bound by the [[Mahavrata]] "Great Vows".<ref>Dundas pp. 158–159, 189–192; Laidlaw pp. 173–175, 179; ''Religious Vegetarianism'', ed. [[Kerry S. Walters]] and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 43–46 (translation of the First Great Vow).</ref> The statement ''{{IAST|ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ}}'' is often found inscribed on the walls of the [[Jain temple]]s.<ref name=pauldundas160>Dundas, Paul: ''The Jains'', second edition, London 2002, p. 160; Wiley, Kristi L.: ''Ahimsa and Compassion in Jainism'', in: ''Studies in Jaina History and Culture'', ed. Peter Flügel, London 2006, p. 438; Laidlaw pp. 153–154.</ref> Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.<ref>Laidlaw pp. 26–30, 191–195.</ref> When [[Mahavira]] revived and reorganized the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century B.C.E.,<ref>Dundas p. 24 suggests the 5th century; the traditional dating of Mahavira's death is 527 B.C.E.</ref> Ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule.<ref>Goyal, S.R.: ''A History of Indian Buddhism'', Meerut 1987, p. 83–85.</ref> [[Rishabhanatha]] (Ādinātha), the first Jain [[Tirthankara]], whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, followed by [[Parshvanatha]] (Pārśvanātha)<ref>Dundas pp. 19, 30; Tähtinen p. 132.</ref> the twenty-third [[Tirthankara]] lived in about the 8th century B.C.E.<ref>Dundas p. 30 suggests the 8th or 7th century; the traditional chronology places him in the late 9th or early 8th century.</ref> He founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged.<ref>[[Acaranga Sutra]] 2.15.</ref> Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" (''Caujjama''), the vows taken by Parshva's followers.<ref>[[Sthananga Sutra]] 266; Tähtinen p. 132; Goyal p. 83–84, 103.</ref> In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of Ahimsa.<ref>Dundas pp. 160, 234, 241; Wiley p. 448; Granoff, Phyllis: ''The Violence of Non-Violence: A Study of Some Jain Responses to Non-Jain Religious Practices'', in: ''Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies'' 15 (1992) pp. 1–43; Tähtinen pp. 8–9.</ref> According to the Jain tradition either [[lacto vegetarianism]] or [[veganism]] is mandatory.<ref>Laidlaw p. 169.</ref>
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<blockquote>No religion in the world has explained the principle of ''Ahimsa'' so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of ''Ahimsa'' or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond. Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahavira is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on ''Ahimsa''.<ref> Janardan Pandey (ed.), ''Gandhi and 21st Century'' (Concept Publishing Company, 1998, ISBN 978-8170226727).</ref></blockquote>
  
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The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.<ref>Laidlaw pp. 166–167; Tähtinen p. 37.</ref> Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants.<ref>Lodha, R.M.: ''Conservation of Vegetation and Jain Philosophy'', in: ''Medieval Jainism: Culture and Environment'', New Delhi 1990, p. 137–141; Tähtinen p. 105.</ref> Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals.<ref>Jindal p. 89; Laidlaw pp. 54, 154–155, 180.</ref> For example, Jains often do not go out at night, when they are more likely to step upon an insect. In their view, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action.<ref>Sutrakrtangasutram 1.8.3; Uttaradhyayanasutra 10; Tattvarthasutra 7.8; Dundas pp. 161–162.</ref> Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees.<ref>[[Hemacandra]]: ''Yogashastra'' 3.37; Laidlaw pp. 166–167.</ref> Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects,<ref>Laidlaw p. 180.</ref> but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers.<ref>Sangave, Vilas Adinath: ''Jaina Community. A Social Survey'', second edition, Bombay 1980, p. 259; Dundas p. 191.</ref>
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The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the five vows of Jainism. Other vows like truth (Satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā.<ref name=Vijay/> In the practice of Ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons ([[sravakas]]) who have undertaken ''anuvrata'' (Smaller Vows) than for the [[Jain monasticism|Jain monastics]] who are bound by the [[Mahavrata]] "Great Vows."<ref>Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess (eds.). ''Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama'' (SUNY Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0791449721).</ref>  
  
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Theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury, but Jains recognise a hierarchy of life. Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. For the mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more they care about non-injuring it. Among the five-sensed beings, the precept of non-injury and non-violence to the rational ones (humans) is strongest in Jain Ahimsa.<ref>Jindal pp. 89, 125–133 (detailed exposition of the classification system); Tähtinen pp. 17, 113.</ref>
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The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterized by several aspects. Theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury, but Jains recognize a hierarchy of life. Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. Among mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed, and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal having touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more care they receive.  
  
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Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,<ref>''Nisithabhasya'' (in ''Nisithasutra'') 289; Jinadatta Suri: ''Upadesharasayana'' 26; Dundas pp. 162–163; Tähtinen p. 31.</ref> and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.<ref>Jindal pp. 89–90; Laidlaw pp. 154–155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.: ''Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism'', in: ''Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism'', ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52–60; Tähtinen p. 31.</ref> Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence, there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.<ref>Harisena, ''Brhatkathakosa'' 124 (10th century); Jindal pp. 90–91; Sangave p. 259.</ref>
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Jains do not make any exception for ritual sacrifice and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.<ref name=Tahtinen/> Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects, but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers.<ref name=Dundas/>
  
 
===Buddhism===
 
===Buddhism===
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The traditional Buddhist understanding of nonviolence is not as rigid as the Jain one.  
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The traditional [[Buddhist]] understanding of nonviolence is not as rigid as the Jain one. In Buddhist texts ''Ahimsa'' (or its [[Pāli]] cognate {{IAST|avihiṃsā}}) is part of the [[Five Precepts]] ({{IAST|Pañcasīla}}), the first of which is to abstain from killing. This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community.<ref>Paul Williams, ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'' (Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0415332265).</ref>
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In Buddhist texts ''Ahimsa'' (or its [[Pāli]] cognate {{IAST|avihiṃsā}}) is part of the [[Five Precepts]] ({{IAST|Pañcasīla}}), the first of which has been to abstain from killing. This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community.<ref name="Williams2005p398">{{cite book|author=Paul Williams |title=Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgrZnmKUKtgC |year=2005|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-33226-2 |page=398 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bodhi Bhikkhu|title=Great Disciples of the Buddha: Their Lives, Their Works, Their Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=teUGAAAAYAAJ |year=1997|publisher=Wisdom Publications|isbn=978-0-86171-128-4 |pages=387 with footnote 12}};<br>Sarao, p. 49; Goyal p. 143; Tähtinen p. 37.</ref><ref name="Lamotte, Etienne 1988, p. 54-55">Lamotte, pp. 54–55.</ref>
 
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The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for layperson, but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth.{{sfn|McFarlane |2001|p=187}} Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.{{sfn|McFarlane |2001|p=187}} Saving animals from slaughter for meat, is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth.{{sfn|McFarlane |2001|pp=187–191}} The Buddhist texts not only recommended Ahimsa, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:
 
  
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{{Quote|
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The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for laypersons, but its power is in the Buddhist belief in [[karma|karmic]] consequences and their impact in the [[afterlife]] during rebirth.<ref name=Harvey>Peter Harvey, ''An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012, ISBN 0521676746).</ref> Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.<ref name=Harvey/> Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth.<ref name=Harvey/> The Buddhist texts not only recommend Ahimsa, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:
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These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison.
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<blockquote>These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison.<ref> Martine Batchelor, ''The Spirit of the Buddha'' (Yale University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0300164077).</ref></blockquote>
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|Anguttara Nikaya V.177|Translated by Martine Batchelor<ref>{{cite book|author=Martine Batchelor|title=The Spirit of the Buddha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fL3mykqlOJcC&pg=PT59 |year=2014|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-17500-4 |page=59 }}</ref>}}
 
  
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Unlike lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions.{{sfn|McFarlane |2001|p=192}} Full expulsion of a monk from ''sangha'' follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic ''nikaya'' code of conduct.{{sfn|McFarlane |2001|p=192}}
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Unlike lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from ''sangha'' follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic ''nikaya'' code of conduct.<ref name=Harvey/>
  
 
=====War=====
 
=====War=====
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Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism,<ref>Sarao p. 53; Tähtinen pp. 95, 102.</ref> but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged.<ref>Tähtinen pp. 95, 102–103.</ref><ref>Kurt A. Raaflaub, [https://books.google.com/books?id=FMxgef2VJEwC&pg=PA61 ''War and Peace in the Ancient World.''] Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p. 61.</ref> The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 52.</ref>
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Violent ways of punishing criminals and [[prisoners of war]] are not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury are encouraged.<ref>Kurt A. Raaflaub, ''War and Peace in the Ancient World''] (Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 978-1405145268).</ref>  
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Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the [[Pali Canon]].<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 111.</ref> While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal king as a pacifist, such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army.<ref name="Tessa Bartholomeusz 2002, page 41">Bartholomeusz, p. 41.</ref> It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists.<ref name="Tessa Bartholomeusz 2002, page 41"/> The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 50.</ref> In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]; later Mahayana texts, which often generalise monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.<ref>Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., ''Buddhism.'' Continuum, 2001, pages 195–196.</ref>
 
  
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The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 40.</ref> Some argue that a [[suttas|sutta]] in the ''Gamani Samyuttam'' rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 125–126. Full texts of the sutta:[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn42/sn42.003.than.html].</ref> In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.<ref>Rune E.A. Johansson, ''The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism.'' Curzon Press 1979, page 33.</ref>
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While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal king as a pacifist, such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army.<ref name=Bartholomeusz>Tessa J. Bartholomeusz, ''In Defense of Dharma'' (Routledge, 2002, ISBN 978-0700716821).</ref> It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare.<ref name=Bartholomeusz/> In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]]; later Mahayana texts, which often generalize monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.<ref>Peter Harvey (ed.), ''Buddhism'' (Bloomsbury Academic, 2001, ISBN 978-0826453518).</ref>
  
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Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 40–53. Some examples are the ''Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta'', the ''Kosala Samyutta'', the ''Ratthapala Sutta'', and the ''Sinha Sutta''. See also page 125. See also Trevor Ling, ''Buddhism, Imperialism, and War.'' George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136–137.</ref> One example is the ''Kosala Samyutta'', in which King [[Pasenadi]], a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defence, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King [[Ajatasattu]] and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of [[Magadha]] has transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajatasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him.<ref>Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). ''The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya''. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-331-1.</ref> Upon his return, the Buddha said (among other things) that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 49, 52–53.</ref>
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The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a [[suttas|sutta]] in the ''Gamani Samyuttam'' rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.<ref name=Bartholomeusz/> In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.<ref>Rune E.A. Johansson, ''The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism'' (Curzon Press, 1979, ISBN 978-0700701148).</ref>
  
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According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death.<ref>Hammalawa Saddhatissa, ''Buddhist Ethics.'' Wisdom Publications, 1997, pages 60, 159, see also Bartholomeusz page 121.</ref> Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicization is predicated upon intent.<ref>Bartholomeusz, p. 121.</ref> Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.<ref>Bartholomeusz, pp. 44, 121–122, 124.</ref>
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Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.<ref>Some examples are the ''Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta'', the ''Kosala Samyutta'', the ''Ratthapala Sutta'', and the ''Sinha Sutta''. </ref> In the ''Kosala Samyutta'', King [[Pasenadi]], a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defense, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King [[Ajatasattu]] and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of [[Magadha]] had transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajatasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him.<ref> Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.), ''The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya'' (Wisdom Publications, 2003, ISBN 978-0861713318).</ref> Upon his return, the Buddha said that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue," while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu.<ref name=Bartholomeusz/>
  
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According to [[Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar]], there is circumstantial evidence encouraging Ahimsa, from the Buddha's doctrine, ''"Love all, so that you may not wish to kill any."'' Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule. He did not make Ahimsa a matter of rule, but suggested it as a matter of principle. This gives Buddhists freedom to act.<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/04_02.html#03_02 The Buddha and His Dhamma]. Columbia.edu. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref>
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According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death.<ref>Hammalawa Saddhatissa, ''Buddhist Ethics'' (Wisdom Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-0861711246). </ref> Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicization is predicated upon intent. In defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.<ref name=Bartholomeusz/>
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=====Laws=====
 
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The emperors of [[Sui dynasty]], [[Tang dynasty]] and early [[Song dynasty]] banned killing in Lunar calendar [[Chinese New Year|1st]], 5th, and 9th month.<ref>[http://www.bya.org.hk/life/hokfu/new_page_3.htm#34 卷糺 佛教的慈悲觀]. Bya.org.hk. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref><ref>[http://www.drnh.gov.tw/www/page/c_book/b14/試探《護生畫集》的護生觀.pdf 試探《護生畫集》的護生觀 高明芳]{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> [[Wu Zetian|Empress Wu Tse-Tien]] banned killing for more than half a year in 692.<ref>[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-AN/an2414.htm 「護生」精神的實踐舉隅]. Ccbs.ntu.edu.tw. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> Some also banned fishing for some time each year.<ref>[http://www.cclw.net/gospel/asking/dmz10w/htm/02.htm 答妙贞十问]. Cclw.net. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref>
 
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There were bans after death of emperors,<ref>[http://www.bya.org.hk/life/Q&A_2006/Q&A_bya/128_Q.htm 第一二八期 佛法自由談]. Bya.org.hk. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> Buddhist and Taoist prayers,<ref>[http://www.bfnn.org/book/books2/1187.htm 虛雲和尚法彙—書問]. Bfnn.org. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> and natural disasters such as after a drought in 1926 summer Shanghai and an 8 days ban from August 12, 1959, after the August 7 flood ([[:zh:八七水災|八七水災]]), the last big flood before [[the 88 Taiwan Flood]].<ref>[http://www.plela.org/Cmapwork/link/crona1.htm 道安長老年譜]. Plela.org. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref>
 
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People avoid killing during some festivals, like the Taoist [[Ghost Festival]],<ref>[http://www.sx.chinanews.com.cn/2008-08-18/1/69009.html 农历中元节]. Sx.chinanews.com.cn. Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref> the [[Nine Emperor Gods Festival]], the [[Vegetarian Festival]] and many others.<ref>[http://www.mxzxw.cn/zwhgz/wszl_16_23.htm 明溪县“禁屠日”习俗的由来]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[http://www.chinesefolklore.org.cn/web/index.php?Page=2&NewsID=3016 建构的节日：政策过程视角下的唐玄宗诞节]. Chinesefolklore.org.cn (2008-02-16). Retrieved on 2011-06-15.</ref>
 
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{{clear}}
 
  
 
==Pragmatic nonviolence==
 
==Pragmatic nonviolence==
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The fundamental concept of ''pragmatic'' (''tactical'' or ''strategic'') nonviolent action is to create a social dynamic or political movement that can create a national or international dialogue which effects social change without necessarily winning over those who wish to maintain the status quo.<ref name="CRMV">[http://www.crmvet.org/info/nvpower.htm Nonviolent Resistance & Political Power] ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans (U.S.)</ref>
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The fundamental concept of '''pragmatic''' ('''tactical''' or '''strategic''') nonviolent action is to effect [[social change]] by mobilizing "people-power while at the same time limiting and restricting the ability of opponents to suppress the movement with violence and money-power."<ref> Bruce Hartford, [http://www.crmvet.org/info/nvpower.htm Nonviolent Resistance & Political Power] 2008. Retrieved January 5, 2020.</ref>  
  
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[[Nicolas Walter]] noted the idea that nonviolence might work "runs under the surface of Western political thought without ever quite disappearing".<ref name="nw">Nicolas Walter, "Non-Violent Resistance:Men Against War". Reprinted
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Social change is to be achieved through [[symbol]]ic [[protest]]s, [[civil disobedience]], economic or political noncooperation, [[satyagraha]], or other methods, while being nonviolent. This type of action highlights the desires of an individual or group that something needs to change to improve the current condition of the resisting person or group.
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in Nicolas Walter, ''Damned Fools in Utopia'' edited by [[David Goodway]]. PM Press 2010.
 
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ISBN 160486222X (pp. 37-78).</ref> Walter noted [[Étienne de La Boétie]]'s ''[[Discourse on Voluntary Servitude]]'' (sixteenth century) and [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|P.B. Shelley's]] ''[[The Masque of Anarchy]]'' (1819) contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence.<ref name="nw" /> In 1838, [[William Lloyd Garrison]] helped
 
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found the [[Non-Resistance Society|New England Non-Resistance Society]], a society devoted to achieving racial and gender equality through the rejection of all violent actions.<ref name="nw" />
 
  
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In modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors without mainstream political power such as labor, peace, environment and women's movements. Lesser known is the role that nonviolent action has played and continues to play in undermining the power of repressive political regimes in the developing world and the former eastern bloc. Susan Ives emphasizes this point by quoting [[Walter Wink]]: {{Quotation|"In 1989, thirteen nations comprising 1,695,000,000 people experienced nonviolent revolutions that succeeded beyond anyone's wildest expectations ... If we add all the countries touched by major nonviolent actions in our century (the Philippines, South Africa ... the independence movement in India ...), the figure reaches 3,337,400,000, a staggering 65% of humanity! All this in the teeth of the assertion, endlessly repeated, that nonviolence doesn't work in the 'real' world."|Walter Wink|Christian theologian<ref name=Ives2001/>}}
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Advocates of nonviolent action believe cooperation and consent are the roots of civil or political power: all regimes, including bureaucratic institutions, financial institutions, and the armed segments of society (such as the [[military]] and [[police]]) depend on compliance from citizens.<ref name=SharpPolitics/> On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent and cooperation.
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[[File:Gandhi at Dandi 5 April 1930.jpg|thumb|200px|Gandhi used the weapon of nonviolence against [[British Raj]] in the Salt March, 1930.]]
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In modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors lacking mainstream political power, such as labor, peace, environment, and women's movements. Examples of such movements are the [[Non-cooperation movement|non-cooperation campaign]] for [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]] led by [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], the [[Civil Rights Movement]] in the [[United States]], and the [[People Power Revolution]] in the [[Philippines]]. In addition to Gandhi, major nonviolent resistance advocates include [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Te Whiti o Rongomai]], [[Tohu Kākahi]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Alice Paul]], [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King, Jr]], [[Daniel Berrigan]], [[Philip Berrigan]], [[James Bevel]], [[Václav Havel]], [[Andrei Sakharov]], [[Lech Wałęsa]], [[Gene Sharp]], and [[Nelson Mandela]].  
  
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As a technique for social struggle, nonviolent action has been described as "the politics of ordinary people", reflecting its historically mass-based use by populations throughout the world and history.
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Of primary significance in nonviolent action is the understanding that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends. Proponents of nonviolence reason that the actions taken in the present inevitably re-shape the social order in like form. They would argue, for instance, that it is fundamentally irrational to use violence to achieve a peaceful society. For instance, [[Gandhi]] wrote in 1908 that "The means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree; and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree."<ref> Mohandas K. Gandhi, ''Hind Swaraj Or Indian Home Rule'' (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2009, ISBN 978-1449922214).</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], a student of Gandhian nonviolent resistance, concurred with this tenet in his letter from the Birmingham jail, concluding that "nonviolence demands that the means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek."<ref>Martin Luther King, Jr., [https://genius.com/Martin-luther-king-jr-letter-from-birmingham-jail-annotated Letter From Birmingham Jail] Retrieved January 8, 2020.</ref>
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[[File:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Martin Luther King]] speaking at the 1963 "[[March on Washington]]".]]
  
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Movements most often associated with nonviolence are the [[Non-cooperation movement|non-cooperation campaign]] for [[Indian independence movement|Indian independence]] led by [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]], the [[Civil Rights Movement]] in the [[United States]], and the [[People Power Revolution]] in the [[Philippines]].
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The term "nonviolence" is often wrongly equated with passivity and [[pacifism]], but this is incorrect.<ref>Peter Ackerman and Jack DuVall, ''A Force More Powerful: A Century of Non-violent Conflict'' (St. Martin's Griffin, 2000, ISBN 978-0312240509).</ref> Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is the choice to do no harm or the least harm, while passivity is the choice to do nothing. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] explained that nonviolence is an active weapon:
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<blockquote>Nonviolence is a powerful and just weapon. Indeed, it is a weapon unique in history, which cuts without wounding and ennobles the man who wields it.<ref>Martin Luther King, Jr., [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/1964/king/lecture/ The Quest for Peace and Justice] The Nobel Peace Prize Lecture, 1964. Retrieved January 7, 2020.</ref>
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</blockquote>
  
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Also of primary significance is the notion that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends. When Gandhi said that "the means may be likened to the seed, the end to a tree," he expressed the philosophical kernel of what some refer to as ''[[prefigurative politics]]''. Martin Luther King, a student of Gandhian nonviolent resistance, concurred with this tenet, concluding that "nonviolence demands that the means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek." Proponents of nonviolence reason that the actions taken in the present inevitably re-shape the social order in like form. They would argue, for instance, that it is fundamentally irrational to use violence to achieve a peaceful society.
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Respect or love for opponents also has a pragmatic justification, in that the technique of separating the deeds from the doers allows for the possibility of the doers changing their behavior, and perhaps their beliefs. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] wrote, "Nonviolent resistance... avoids not only external physical violence but also internal violence of spirit. The nonviolent resister not only refuses to shoot his opponent, but he also refuses to hate him."<ref>Martin Luther King, Jr., ''Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story'' (Beacon Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0807000694).</ref>
  
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[[File:Gandhi at Dandi 5 April 1930.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Gandhi used the weapon of nonviolence against [[British Raj]]]]
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Finally, the notion of ''[[Satya]]'', or Truth, is central to the Gandhian conception of nonviolence. Gandhi saw Truth as something that is multifaceted and unable to be grasped in its entirety by any one individual. All carry pieces of the Truth, he believed, but all need the pieces of others’ truths in order to pursue the greater Truth. This led him to believe in the inherent worth of dialogue with opponents, in order to understand motivations.
  
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Respect or love for opponents also has a pragmatic justification, in that the technique of separating the deeds from the doers allows for the possibility of the doers changing their behaviour, and perhaps their beliefs. Martin Luther King wrote, "Nonviolent resistance... avoids not only external physical violence but also internal violence of spirit. The nonviolent resister not only refuses to shoot his opponent, but he also refuses to hate him."<ref name="Jr.2010">{{cite book|author=Martin Luther King, Jr.|authorlink=Martin Luther King, Jr.|title=Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnJ1NY5mbXEC&pg=PT114|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-0070-0|page=114|date=2010-01-01}}</ref>
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Nonviolent action generally comprises three categories: Acts of Protest and Persuasion, Noncooperation, and Nonviolent Intervention.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/events/nonviolenceday/background.shtml Background] ''International Day of Nonviolence'', United Nations. Retrieved January 8, 2020,</ref>
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Finally, the notion of ''[[Satya]]'', or Truth, is central to the Gandhian conception of nonviolence. Gandhi saw Truth as something that is multifaceted and unable to be grasped in its entirety by any one individual. All carry pieces of the Truth, he believed, but all need the pieces of others’ truths in order to pursue the greater Truth. This led him to believe in the inherent worth of dialogue with opponents, in order to understand motivations. On a practical level, the willingness to listen to another's point of view is largely dependent on reciprocity. In order to be heard by one's opponents, one must also be prepared to listen.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
 
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Nonviolence has obtained a level of institutional recognition and endorsement at the global level. On November 10, 1998, the [[United Nations]] General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the 21st century and the third millennium, the years 2001 to 2010, as the International [[Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World]].
 
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[[File:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|[[Martin Luther King]] speaking at the 1963 "[[March on Washington]]".]]
 
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[[File:Extinction Rebellion - April 2019 (33894582408).jpg|thumb|Banner "Non-violent" at an [[Extinction Rebellion]] bridge blocking (London, 2019).]]
 
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Advocates of nonviolent action believe cooperation and consent are the roots of civil or political power: all regimes, including bureaucratic institutions, financial institutions, and the armed segments of society (such as the military and police); depend on compliance from citizens.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sharp | first = Gene | authorlink = Gene Sharp | title = The Politics of Nonviolent Action | publisher = Porter Sargent | year = 1973 | page = 12 | isbn = 978-0-87558-068-5 | url = https://archive.org/details/politicsofnonvio00gene }}</ref> On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent and cooperation.
 
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Nonviolent action generally comprises three categories: ''Acts of Protest and Persuasion'', ''Noncooperation'', and ''Nonviolent Intervention''.<ref name="UN">[https://www.un.org/events/nonviolence/2008/background.shtml United Nations International Day of Non-Violence], United Nations, 2008. see [[International Day of Non-Violence]].</ref>
 
  
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===Acts of protest===
 
[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Salt Satyagraha|Salt March]] on March 12, 1930]]
 
[[File:Gandhi Salt March.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Salt Satyagraha|Salt March]] on March 12, 1930]]
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[[File:Vietnamdem.jpg|250px|thumb|right|A demonstrator offers a flower to military police at a [[National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam]]-sponsored protest in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington]], [[Virginia]], on October 21, 1967]]
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Nonviolent acts of protest and persuasion are symbolic actions performed by a group of people to show their support or disapproval of something. The goal of this kind of action is to bring public awareness to an issue, persuade or influence a particular group of people, or to facilitate future nonviolent action. The message can be directed toward the public, opponents, or people affected by the issue. Methods of protest and persuasion include speeches, public communications, [[petition]]s, symbolic acts, art, processions (marches), and other public assemblies.<ref name="sharp2005" >Gene Sharp, ''Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential'' (Extending Horizons Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0875581620).</ref>
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[[File:Non-violent resistance during the No NATO protests, Chicago, May 20, 2012 (7245658490).jpg|250px|right|thumb|A "No NATO" protester in Chicago, 2012]]
 
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'''Nonviolent resistance''' ('''NVR''' or '''nonviolent action''') is the practice of achieving [[goal]]s such as social change through [[symbol]]ic [[protest]]s, [[civil disobedience]], economic or political noncooperation, [[satyagraha]], or other methods, while being [[nonviolent]].
 
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This type of action highlights the desires of an individual or group that feels that something needs to change to improve the current condition of the resisting person or group.
 
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Nonviolent resistance is largely but wrongly taken as synonymous with [[civil disobedience]]. Each of these terms—''nonviolent resistance'' and ''civil disobedience''—has different connotations and commitments. Berel Lang argues against the conflation of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience on the grounds that the necessary conditions for an act instancing civil disobedience are: (1) that the act violates the law, (2) that the act is performed intentionally, and (3), that the actor anticipates and willingly accepts punitive measures made on the part of the state against him in retaliation for the act. Since acts of nonviolent political resistance need not satisfy any of these criteria, Lang argues that the two categories of action cannot be identified with one another.<ref name="Berel Lang, CD, NVR">{{cite journal |last1=Lang |first1=Berel |title=Civil Disobedience and Nonviolence: A Distinction with a Difference |journal=Ethics |date=1970 |volume=80 |issue=2 |page=157 |jstor=2379879 }}</ref> Furthermore, civil disobedience is a form of political action which necessarily aims at reform, rather than revolution: its efforts are typically directed at the disputing of particular laws or group of laws, while conceding the authority of the government responsible for them.<ref name="Berel Lang, CD, NVR" /> In contrast, political acts of nonviolent resistance can have revolutionary ends.<ref name="Berel Lang, CD, NVR" /> Finally, according to Lang, civil disobedience need not be nonviolent, although the extent and intensity of the violence is limited by the non-revolutionary intentions of the persons engaging in civil disobedience.<ref name="Berel Lang, CD, NVR" /> For example, Lang argues, the violent resistance by citizens being forcibly relocated to detentions, short of the use of lethal violence against representatives of the state, could plausibly count as civil disobedience but could not count as nonviolent resistance.<ref name="Berel Lang, CD, NVR" />
 
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Major nonviolent resistance advocates include [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Te Whiti o Rongomai]], [[Tohu Kākahi]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], [[Alice Paul]], [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King, Jr]], [[Daniel Berrigan]], [[Philip Berrigan]], [[James Bevel]], [[Václav Havel]], [[Andrei Sakharov]], [[Lech Wałęsa]], [[Gene Sharp]], [[Nelson Mandela]], and many others. There are hundreds of books and papers on the subject—see [[#Further reading|Further reading]] below.
 
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From 1966 to 1999, nonviolent civic resistance played a critical role in fifty of sixty-seven transitions from [[authoritarianism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aforcemorepowerful.org/game/index.php|title=A Force More Powerful|publisher=A Force More Powerful|date=2010-07-01|accessdate=2010-09-01}}</ref> Recently, nonviolent resistance has led to the [[Rose Revolution]] in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and the [[Tunisian Revolution|Jasmine Revolution]] in [[Tunisia]]. Current nonviolent resistance includes the [[Jeans Revolution]] in Belarus, the [[Black Lives Matter]] movement in the United States initially and now internationally, the fight of the [[Cuban dissidents]], and internationally the [[Extinction Rebellion]] and [[School strike for climate]].
 
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Many movements which promote philosophies of [[nonviolence]] or [[pacifism]] have pragmatically adopted the methods of nonviolent action as an effective way to achieve social or [[politics|political]] goals.  They employ nonviolent resistance tactics such as: [[information warfare]], [[Picketing (protest)|picketing]], [[Demonstration (protest)|marches]], [[vigil]]s, leafletting, [[samizdat]], [[magnitizdat]], [[satyagraha]], [[protest art]], [[Protest song|protest music]] and poetry, community education and [[consciousness raising]], [[lobbying]], [[tax resistance]], [[civil disobedience]], [[boycott]]s or [[Economic sanctions|sanctions]], legal/diplomatic wrestling, [[Underground Railroad]]s, principled refusal of awards/honors, and [[general strike]]s. Nonviolent action differs from pacifism by potentially being proactive and interventionist.
 
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A great deal of work has addressed the factors that lead to violent mobilization, but less attention has been paid to understanding why disputes become violent or nonviolent, comparing these two as strategic choices relative to conventional politics.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cunningham|first1=K. G.|title=Understanding strategic choice: The determinants of civil war and nonviolent campaign in self-determination disputes|journal=Journal of Peace Research|date=16 May 2013|volume=50|issue=3|pages=291–304|doi=10.1177/0022343313475467}}</ref>
 
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===Acts of protest===
 
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Nonviolent acts of protest and persuasion are symbolic actions performed by a group of people to show their support or disapproval of something. The goal of this kind of action is to bring public awareness to an issue, persuade or influence a particular group of people, or to facilitate future nonviolent action. The message can be directed toward the public, opponents, or people affected by the issue. Methods of protest and persuasion include speeches, public communications, [[petition]]s, symbolic acts, art, [[Demonstration (people)|processions (marches), and other public assemblies]].<ref name="sharp2005" >{{cite book | last = Sharp | first = Gene | authorlink = Gene Sharp | title = Waging Nonviolent Struggle | publisher = Extending Horizon Books | year = 2005 | pages = 50–65 | isbn = 978-0-87558-162-0}}</ref>
 
  
 
===Noncooperation===
 
===Noncooperation===
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Noncooperation involves the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness to initiate in cooperation with an opponent. The goal of noncooperation is to halt or hinder an industry, political system, or economic process. Methods of noncooperation include labor [[strike]]s, [[boycott|economic boycotts]], [[civil disobedience]], [[Tax resistance|tax refusal]], and general disobedience.<ref name="sharp2005" />
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Noncooperation involves the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness to initiate in cooperation with an opponent. The goal of noncooperation is to halt or hinder an industry, political system, or economic process. Methods of noncooperation include [[labour strike]]s, [[boycotts|economic boycotts]], [[civil disobedience]], [[sex strike]], [[Tax resistance|tax refusal]], and general disobedience.<ref name="sharp2005" />
 
  
 
===Nonviolent intervention===
 
===Nonviolent intervention===
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Compared with protest and noncooperation, nonviolent intervention is a more direct method of nonviolent action. Nonviolent intervention can be used defensively—for example to maintain an institution or independent initiative—or offensively-for example, to drastically forward a nonviolent struggle into the opponent's territory. Intervention is often more immediate and effective than the other two methods, but is also harder to maintain and more taxing to the participants involved. Tactics must be carefully chosen, taking into account political and cultural circumstances, and form part of a larger plan or strategy. Methods of nonviolent intervention include occupations ([[sit-in]]s), [[blockade]]s, and fasting ([[hunger strikes]]), among others.<ref name="sharp2005" />
  
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Compared with protest and noncooperation, nonviolent intervention is a more direct method of nonviolent action. Nonviolent intervention can be used defensively—for example to maintain an institution or independent initiative—or offensively- for example, to drastically forward a nonviolent struggle into the opponent's territory. Intervention is often more immediate and effective than the other two methods, but is also harder to maintain and more taxing to the participants involved.
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Another powerful tactic of nonviolent intervention invokes public scrutiny of the oppressors as a result of the resisters remaining nonviolent in the face of violent repression. If the military or police attempt to repress nonviolent resisters violently, the power to act shifts from the hands of the oppressors to those of the resisters. If the resisters are persistent, the military or police will be forced to accept the fact that they no longer have any power over the resisters. Often, the willingness of the resisters to suffer has a profound effect on the mind and emotions of the oppressor, leaving them unable to commit such a violent act again.<ref name=SharpPolitics>Gene Sharp, ''The Politics of Nonviolent Action'' (P. Sargent Publisher, 1973, ISBN 978-0875580685).</ref>
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[[Gene Sharp]], a political scientist who seeks to advance the worldwide study and use of strategic nonviolent action in conflict, has written extensively about the methods of nonviolent action.  In his book ''Waging Nonviolent Struggle'' he describes 198 methods of nonviolent action.<ref>{{Cite journal | url = http://peacemagazine.org/198.htm  | title = The Methods of Nonviolent Action | last = Sharp | first = Gene | authorlink = Gene Sharp | year = 1973 | publisher = Peace magazine | accessdate = 2008-11-07 | postscript = <!--None—>}}</ref> In early Greece, [[Aristophanes]]' [[Lysistrata]] gives the fictional example of women withholding sexual favors from their husbands until war was abandoned. A modern work of fiction inspired by Gene Sharp and by Aristophanes is ''[[A Door into Ocean]]'' by [[Joan Slonczewski]], depicting an ocean world inhabited by women who use nonviolent means to repel armed space invaders. Other methods of nonviolent intervention include occupations ([[sit-in]]s), [[blockade]]s, fasting ([[hunger strikes]]), truck cavalcades, and dual sovereignty/parallel government.<ref name="sharp2005" />
 
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Tactics must be carefully chosen, taking into account political and cultural circumstances, and form part of a larger plan or strategy.
 
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Successful [[Third Party Nonviolent Intervention|nonviolent cross-border intervention]] projects include the Guatemala Accompaniment Project,<ref>[http://www.nisgua.org/ Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala]</ref> [[Peace Brigades International]] and [[Christian Peacemaker Teams]]. Developed in the early 1980s, and originally inspired by the Gandhian [[Shanti Sena]], the primary tools of these organisations have been nonviolent protective accompaniment, backed up by a global support network which can respond to threats, local and regional grassroots diplomatic and [[peacebuilding]] efforts, human rights observation and witnessing, and reporting.<ref>{{cite web | title=PBI's principles | url=http://www.peacebrigades.org/about-pbi/how-we-work/ | website=Peace Brigades International | publisher=PBI General Assembly | origyear=1992 | year=2001 | accessdate=2009-05-17 | url-status=dead | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602190353/http://www.peacebrigades.org/about-pbi/how-we-work/ | archivedate=2010-06-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Christian Peace Maker Teams Mission Statement | url=http://www.cpt.org/about/mission | website=Christian Peacemaker Team | publisher=CPT founding conference | year=1986 | accessdate=2009-05-17}}</ref>  In extreme cases, most of these groups are also prepared to do interpositioning: placing themselves between parties who are engaged or threatening to engage in outright attacks in one or both directions.  Individual and large group cases of interpositioning, when called for, have been remarkably effective in dampening conflict and saving lives.
 
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Another powerful tactic of nonviolent intervention invokes public scrutiny of the oppressors as a result of the resisters remaining nonviolent in the face of violent repression. If the military or police attempt to repress nonviolent resisters violently, the power to act shifts from the hands of the oppressors to those of the resisters. If the resisters are persistent, the military or police will be forced to accept the fact that they no longer have any power over the resisters. Often, the willingness of the resisters to suffer has a profound effect on the mind and emotions of the oppressor, leaving them unable to commit such a violent act again.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sharp | first = Gene | authorlink = Gene Sharp | title = The Politics of Nonviolent Action | publisher = P. Sargent Publisher | year = 1973 | page = 657 | isbn = 978-0-87558-068-5 | url = https://archive.org/details/politicsofnonvio00gene }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Sharp | first = Gene | authorlink = Gene Sharp | title = Waging Nonviolent Struggle | publisher = Extending Horizon Books | year = 2005 | page = 381 | isbn = 978-0-87558-162-0}}</ref>
 
  
 
==Nonviolent Revolution==
 
==Nonviolent Revolution==
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Certain individuals ([[Barbara Deming]], [[Danilo Dolci]], [[Devere Allen]] etc.) and party groups (e.g. [[Committees of Correspondence for Democracy and Socialism]], [[Pacifist Socialist Party]] or [[War Resisters League]]) have advocated [[nonviolent revolution]] as an alternative to violence as well as elitist reformism. This perspective is usually connected to militant [[anti-capitalism]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}
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A '''nonviolent revolution''' is a [[revolution]] using mostly campaigns with [[civil resistance]], including various forms of [[nonviolent resistance|nonviolent protest]], to bring about the departure of governments seen as entrenched and [[authoritarian]]. Such an approach has been advocated by various individuals (such as [[Barbara Deming]], [[Danilo Dolci]], and [[Devere Allen]]) and party groups (for instance, [[Committees of Correspondence for Democracy and Socialism]], [[Pacifist Socialist Party]], or [[War Resisters League]]).  
  
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Many leftist and socialist movements <!-- which movements? —> have hoped to mount a "peaceful revolution" by organising enough strikers to completely paralyse the state and corporate apparatus, allowing workers to re-organise society along radically different lines. {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} Some have argued that a relatively nonviolent revolution would require fraternisation with military forces.<ref>[http://internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1555 Daniel Jakopovich: Revolution and the Party in Gramsci's Thought: A Modern Application.]</ref>
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Generally a nonviolent revolution is characterized by simultaneous advocacy of [[democracy]], [[human rights]], and [[national independence]] in the country concerned. One theory of democracy is that its main purpose is to allow peaceful revolutions. The idea is that majorities voting in elections approximate the result of a coup. In 1962, [[John F. Kennedy]] famously said, "Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable."<ref>John F. Kennedy, [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Address_on_the_First_Anniversary_of_the_Alliance_for_Progress Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress] Delivered at The White House, Washington D.C. on March 13, 1962. Retrieved January 9, 2020.</ref>
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A '''nonviolent revolution''' is a [[revolution]] using mostly campaigns with [[civil resistance]], including various forms of [[nonviolent resistance|nonviolent protest]], to bring about the departure of governments seen as entrenched and [[authoritarian]]. While many campaigns of civil resistance are intended for much more limited goals than revolution, generally a nonviolent revolution is characterized by simultaneous advocacy of [[democracy]], [[human rights]], and [[national independence]] in the country concerned. In some cases a campaign of civil resistance with a revolutionary purpose may be able to bring about the defeat of a dictatorial regime only if it obtains a degree of support from the armed forces, or at least their benevolent neutrality.
 
  
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An effective campaign of civil resistance, and even the achievement of a nonviolent revolution, may be possible in a particular case despite the controlling government taking brutal measures against [[protest]]ers; the commonly held belief that most revolutions which have happened in [[Dictatorship|dictatorial]] regimes were bloody or violent uprisings is not borne out by historical analysis. Nonviolent revolutions in the 20th century became more successful and more common, especially in the 1980s as [[Cold War]] [[Military alliance|political alliances]] which supported [[status quo]] governance waned.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}
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The beginnings of the nonviolence movement lie in the [[satyagraha]] philosophy of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who guided the people of [[British India|India]] to [[independence]] from [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Despite the violence of the [[Partition of India]] following independence, and numerous revolutionary uprisings which were not under Gandhi's control, India's independence was achieved through legal processes after a period of national [[resistance movement|resistance]] rather than through a military revolution.
  
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In the 1970s and 1980s, intellectuals in the [[Soviet Union]] and other [[Communist state]]s, and in some other countries, began to focus on [[civil resistance]] as the most promising means of opposing entrenched authoritarian regimes. The use of various forms of unofficial exchange of information, including by [[samizdat]], expanded. Two major revolutions during the 1980s strongly influenced [[political movement]]s that followed. The first was the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]], in the [[Philippines]] from which the term 'people power' came to be widely used, especially in [[Hispanic]] and [[Asia]]n nations.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1914872,00.html | work=Time | title=Corazon Aquino 1933–2009: The Saint of Democracy | date=August 17, 2009 | accessdate=May 20, 2010 | first=Hannah | last=Beech}}</ref> Three years later, the [[Revolutions of 1989]] that ousted [[communist]] regimes in the [[Eastern Bloc]] reinforced the concept (with the notable exception of the notoriously bloody [[Romanian Revolution of 1989|Romanian Revolution]]), beginning with the victory of [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] in [[1989 Polish legislative elections|that year's Polish legislative elections]]. The Revolutions of 1989 provided the template for the so-called [[color revolution]]s in mainly [[post-communist]] states, which tended to use a [[color]] or [[flower]] as a [[symbol]], somewhat in the manner of the [[Velvet Revolution]] in [[Czechoslovakia]].
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In some cases a campaign of civil resistance with a revolutionary purpose may be able to bring about the defeat of a dictatorial regime only if it obtains a degree of support from the armed forces, or at least their benevolent neutrality. In fact, some have argued that a nonviolent revolution would require fraternization with military forces, like in the relatively nonviolent Portuguese [[Carnation Revolution]].<ref>Dan Jakopovich, [http://internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1555 Revolution and the Party in Gramsci's Thought: A Modern Application] ''International Viewpoint'', November 2008. Retrieved January 9, 2020. </ref>
  
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In December 1989, inspired by the anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe, the [[Mongolian Democratic Union]] (MDU) organized popular street protests and hunger strikes [[1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia|against the communist regime]]. In 1990, dissidents in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]] started civil resistance against the government, but were initially crushed by [[Red Army]] in the [[Black January]] massacre.
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===Methods and Strategy===
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[[Gene Sharp]] has documented and described over 198 different methods of nonviolent action that nonviolent revolutionaries might use in struggle. He argues that no government or institution can rule without the [[consent of the governed]] or oppressed as that is the source of nonviolent power.<ref name=SharpPolitics/>
  
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Recent nonviolent revolutions include the [[Orange Revolution]] in Ukraine, which was highlighted by a series of acts of [[civil disobedience]], [[sit-in]]s, and [[general strike]]s organized by the opposition movement.
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George Lakey laid out a five-stage strategy for nonviolent revolution.<ref>George Lakey, ''Powerful Peacemaking: A Strategy For A Living Revolution'' (New Society Publishers, 1987, ISBN 978-0865710962).</ref>
  
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;Stage 1 – Cultural Preparation or "Conscientization": Education, training and consciousness raising of why there is a need for a nonviolent revolution and how to conduct a nonviolent revolution.
  
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;Stage 2 – Building Organizations: As training, education and consciousness raising continues, the need to form organizations. Affinity groups or nonviolent revolutionary groups are organized to provide support, maintain nonviolent discipline, organize and train other people into similar affinity groups and networks.
  
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The beginnings of the [[nonviolence]] movement lie in the [[satyagraha]] philosophy of [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who guided the people of [[British India|India]] to [[independence]] from [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Despite the violence of the [[Partition of India]] following independence, and numerous revolutionary uprisings which were not under Gandhi's control, India's independence was achieved through legal processes after a period of national [[resistance movement|resistance]] rather than through a military revolution.
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;Stage 3 – Confrontation: Organized and sustained campaigns of picketing, strikes, sit-ins, marches, boycotts, die-ins, blockades to disrupt business as usual in institutions and government. By putting one's body on the line nonviolently the rising movement stops the normal gears of government and business.
  
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According to the [[socialist]] [[Fourth International]], [[Karl Marx]] acknowledged a theoretical possibility of "peaceful" revolutions, but the Fourth International articles also say "The development and preservation of good relations with the military forces is one of the absolute priorities of preparatory revolutionary work". Some have argued that a nonviolent revolution would require fraternisation with military forces, like in the relatively nonviolent
+
;Stage 4 – Mass Non Cooperation: Similar affinity groups and networks of affinity groups around the country and world, engage in similar actions to disrupt business as usual.
−
Portuguese [[Carnation Revolution]].<ref>[http://internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1555 Dan Jakopovich: Revolution and the Party in Gramsci's Thought: A Modern Application.]</ref>
 
  
−
One theory of democracy is that its main purpose is to allow peaceful revolutions. The idea is that majorities voting in elections approximate the result of a coup. In 1962, [[John F. Kennedy]] famously said, "Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable."<ref>JFK's "Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress," White House reception for diplomatic corps of the Latin American republics, March 13, 1962. ''Public Papers of the Presidents'' – John F. Kennedy (1962), p. 223. [[s:Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress|Wikisource]]</ref><ref>{{YouTube|dXRG7yiqR3I|JFK : Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable}}</ref>
+
;Stage 5 – Developing Parallel Institutions to take over functions and services of government and commerce: In order to create a new society without violence, oppression, environmental destruction, discrimination and one that is environmentally sustainable, nonviolent, democratic, equitable, tolerant, and fair, alternative organizations and structures including businesses must be created to provide the needed services and goods that citizens of a society need.
  
−
George Lakey in his 1973 book<ref>Lakey, George.(1973) Strategy For A Living Revolution. Grossman: New York, NY.</ref> and in his 1976 "A Manifesto for Nonviolent Revolution",<ref>Lakey, George. (1976) A Manifesto For Nonviolent Revolution. Training For Change: Philadelphia, PA (http://www.trainingforchange.org/manifesto_for_nv_revolution {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119162457/http://www.trainingforchange.org/manifesto_for_nv_revolution |date=November 19, 2011 }})</ref> laid out a five-stage strategy for nonviolent revolution.<ref>Lakey, George. (2002) Strategizing For A Living Revolution. retrieved on October 26, 2011 from http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/lakeylivrev.html</ref>
+
===Examples===
 +
In the 1970s and 1980s, intellectuals in the [[Soviet Union]] and other [[Communist state]]s, and in some other countries, began to focus on [[civil resistance]] as the most promising means of opposing entrenched authoritarian regimes. The use of various forms of unofficial exchange of information, including by [[samizdat]], expanded. Two major revolutions during the 1980s strongly influenced [[political movement]]s that followed. The first was the 1986 [[People Power Revolution]], in the [[Philippines]] from which the term 'people power' came to be widely used, especially in [[Hispanic]] and [[Asia]]n nations.<ref>Hannah Beech, [http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1914872,00.html Corazon Aquino 1933–2009: The Saint of Democracy] ''TIME'', August 17, 2009. Retrieved January 9, 2020. </ref>  
  
−
Stage 1 – Cultural Preparation or "Conscientization": Education, training and consciousness raising of why there is a need for a nonviolent revolution and how to conduct a nonviolent revolution.
+
Three years later, the [[Revolutions of 1989]] that ousted [[communist]] regimes in the [[Eastern Bloc]] reinforced the concept, beginning with the victory of [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] in [[1989 Polish legislative elections|that year's Polish legislative elections]]. The Revolutions of 1989 (with the notable exception of the notoriously bloody [[Romanian Revolution of 1989|Romanian Revolution]]) provided the template for the so-called [[color revolution]]s in mainly [[post-communist]] states, which tended to use a [[color]] or [[flower]] as a [[symbol]], somewhat in the manner of the [[Velvet Revolution]] in [[Czechoslovakia]].
  
−
Stage 2 – Building Organizations: As training, education and consciousness raising continues, the need to form organizations. Affinity groups or nonviolent revolutionary groups are organized to provide support, maintain nonviolent discipline, organize and train other people into similar affinity groups and networks.
+
In December 1989, inspired by the anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe, the [[Mongolian Democratic Union]] (MDU) organized popular street protests and hunger strikes [[1990 Democratic Revolution in Mongolia|against the communist regime]]. In 1990, dissidents in the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]] started civil resistance against the government, but were initially crushed by [[Red Army]] in the [[Black January]] massacre.
−
 
 
−
Stage 3 – Confrontation: Organized and sustained campaigns of picketing, strikes, sit-ins, marches, boycotts, die-ins, blockades to disrupt business as usual in institutions and government. By putting one's body on the line nonviolently the rising movement stops the normal gears of government and business.
 
  
−
Stage 4 – Mass Non Cooperation: Similar affinity groups and networks of affinity groups around the country and world, engage in similar actions to disrupt business as usual.
+
Twenty-first century nonviolent revolutions include the Orange Revolution in [[Ukraine]], which took place in the immediate aftermath of the run-off vote of the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election, which was claimed to be marred by massive corruption, voter intimidation and electoral fraud. The resulting series of protests and political events included acts of civil disobedience, sit-ins, and general strikes. These nationwide protests succeeded and the results of the original run-off were annulled, with a revote ordered by Ukraine's Supreme Court.
−
 
 
−
Stage 5 – Developing Parallel Institutions to take over functions and services of government and commerce. In order to create a new society without violence, oppression, environmental destruction, discrimination and one that is environmentally sustainable, nonviolent, democratic, equitable, tolerant, and fair, alternative organizations and structures including businesses must be created to provide the needed services and goods that citizens of a society need.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Gene Sharp]], who influenced many in the [[Arab Spring]] revolutions, has documented and described over 198 different methods of nonviolent action that nonviolent revolutionaries might use in struggle. He argues that no government or institution can rule without the [[consent of the governed]] or oppressed as that is the source of nonviolent power. Gandhi and Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] argued this as well.<ref>Sharp, Gene. (1973) ''[[The Politics of Nonviolent Action]]''. Porter-Sargent: Boston, MA.</ref>
 
  
 
==Criticism==
 
==Criticism==
−
[[Ernesto Che Guevara]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Frantz Fanon]] and [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] were fervent critics of nonviolence, arguing variously that nonviolence and pacifism are an attempt to impose the morals of the [[bourgeoisie]] upon the [[proletariat]], that violence is a necessary accompaniment to revolutionary change or that the right to self-defense is fundamental. Note, for example, the complaint of Malcolm X that "I believe it's a crime for anyone being brutalized to continue to accept that brutality without doing something to defend himself."<ref>X, Malcolm and Alex Haley:''"The Autobiography of Malcolm X"'', page 366. Grove Press, 1964</ref>
+
[[Ernesto Che Guevara]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] were fervent critics of nonviolence, arguing variously that nonviolence and pacifism are an attempt to impose the morals of the [[bourgeoisie]] upon the [[proletariat]], that violence is a necessary accompaniment to revolutionary change, or that the right to [[self-defense]] is fundamental. [[Malcolm X]] clashed with civil rights leaders over the issue of nonviolence, arguing that violence should not be ruled out if no option remained: "I believe it's a crime for anyone being brutalized to continue to accept that brutality without doing something to defend himself."<ref>Malcolm X and Alex Haley, ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X'' (Ballantine Books, 1992, ISBN 978-9990065169). </ref>
  
−
[[George Orwell]] argued that the nonviolent resistance strategy of Gandhi could be effective in countries with "a free press and the right of assembly", which could make it possible "not merely to appeal to outside opinion, but to bring a mass movement into being, or even to make your intentions known to your adversary"; but he was skeptical of Gandhi's approach being effective in the opposite sort of circumstances.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orwell.ru/library/reviews/gandhi/english/e_gandhi.html|title=George Orwell: Reflections on Gandhi|last=Dag|first=O.|website=www.orwell.ru|language=en|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref>
+
In the midst of repression of radical [[African American]] groups in the United States during the 1960s, [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] member [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] said of the nonviolent tactics of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]:
 +
<blockquote>The concept of nonviolence is a false ideal. It presupposes the existence of compassion and a sense of justice on the part of one's adversary. When this adversary has everything to lose and nothing to gain by exercising justice and compassion, his reaction can only be negative.<ref>George Jackson, ''Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson'' (Lawrence Hill Books, 1994, ISBN 978-1556522307).</ref></blockquote>  
  
−
[[Reinhold Niebuhr]] similarly affirmed Gandhi's approach while criticising aspects of it. He argued, "The advantage of non-violence as a method of expressing moral goodwill lies in the fact that it protects the agent against the resentments which violent conflict always creates in both parties to a conflict, and it proves this freedom of resentment and ill-will to the contending party in the dispute by enduring more suffering than it causes." However, Niebuhr also held, "The differences between violent and non-violent methods of coercion and resistance are not so absolute that it would be possible to regard violence as a morally impossible instrument of social change."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923210703/http://www.colorado.edu/ReligiousStudies/chernus/4800/MoralManAndImmoralSociety/Section6.htm|title=IraChernus-NiebuhrSection6|date=2015-09-23|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2019-11-22}}</ref>
+
[[George Orwell]] argued that the nonviolent resistance strategy of Gandhi could be effective in countries with "a free press and the right of assembly," which make it possible "not merely to appeal to outside opinion, but to bring a mass movement into being, or even to make your intentions known to your adversary." However, he was skeptical of Gandhi's approach being effective in the opposite sort of circumstances.<ref>George Orwell, [https://www.orwell.ru/library/reviews/gandhi/english/e_gandhi.html Reflections on Gandhi] Retrieved January 9, 2020.</ref>
  
−
In the midst of repression of radical [[African American]] groups in the United States during the 1960s, [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] member [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] said of the nonviolent tactics of [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]:
+
[[Reinhold Niebuhr]] similarly affirmed Gandhi's approach while criticizing certain aspects: "The advantage of non-violence as a method of expressing moral goodwill lies in the fact that it protects the agent against the resentments which violent conflict always creates in both parties to a conflict, and that it proves this freedom of resentment and ill-will to the contending party in the dispute by enduring more suffering than it causes."<ref>Reinhold Niebuhr, ''Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics'' (Wipf & Stock Pub, 2010, ISBN 978-1608998012).</ref> However, Niebuhr also noted that "The differences between violent and non-violent methods of coercion and resistance are not so absolute that it would be possible to regard violence as a morally impossible instrument of social change."<ref>Larry Rasmussen (ed.), ''Reinhold Niebuhr: Theologian of Public Life'' (Fortress Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0800634070).</ref>
−
<blockquote>"The concept of nonviolence is a false ideal. It presupposes the existence of compassion and a sense of justice on the part of one's adversary. When this adversary has everything to lose and nothing to gain by exercising justice and compassion, his reaction can only be negative."<ref name="Jackson">Jackson, George. Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson. Lawrence Hill Books, 1994. ISBN 1-55652-230-4</ref><ref name="Walters">Walters, Wendy W. At Home in Diaspora. U of Minnesota Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8166-4491-8</ref></blockquote>
 
  
−
Malcolm X also clashed with civil rights leaders over the issue of nonviolence, arguing that violence should not be ruled out if no option remained.
+
[[Anarchist]] [[Peter Gelderloos]] has criticized nonviolence as being ineffective, racist, statist, patriarchal, tactically and strategically inferior to militant activism, and deluded.<ref name="Gelderloos">Peter Gelderloos, ''How Nonviolence Protects the State'' (Detritus Books, 2018, ISBN 978-1909798571).</ref> He claims that traditional histories whitewash the impact of nonviolence, ignoring the involvement of militants in such movements as the [[Indian independence movement]] and the [[Civil Rights Movement]] and falsely showing Gandhi and King as being their respective movement's most successful activists. He further argues that nonviolence is generally advocated by privileged white people who expect "oppressed people, many of whom are people of color, to suffer patiently under an inconceivably greater violence, until such time as the Great White Father is swayed by the movement's demands or the pacifists achieve that legendary 'critical mass.'"<ref name="Gelderloos"/>
−
 
 
−
In his book ''How Nonviolence Protects the State'', [[anarchist]] [[Peter Gelderloos]] criticises nonviolence as being ineffective, racist, statist, patriarchal, tactically and strategically inferior to militant activism, and deluded.<ref name="Gelderloos">Gelderloos, Peter. ''How Nonviolence Protects the State''. Boston: [[South End Press]], 2007.</ref> Gelderloos claims that traditional histories whitewash the impact of nonviolence, ignoring the involvement of militants in such movements as the [[Indian independence movement]] and the [[Civil Rights Movement]] and falsely showing Gandhi and King as being their respective movement's most successful activists.<ref name="Gelderloos"/>{{rp|7–12}} He further argues that nonviolence is generally advocated by privileged white people who expect "oppressed people, many of whom are people of color, to suffer patiently under an inconceivably greater violence, until such time as the Great White Father is swayed by the movement's demands or the pacifists achieve that legendary 'critical mass.'"<ref name="Gelderloos"/>{{rp|23}} On the other hand, anarchism also includes a section committed to nonviolence called [[anarcho-pacifism]].<ref name="Anarchism 1962">[[George Woodcock]]. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'' (1962)</ref><ref name="ppu.org.uk">[http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence "Resisting the Nation State, the pacifist and anarchist tradition" by Geoffrey Ostergaard]</ref> The main early influences were the thought of [[Henry David Thoreau]]<ref name="ppu.org.uk"/> and [[Leo Tolstoy]] while later the ideas of [[Mohandas Gandhi]] gained importance.<ref name="Anarchism 1962"/><ref name="ppu.org.uk"/> It developed "mostly in Holland, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and the [[United States]], before and during the [[Second World War]]".<ref>{{cite book|authorlink=George Woodcock|first=George|last=Woodstock|title=Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements|year=1962|quote=Finally, somewhat aside from the curve that runs from anarchist individualism to anarcho-syndicalism, we come to Tolstoyanism and to pacifist anarchism that appeared, mostly in the [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and the United states, before and after the Second World War and which has continued since then in the deep in the anarchist involvement in the protests against nuclear armament.}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The efficacy of nonviolence was also challenged by some anti-capitalist protesters advocating a "[[diversity of tactics]]" during street demonstrations across Europe and the US following [[1999 Seattle WTO protests|the anti-World Trade Organization protests in Seattle, Washington in 1999]]. American [[feminism|feminist]] writer [[D. A. Clarke]], in her essay "A Woman With A Sword," suggests that for nonviolence to be effective, it must be "practiced by those who could easily resort to force if they chose."
 
−
 
 
−
Nonviolence advocates see some truth in this argument: Gandhi himself said often that he could teach nonviolence to a violent person but not to a coward and that true nonviolence came from renouncing violence, not by not having any to renounce.{{Citation needed|date=October 2017}}
 
−
 
 
−
Advocates responding to criticisms of the efficacy of nonviolence point to the limited success of non-violent struggles even against the Nazi regimes in [[Rescue of the Danish Jews|Denmark]] and even in [[Rosenstrasse protest|Berlin]].<ref>[[Nathan Stoltzfus]], ''Resistance of the Heart: Intermarriage and the Rosenstrasse Protest in Nazi Germany'', [[Rutgers University Press]] (March 2001) ISBN 0-8135-2909-3 (paperback: 386 pages)</ref> A study by Erica Chenoweth and Maria Stephan found that nonviolent revolutions are twice as effective as violent ones and lead to much greater degrees of democratic freedom.<ref>"Why Civil Resistance Works, The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict", New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.</ref>
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
*Ackerman, Peter, and Jack DuVall. ''A Force More Powerful: A Century of Non-violent Conflict''. St. Martin's Griffin, 2000. ISBN 978-0312240509
 +
*Bartholomeusz, Tessa J. ''In Defense of Dharma''. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0700716821
 +
*Batchelor, Martine. ''The Spirit of the Buddha''. Yale University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0300164077
 +
*Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.). ''The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya''. Wisdom Publications, 2003. ISBN 978-0861713318
 +
*Chapple, Christopher. ''Non-violence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian Traditions''. Sri Satguru Publications, 1995. ISBN 978-8170304265
 +
*Dundas, Paul. ''The Jains''. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0415266062
 +
*Dyke, Harvey L. (ed.). ''The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective''. University of Toronto Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0802007773
 +
*Eppert, Claudia, and Hongyu Wang (eds.). ''Cross-Cultural Studies in Curriculum: Eastern Thought, Educational Insights''. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 978-1843153665
 +
*Fischer, Louis. ''Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World''. Signet, 2010. ISBN 978-0451531704
 +
*Flugel, Peter (ed.). ''Studies in Jaina History and Culture''. Routledge, 2006. ISBN 978-0415360999
 +
*Gandhi, Mohandas K. ''Hind Swaraj Or Indian Home Rule''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2009. ISBN 978-1449922214
 +
*Gelderloos, Peter. ''How Nonviolence Protects the State''. Detritus Books, 2018. ISBN 978-1909798571
 +
*Harvey, Peter (ed.). ''Buddhism''. Bloomsbury Academic, 2001. ISBN 978-0826453518
 +
*Harvey, Peter. ''An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices''. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN 0521676746
 +
*Jackson, George. ''Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson''. Lawrence Hill Books, 1994. ISBN 978-1556522307
 +
*Jain, Vijay K. ''Acharya Amritchandra's Purusartha Siddhi Upaya''. Vikalp Printers, 2012. ISBN 978-8190363945
 +
*Jha, D.N. ''The Myth of the Holy Cow''. Verso, 2004. ISBN 978-1859844243
 +
*Johansson, Rune E.A. ''The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism''. Curzon Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0700701148
 +
*King, Martin Luther Jr. ''Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story''. Beacon Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0807000694
 +
*Kool, V.K. (ed.). ''Perspectives on Nonviolence''. Springer New York, 2011. ISBN 978-1461287834
 +
*Kurlansky, Mark. ''Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea''. Modern Library, 2008. ISBN 978-0812974478
 +
*Kurtz, Lester R. (ed.). ''Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict''. Academic Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0123695031
 +
*Lakey, George. ''Powerful Peacemaking: A Strategy For A Living Revolution''. New Society Publishers, 1987. ISBN 978-0865710962
 +
*Niebuhr, Reinhold. ''Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics''. Wipf & Stock Pub, 2010. ISBN 978-1608998012
 +
*Pandey, Janardan (ed.). ''Gandhi and 21st Century''. Concept Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-8170226727
 +
*Patel, Haresh. ''Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A Latter-Day Saint]''. Eloquent Books, 2009. ISBN  978-1606938461
 +
*Pope, G.U. ''Tirukkural: English Translation and Commentary''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017. ISBN 978-1975616724
 +
*Preece, Rod. ''Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities''. University of British Columbia Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0774807241
 +
*Rasmussen, Larry (ed.). ''Reinhold Niebuhr: Theologian of Public Life''. Fortress Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0800634070
 +
*Roberts, Adam, and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.). ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present''. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199691456
 +
*Robinson, Paul F. (ed.). ''Just War in Comparative Perspective''. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0754635871
 +
*Saddhatissa, Hammalawa. ''Buddhist Ethics''. Wisdom Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-0861711246
 +
*Sharp, Gene. ''The Politics of Nonviolent Action''. P. Sargent Publisher, 1973. ISBN 978-0875580685
 +
*Sharp, Gene. ''Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential''. Extending Horizons Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0875581620
 
*Sharp, Gene. ''Sharp's Dictionary of Power and Struggle: Language of Civil Resistance in Conflicts''. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199829880
 
*Sharp, Gene. ''Sharp's Dictionary of Power and Struggle: Language of Civil Resistance in Conflicts''. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199829880
−
 
+
*Sundararajan, K.R., and Bithika Mukerji (eds.). ''Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern''. Herder & Herder, 1997. ISBN 978-0824516710
−
* {{citation |last=Jain |first=Vijay K. |title=Acharya Amritchandra's Purushartha Siddhyupaya: Realization of the Pure Self, With Hindi and English Translation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4iyUu4Fc2-YC |date=2012 |publisher=Vikalp |isbn=978-81-903639-4-5 |quote={{PD-notice}} |ref={{sfnref|Vijay K. Jain|2012}} }}
+
*Walters, Kerry S., and Lisa Portmess (eds.). ''Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama''. SUNY Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0791449721
−
* {{citation |last=True |first=Michael |title=An Energy Field More Intense Than War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9RG2nlgVBpEC |year=1995 |publisher=[[Syracuse University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8156-2679-4 }}
+
*Walli, Koshelya. ''The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought''. Bharata Manisha, 1974.
−
 
+
*Walter, Nicolas, David Goodway (ed.). ''Damned Fools in Utopia and Other Writings on Anarchism and War Resistance''. PM Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1604862225
−
 
+
*X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X''. Ballantine Books, 1992. ISBN 978-9990065169
−
* ISBN 978-1577663492 ''Nonviolence in Theory and Practice'', edited by Robert L. Holmes and [[Barry L. Gan]]
 
−
* OCLC 03859761 ''[[The Kingdom of God Is Within You]]'', by [[Leo Tolstoy]]
 
−
* ISBN 978-0-85066-336-5 ''[[Making Europe Unconquerable|Making Europe Unconquerable: the Potential of Civilian-Based Deterrence and Defense]]'' (see [[Making Europe Unconquerable|article]]), by [[Gene Sharp]]
 
−
* ISBN 0-87558-162-5 ''Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential'', by Gene Sharp with collaboration of Joshua Paulson and the assistance of Christopher A. Miller and Hardy Merriman
 
−
* ISBN 978-1442217607 ''Violence and Nonviolence: An Introduction'', by Barry L. Gan
 
−
* ISBN 0-8166-4193-5 ''Unarmed Insurrections: People Power Movements in Non-Democracies'', by Kurt Schock
 
−
* ISBN 1-930722-35-4 ''Is There No Other Way? The Search for a Nonviolent Future'', by [[Michael Nagler]]
 
−
* ISBN 0-85283-262-1 ''People Power and Protest since 1945: A Bibliography of Nonviolent Action'', compiled by [[April Carter]], Howard Clark, and [Michael Randle]
 
−
* ISBN 978-953-55134-2-1 ''Revolutionary Peacemaking: Writings for a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence'', by Daniel Jakopovich
 
−
* ISBN 978-0-903517-21-8 ''Handbook for Nonviolent Campaigns'', War Resisters' International
 
−
* ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6 ''Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present'', ed. [[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]] and [[Timothy Garton Ash]], Oxford University Press, 2009. (hardback).
 
−
* ''[https://www.howtostartarevolution.org/ How to Start a Revolution]'', documentary directed by [[Ruaridh Arrow]]
 
−
* ''[[A Force More Powerful]]'', documentary directed by [[Steve York]]
 
−
* http://nonviolentaction.net/ Expanded database of 300 nonviolent methods and examples
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
 
+
All links retrieved November 15, 2022.
 
* [https://www.crmvet.org/info/nv2.htm Two Kinds of Nonviolent Resistance] Bruce Hartford, 2004
 
* [https://www.crmvet.org/info/nv2.htm Two Kinds of Nonviolent Resistance] Bruce Hartford, 2004
−
* [http://peacenews.info/ peace news – for nonviolent revolution]
+
* ''[https://www.howtostartarevolution.org/ How to Start a Revolution]'', documentary film directed by Ruaridh Arrow
−
* ''[https://www.howtostartarevolution.org/ How to Start a Revolution]'', documentary directed by [[Ruaridh Arrow]]
+
*[http://www.crmvet.org//info/nvrrr.htm Nonviolent Resistance, Reform, & Revolution] Bruce Hartford, 2008
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* [http://www.righttononviolence.org Right to Nonviolence]
 
−
* [http://www.manchester.edu/Academics/departments/Peace_Studies/bulletin/index.htm Nonviolent Social Change – the Bulletin of the Manchester College Peace Studies Institute]- a journal on nonviolent social change
 
−
*[http://www.crmvet.org//info/nvrrr.htm Nonviolent Resistance, Reform, & Revolution] ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans (U.S.)
 
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*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140614023555/http://www.truthdig.com/report/print/the_rules_of_revolt_20140608 12 Lessons in Nonviolent Resistance] from the 1989 student occupation of Beijing’s Tiananmen Square (2014-06-09), [[Chris Hedges]], ''[[Truthdig]]''
 
  
 
[[Category:Social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Sociology]]
 
[[Category:Sociology]]
 
{{Credits|Nonviolence|927403611|Nonviolent_resistance|928035752|Nonviolent_revolution|930517118}}
 
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Latest revision as of 02:40, 16 November 2022


Mohandas Gandhi, often considered a founder of the nonviolence movement, spread the concept of ahimsa through his movements and writings, which then inspired other nonviolent activists.

Nonviolence is the practice of being harmless to self and others under every condition. It comes from the belief that hurting people, animals, or the environment is unnecessary to achieve an outcome and refers to a general philosophy of abstention from violence. This may be based on moral, religious, or spiritual principles, or it may be for purely strategic or pragmatic reasons.

Forms of nonviolence draw inspiration from both religious or ethical beliefs and political analysis. Religious or ethically based nonviolence is sometimes referred to as principled, philosophical, or ethical nonviolence, while nonviolence based on political analysis is often referred to as tactical, strategic, or pragmatic nonviolent action. Both of these dimensions may be present within the thinking of particular movements or individuals.

Nonviolence also has "active" or "activist" elements, in that believers generally accept the need for nonviolence as a means to achieve political and social change. Thus, for example, the nonviolence of Tolstoy and Gandhi is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of violence, but at the same time sees nonviolent action (also called civil resistance) as an alternative to passive acceptance of oppression or armed struggle against it. In general, advocates of an activist philosophy of nonviolence use diverse methods in their campaigns for social change, including critical forms of education and persuasion, mass noncooperation, civil disobedience, nonviolent direct action, and social, political, cultural, and economic forms of intervention.

History

Nonviolence or Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues[1] and an important tenet of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. It is a multidimensional concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy.[2] Therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself. It has also been related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences.

While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa, the concept reached an extraordinary status in the ethical philosophy of Jainism.[1][3] According to Jain mythology, the first tirthankara, Rushabhdev, originated the idea of nonviolence over a million years ago.[4] Historically, Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara of Jainism, advocated for and preached the concept of nonviolence in around the eighth century B.C.E. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara, then further strengthened the idea in the sixth century B.C.E.

The idea of using nonviolent methods to achieve social and political change has been expressed in Western society over the past several hundred years: Étienne de La Boétie's Discourse on Voluntary Servitude (sixteenth century) and P.B. Shelley's The Masque of Anarchy (1819) contain arguments for resisting tyranny without using violence, while in 1838, William Lloyd Garrison helped found the New England Non-Resistance Society, a society devoted to achieving racial and gender equality through the rejection of all violent actions.[5]

In modern times, nonviolent methods of action have become a powerful tool for social protest and revolutionary social and political change.[1][6] For example, Mahatma Gandhi led a successful decades-long nonviolent struggle against British rule in India. Martin Luther King and James Bevel adopted Gandhi's nonviolent methods in their campaigns to win civil rights for African Americans. César Chávez led campaigns of nonviolence in the 1960s to protest the treatment of farm workers in California. The 1989 "Velvet Revolution" in Czechoslovakia that saw the overthrow of the Communist government is considered one of the most important of the largely nonviolent Revolutions of 1989.

The sculpture "Nonviolence" by Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd in front of the United Nations Headquarters in New York City

Nonviolence has obtained a level of institutional recognition and endorsement at the global level. On November 10, 1998, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the first decade of the twenty-first century and the third millennium, the years 2001 to 2010, as the International Decade for the Promotion of a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World].[7]

Ethical nonviolence

The Semai people of Malaysia have a belief called punan, which includes nonviolence

For many, practicing nonviolence goes deeper than abstaining from violent behavior or words. It means overriding the impulse to be hateful and holding love for everyone, even those with whom one strongly disagrees. In this view, because violence is learned, it is necessary to unlearn violence by practicing love and compassion at every possible opportunity. For some, the commitment to nonviolence entails a belief in restorative or transformative justice and the abolition of the death penalty and other harsh punishments. This may involve the necessity of caring for those who are violent.

Nonviolence, for many, involves a respect and reverence for all sentient, and perhaps even non-sentient, beings. This might include the belief that all sentient beings share the basic right not to be treated as the property of others, the practice of not eating animal products or by-products (vegetarianism or veganism), spiritual practices of non-harm to all beings, and caring for the rights of all beings. Mohandas Gandhi, James Bevel, and other nonviolent proponents advocated vegetarianism as part of their nonviolent philosophy. Buddhists extend this respect for life to animals and plants, while Jains extend it to animals, plants, and even small organisms such as insects.

Religious nonviolence

Ahimsa is a Sanskrit term meaning "nonviolence" or "non-injury" (literally: the avoidance of himsa: violence). The principle of ahimsa is central to the religions of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, being a key precept in their ethical codes.[8] It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds, but also by words and in thoughts.

Hinduism

The Hindu scriptures contain mixed messages on the necessity and scope of nonviolence in human affairs. Some texts insist that ahimsa is the highest duty, while other texts make exceptions in the cases of war, hunting, ruling, law enforcement, and capital punishment.

Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in the Vedic texts.[3][9] The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention ahimsa, but do not emphasize it. Over time, the concept of ahimsa was increasingly refined and emphasized, ultimately becoming the highest virtue by the late Vedic era (about 500 B.C.E.).

The Mahabharata, one of the epics of Hinduism, has multiple mentions of the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma (अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मः), which literally means: nonviolence is the highest moral virtue. For example, Mahaprasthanika Parva has the following verse emphasizes the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism:[10]

अहिंसा परमॊ धर्मस तथाहिंसा परॊ दमः।
अहिंसा परमं दानम अहिंसा परमस तपः।
अहिंसा परमॊ यज्ञस तथाहिस्मा परं बलम।
अहिंसा परमं मित्रम अहिंसा परमं सुखम।
अहिंसा परमं सत्यम अहिंसा परमं शरुतम॥

The literal translation is as follows:

Ahimsa is the highest virtue, Ahimsa is the highest self-control,
Ahimsa is the greatest gift, Ahimsa is the best suffering,
Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice, Ahimsa is the finest strength,
Ahimsa is the greatest friend, Ahimsa is the greatest happiness,
Ahimsa is the highest truth, and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching.[11]

Some other examples where the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma are discussed include Adi Parva, Vana Parva, and Anushasana Parva. The Bhagavad Gita discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war. These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self-defense and the theories of just war. However, there is no consensus on this interpretation. Gandhi, for example, considered this debate about nonviolence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being, when he or she faces moral questions.[12]

Self-defense, criminal law, and war

The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters to discussion of what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa can and must do when they are faced with war, violent threat, or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime. These discussions have led to theories of just war, theories of reasonable self-defense, and theories of proportionate punishment.[13] Arthashastra discusses, among other things, why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment.[14]

War

The precepts of Ahimsa in Hinduism require that war must be avoided if at all possible, with sincere and truthful dialogue. Force must be the last resort. If war becomes necessary, its cause must be just, its purpose virtuous, its objective to restrain the wicked, its aim peace, its method lawful.[14] War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority. Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war, not indiscriminate tools of destruction. All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent, not designed to cause misery to them; for example, use of arrows is allowed, but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed. Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield. Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden. Wounded, unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed, they must be brought to safety and given medical treatment.[14] Children, women and civilians must not be injured. While the war is in progress, sincere dialogue for peace must continue.[13]

Self-defense

In matters of self-defense, different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered, such as that self-defense is appropriate, criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa, and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker.[15][16] Ahimsa does not imply pacifism.[15]

Inspired by Ahimsa, principles of self-defense have been developed in the martial arts. Morihei Ueshiba, the founder of Aikido, described his inspiration as ahimsa.[17]

Criminal law

Some have concluded that Hindus have no misgivings about the death penalty. Their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons.[15]

Other scholars have concluded that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair, proportionate, and not cruel.[13][14]

Non-human life

Across the texts of Hinduism, there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of ahimsa when applied to non-human life, but without universal consensus.

This precept is not found in the oldest verses of Vedas, but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 B.C.E. and 400 C.E.[3] In the oldest texts, numerous ritual sacrifices of animals, including cows and horses, are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of ahimsa in relation to non-human life.[18] However, the ancient Hindu texts discourage wanton destruction of nature, including wild and cultivated plants. Hermits (sannyasins) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants.[19]

Hindu scriptures dated to between the fifth century and first century B.C.E., in discussing human diet, initially suggest kosher meat may be eaten, suggesting that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten. This evolved into the belief that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals, with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers, roots, and fruits alone.[3]

Later Hindu texts declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues, and that killing or harming any life to be against dharma (moral life). Finally, the discussion in the Upanishads and the Hindu epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten, whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate, and if and how one may exert least harm to non-human life consistent with ahimsa, given the constraints of life and human needs.

Many of the arguments proposed in favor of nonviolence to animals refer to the bliss one feels, the rewards it entails before or after death, the danger and harm it prevents, as well as to the karmic consequences of violence.[15] For example, Tirukkuṛaḷ, written between 200 B.C.E. and 400 C.E., says that Ahimsa applies to all life forms. It dedicates several chapters to the virtue of ahimsa, namely, moral vegetarianism, non-harming, and non-killing, respectively.[20]

Jainism

The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. The word in the middle is "Ahimsa." The wheel represents the dharmacakra which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and nonviolence.

In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of Ahimsā is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. The statement ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples.[21][22] Killing any living being out of passion is considered hiṃsā (to injure) and abstaining from such an act is ahimsā (noninjury).[23] Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma.

Mahatma Gandhi expressed the view:

No religion in the world has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of Ahimsa or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond. Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahavira is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa.[24]

The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the five vows of Jainism. Other vows like truth (Satya) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā.[23] In the practice of Ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons (sravakas) who have undertaken anuvrata (Smaller Vows) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata "Great Vows."[25]

The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterized by several aspects. Theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury, but Jains recognize a hierarchy of life. Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. Among mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed, and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal having touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more care they receive.

Jains do not make any exception for ritual sacrifice and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out.[15] Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects, but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers.[21]

Buddhism

The traditional Buddhist understanding of nonviolence is not as rigid as the Jain one. In Buddhist texts Ahimsa (or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā) is part of the Five Precepts (Pañcasīla), the first of which is to abstain from killing. This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community.[26]

The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for laypersons, but its power is in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in the afterlife during rebirth.[27] Killing, in Buddhist belief, could lead to rebirth in the hellish realm, and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk.[27] Saving animals from slaughter for meat is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth. These moral precepts have been voluntarily self-enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth.[27] The Buddhist texts not only recommend Ahimsa, but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence:

These five trades, O monks, should not be taken up by a lay follower: trading with weapons, trading in living beings, trading in meat, trading in intoxicants, trading in poison.[28]

Unlike lay Buddhists, transgressions by monks do invite sanctions. Full expulsion of a monk from sangha follows instances of killing, just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya code of conduct.[27]

War

Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war are not explicitly condemned in Buddhism, but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury are encouraged.[29]

While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal king as a pacifist, such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army.[30] It seems that the Buddha's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare.[30] In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalize monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well.[31]

The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth.[30] In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth.[32]

Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war.[33] In the Kosala Samyutta, King Pasenadi, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defense, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. He lost this battle but won the war. King Pasenadi eventually defeated King Ajatasattu and captured him alive. He thought that, although this King of Magadha had transgressed against his kingdom, he had not transgressed against him personally, and Ajatasattu was still his nephew. He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him.[34] Upon his return, the Buddha said that Pasenadi "is a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue," while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu.[30]

According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the knowledge that the being is a living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death.[35] Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicization is predicated upon intent. In defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to defend against aggression, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions.[30]

Pragmatic nonviolence

The fundamental concept of pragmatic (tactical or strategic) nonviolent action is to effect social change by mobilizing "people-power while at the same time limiting and restricting the ability of opponents to suppress the movement with violence and money-power."[36]

Social change is to be achieved through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, or other methods, while being nonviolent. This type of action highlights the desires of an individual or group that something needs to change to improve the current condition of the resisting person or group.

Advocates of nonviolent action believe cooperation and consent are the roots of civil or political power: all regimes, including bureaucratic institutions, financial institutions, and the armed segments of society (such as the military and police) depend on compliance from citizens.[37] On a national level, the strategy of nonviolent action seeks to undermine the power of rulers by encouraging people to withdraw their consent and cooperation.

Gandhi used the weapon of nonviolence against British Raj in the Salt March, 1930.

In modern industrial democracies, nonviolent action has been used extensively by political sectors lacking mainstream political power, such as labor, peace, environment, and women's movements. Examples of such movements are the non-cooperation campaign for Indian independence led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, and the People Power Revolution in the Philippines. In addition to Gandhi, major nonviolent resistance advocates include Henry David Thoreau, Te Whiti o Rongomai, Tohu Kākahi, Leo Tolstoy, Alice Paul, Martin Luther King, Jr, Daniel Berrigan, Philip Berrigan, James Bevel, Václav Havel, Andrei Sakharov, Lech Wałęsa, Gene Sharp, and Nelson Mandela.

Of primary significance in nonviolent action is the understanding that just means are the most likely to lead to just ends. Proponents of nonviolence reason that the actions taken in the present inevitably re-shape the social order in like form. They would argue, for instance, that it is fundamentally irrational to use violence to achieve a peaceful society. For instance, Gandhi wrote in 1908 that "The means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree; and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree."[38] Martin Luther King, Jr., a student of Gandhian nonviolent resistance, concurred with this tenet in his letter from the Birmingham jail, concluding that "nonviolence demands that the means we use must be as pure as the ends we seek."[39]

Martin Luther King speaking at the 1963 "March on Washington".

The term "nonviolence" is often wrongly equated with passivity and pacifism, but this is incorrect.[40] Nonviolence refers specifically to the absence of violence and is the choice to do no harm or the least harm, while passivity is the choice to do nothing. Martin Luther King, Jr. explained that nonviolence is an active weapon:

Nonviolence is a powerful and just weapon. Indeed, it is a weapon unique in history, which cuts without wounding and ennobles the man who wields it.[41]

Respect or love for opponents also has a pragmatic justification, in that the technique of separating the deeds from the doers allows for the possibility of the doers changing their behavior, and perhaps their beliefs. Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote, "Nonviolent resistance... avoids not only external physical violence but also internal violence of spirit. The nonviolent resister not only refuses to shoot his opponent, but he also refuses to hate him."[42]

Finally, the notion of Satya, or Truth, is central to the Gandhian conception of nonviolence. Gandhi saw Truth as something that is multifaceted and unable to be grasped in its entirety by any one individual. All carry pieces of the Truth, he believed, but all need the pieces of others’ truths in order to pursue the greater Truth. This led him to believe in the inherent worth of dialogue with opponents, in order to understand motivations.

Nonviolent action generally comprises three categories: Acts of Protest and Persuasion, Noncooperation, and Nonviolent Intervention.[43]

Acts of protest

The Salt March on March 12, 1930

Nonviolent acts of protest and persuasion are symbolic actions performed by a group of people to show their support or disapproval of something. The goal of this kind of action is to bring public awareness to an issue, persuade or influence a particular group of people, or to facilitate future nonviolent action. The message can be directed toward the public, opponents, or people affected by the issue. Methods of protest and persuasion include speeches, public communications, petitions, symbolic acts, art, processions (marches), and other public assemblies.[44]

Noncooperation

Noncooperation involves the purposeful withholding of cooperation or the unwillingness to initiate in cooperation with an opponent. The goal of noncooperation is to halt or hinder an industry, political system, or economic process. Methods of noncooperation include labor strikes, economic boycotts, civil disobedience, tax refusal, and general disobedience.[44]

Nonviolent intervention

Compared with protest and noncooperation, nonviolent intervention is a more direct method of nonviolent action. Nonviolent intervention can be used defensively—for example to maintain an institution or independent initiative—or offensively-for example, to drastically forward a nonviolent struggle into the opponent's territory. Intervention is often more immediate and effective than the other two methods, but is also harder to maintain and more taxing to the participants involved. Tactics must be carefully chosen, taking into account political and cultural circumstances, and form part of a larger plan or strategy. Methods of nonviolent intervention include occupations (sit-ins), blockades, and fasting (hunger strikes), among others.[44]

Another powerful tactic of nonviolent intervention invokes public scrutiny of the oppressors as a result of the resisters remaining nonviolent in the face of violent repression. If the military or police attempt to repress nonviolent resisters violently, the power to act shifts from the hands of the oppressors to those of the resisters. If the resisters are persistent, the military or police will be forced to accept the fact that they no longer have any power over the resisters. Often, the willingness of the resisters to suffer has a profound effect on the mind and emotions of the oppressor, leaving them unable to commit such a violent act again.[37]

Nonviolent Revolution

A nonviolent revolution is a revolution using mostly campaigns with civil resistance, including various forms of nonviolent protest, to bring about the departure of governments seen as entrenched and authoritarian. Such an approach has been advocated by various individuals (such as Barbara Deming, Danilo Dolci, and Devere Allen) and party groups (for instance, Committees of Correspondence for Democracy and Socialism, Pacifist Socialist Party, or War Resisters League).

Generally a nonviolent revolution is characterized by simultaneous advocacy of democracy, human rights, and national independence in the country concerned. One theory of democracy is that its main purpose is to allow peaceful revolutions. The idea is that majorities voting in elections approximate the result of a coup. In 1962, John F. Kennedy famously said, "Those who make peaceful revolution impossible will make violent revolution inevitable."[45]

The beginnings of the nonviolence movement lie in the satyagraha philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, who guided the people of India to independence from Britain. Despite the violence of the Partition of India following independence, and numerous revolutionary uprisings which were not under Gandhi's control, India's independence was achieved through legal processes after a period of national resistance rather than through a military revolution.

In some cases a campaign of civil resistance with a revolutionary purpose may be able to bring about the defeat of a dictatorial regime only if it obtains a degree of support from the armed forces, or at least their benevolent neutrality. In fact, some have argued that a nonviolent revolution would require fraternization with military forces, like in the relatively nonviolent Portuguese Carnation Revolution.[46]

Methods and Strategy

Gene Sharp has documented and described over 198 different methods of nonviolent action that nonviolent revolutionaries might use in struggle. He argues that no government or institution can rule without the consent of the governed or oppressed as that is the source of nonviolent power.[37]

George Lakey laid out a five-stage strategy for nonviolent revolution.[47]

Stage 1 – Cultural Preparation or "Conscientization"
Education, training and consciousness raising of why there is a need for a nonviolent revolution and how to conduct a nonviolent revolution.
Stage 2 – Building Organizations
As training, education and consciousness raising continues, the need to form organizations. Affinity groups or nonviolent revolutionary groups are organized to provide support, maintain nonviolent discipline, organize and train other people into similar affinity groups and networks.
Stage 3 – Confrontation
Organized and sustained campaigns of picketing, strikes, sit-ins, marches, boycotts, die-ins, blockades to disrupt business as usual in institutions and government. By putting one's body on the line nonviolently the rising movement stops the normal gears of government and business.
Stage 4 – Mass Non Cooperation
Similar affinity groups and networks of affinity groups around the country and world, engage in similar actions to disrupt business as usual.
Stage 5 – Developing Parallel Institutions to take over functions and services of government and commerce
In order to create a new society without violence, oppression, environmental destruction, discrimination and one that is environmentally sustainable, nonviolent, democratic, equitable, tolerant, and fair, alternative organizations and structures including businesses must be created to provide the needed services and goods that citizens of a society need.

Examples

In the 1970s and 1980s, intellectuals in the Soviet Union and other Communist states, and in some other countries, began to focus on civil resistance as the most promising means of opposing entrenched authoritarian regimes. The use of various forms of unofficial exchange of information, including by samizdat, expanded. Two major revolutions during the 1980s strongly influenced political movements that followed. The first was the 1986 People Power Revolution, in the Philippines from which the term 'people power' came to be widely used, especially in Hispanic and Asian nations.[48]

Three years later, the Revolutions of 1989 that ousted communist regimes in the Eastern Bloc reinforced the concept, beginning with the victory of Solidarity in that year's Polish legislative elections. The Revolutions of 1989 (with the notable exception of the notoriously bloody Romanian Revolution) provided the template for the so-called color revolutions in mainly post-communist states, which tended to use a color or flower as a symbol, somewhat in the manner of the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia.

In December 1989, inspired by the anti-communist revolutions in Eastern Europe, the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU) organized popular street protests and hunger strikes against the communist regime. In 1990, dissidents in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic started civil resistance against the government, but were initially crushed by Red Army in the Black January massacre.

Twenty-first century nonviolent revolutions include the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, which took place in the immediate aftermath of the run-off vote of the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election, which was claimed to be marred by massive corruption, voter intimidation and electoral fraud. The resulting series of protests and political events included acts of civil disobedience, sit-ins, and general strikes. These nationwide protests succeeded and the results of the original run-off were annulled, with a revote ordered by Ukraine's Supreme Court.

Criticism

Ernesto Che Guevara, Leon Trotsky, Frantz Fanon, and Subhas Chandra Bose were fervent critics of nonviolence, arguing variously that nonviolence and pacifism are an attempt to impose the morals of the bourgeoisie upon the proletariat, that violence is a necessary accompaniment to revolutionary change, or that the right to self-defense is fundamental. Malcolm X clashed with civil rights leaders over the issue of nonviolence, arguing that violence should not be ruled out if no option remained: "I believe it's a crime for anyone being brutalized to continue to accept that brutality without doing something to defend himself."[49]

In the midst of repression of radical African American groups in the United States during the 1960s, Black Panther member George Jackson said of the nonviolent tactics of Martin Luther King, Jr.:

The concept of nonviolence is a false ideal. It presupposes the existence of compassion and a sense of justice on the part of one's adversary. When this adversary has everything to lose and nothing to gain by exercising justice and compassion, his reaction can only be negative.[50]

George Orwell argued that the nonviolent resistance strategy of Gandhi could be effective in countries with "a free press and the right of assembly," which make it possible "not merely to appeal to outside opinion, but to bring a mass movement into being, or even to make your intentions known to your adversary." However, he was skeptical of Gandhi's approach being effective in the opposite sort of circumstances.[51]

Reinhold Niebuhr similarly affirmed Gandhi's approach while criticizing certain aspects: "The advantage of non-violence as a method of expressing moral goodwill lies in the fact that it protects the agent against the resentments which violent conflict always creates in both parties to a conflict, and that it proves this freedom of resentment and ill-will to the contending party in the dispute by enduring more suffering than it causes."[52] However, Niebuhr also noted that "The differences between violent and non-violent methods of coercion and resistance are not so absolute that it would be possible to regard violence as a morally impossible instrument of social change."[53]

Anarchist Peter Gelderloos has criticized nonviolence as being ineffective, racist, statist, patriarchal, tactically and strategically inferior to militant activism, and deluded.[54] He claims that traditional histories whitewash the impact of nonviolence, ignoring the involvement of militants in such movements as the Indian independence movement and the Civil Rights Movement and falsely showing Gandhi and King as being their respective movement's most successful activists. He further argues that nonviolence is generally advocated by privileged white people who expect "oppressed people, many of whom are people of color, to suffer patiently under an inconceivably greater violence, until such time as the Great White Father is swayed by the movement's demands or the pacifists achieve that legendary 'critical mass.'"[54]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Lester R. Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict (Academic Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0123695031).
  2. ↑ K.R. Sundararajan and Bithika Mukerji (eds.), Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern (Herder & Herder, 1997, ISBN 978-0824516710).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Christopher Chapple, Non-violence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian Traditions (Sri Satguru Publications, 1995, ISBN 978-8170304265).
  4. ↑ Haresh Patel, Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A Latter-Day Saint] (Eloquent Books, 2009, ISBN 978-1606938461).
  5. ↑ Nicolas Walter, David Goodway (ed.), Damned Fools in Utopia and Other Writings on Anarchism and War Resistance (PM Press, 2011, ISBN 978-1604862225).
  6. ↑ Mark Kurlansky, Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea (Modern Library, 2008, ISBN 978-0812974478).
  7. ↑ Culture of peace General Assembly of the United Nations, 62nd session. Retrieved January 8, 2020.
  8. ↑ Claudia Eppert and Hongyu Wang (eds.), Cross-Cultural Studies in Curriculum: Eastern Thought, Educational Insights (Routledge, 2007, ISBN 978-1843153665).
  9. ↑ Koshelya Walli, The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought (Bharata Manisha, 1974).
  10. ↑ Mahabharata 13.117.37–38 The Mahabharata in Sanskrit. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
  11. ↑ Christopher Chapple, "Ecological Nonviolence and the Hindu Tradition" In V.K. Kool, (ed.). Perspectives on Nonviolence (Springer New York, 2011, ISBN 978-1461287834).
  12. ↑ Louis Fischer, Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World (Signet, 2010, ISBN 978-0451531704).
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Klaus K. Klostermaier, "Himsa and Ahimsa Traditions in Hinduism" in Harvey L. Dyck (ed.), The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective (University of Toronto Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0802007773).
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Paul F. Robinson (ed.), Just War in Comparative Perspective (Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0754635871).
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Unto Tähtinen, Ahimsa: Non-violence in Indian Tradition (Rider, 1976, ISBN 978-0091233402).
  16. ↑ Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349–350; Matsya Purana 226.116.
  17. ↑ Nebojša Vasic, The Role of Teachers in Martial Arts Sport SPA 8(2) (2011): 47-51. Retrieved January 2, 2020.
  18. ↑ D.N. Jha, The Myth of the Holy Cow (Verso, 2004, ISBN 978-1859844243).
  19. ↑ Rod Preece, Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities (University of British Columbia Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0774807241).
  20. ↑ G.U. Pope, Tirukkural: English Translation and Commentary (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017, ISBN 978-1975616724).
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Paul Dundas, The Jains (Routledge, 2002, ISBN 978-0415266062).
  22. ↑ Peter Flugel (ed.), Studies in Jaina History and Culture (Routledge, 2006, ISBN 978-0415360999).
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Vijay K. Jain, Acharya Amritchandra's Purusartha Siddhi Upaya (Vikalp Printers, 2012, ISBN 978-8190363945).
  24. ↑ Janardan Pandey (ed.), Gandhi and 21st Century (Concept Publishing Company, 1998, ISBN 978-8170226727).
  25. ↑ Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess (eds.). Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama (SUNY Press, 2001, ISBN 978-0791449721).
  26. ↑ Paul Williams, Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies (Routledge, 2006, ISBN 0415332265).
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (Cambridge University Press, 2012, ISBN 0521676746).
  28. ↑ Martine Batchelor, The Spirit of the Buddha (Yale University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0300164077).
  29. ↑ Kurt A. Raaflaub, War and Peace in the Ancient World] (Wiley-Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 978-1405145268).
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Tessa J. Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma (Routledge, 2002, ISBN 978-0700716821).
  31. ↑ Peter Harvey (ed.), Buddhism (Bloomsbury Academic, 2001, ISBN 978-0826453518).
  32. ↑ Rune E.A. Johansson, The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism (Curzon Press, 1979, ISBN 978-0700701148).
  33. ↑ Some examples are the Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta, the Kosala Samyutta, the Ratthapala Sutta, and the Sinha Sutta.
  34. ↑ Bhikkhu Bodhi (trans.), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya (Wisdom Publications, 2003, ISBN 978-0861713318).
  35. ↑ Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics (Wisdom Publications, 1997, ISBN 978-0861711246).
  36. ↑ Bruce Hartford, Nonviolent Resistance & Political Power 2008. Retrieved January 5, 2020.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (P. Sargent Publisher, 1973, ISBN 978-0875580685).
  38. ↑ Mohandas K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj Or Indian Home Rule (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2009, ISBN 978-1449922214).
  39. ↑ Martin Luther King, Jr., Letter From Birmingham Jail Retrieved January 8, 2020.
  40. ↑ Peter Ackerman and Jack DuVall, A Force More Powerful: A Century of Non-violent Conflict (St. Martin's Griffin, 2000, ISBN 978-0312240509).
  41. ↑ Martin Luther King, Jr., The Quest for Peace and Justice The Nobel Peace Prize Lecture, 1964. Retrieved January 7, 2020.
  42. ↑ Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (Beacon Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0807000694).
  43. ↑ Background International Day of Nonviolence, United Nations. Retrieved January 8, 2020,
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Gene Sharp, Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential (Extending Horizons Books, 2005, ISBN 978-0875581620).
  45. ↑ John F. Kennedy, Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress Delivered at The White House, Washington D.C. on March 13, 1962. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
  46. ↑ Dan Jakopovich, Revolution and the Party in Gramsci's Thought: A Modern Application International Viewpoint, November 2008. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
  47. ↑ George Lakey, Powerful Peacemaking: A Strategy For A Living Revolution (New Society Publishers, 1987, ISBN 978-0865710962).
  48. ↑ Hannah Beech, Corazon Aquino 1933–2009: The Saint of Democracy TIME, August 17, 2009. Retrieved January 9, 2020.
  49. ↑ Malcolm X and Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (Ballantine Books, 1992, ISBN 978-9990065169).
  50. ↑ George Jackson, Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson (Lawrence Hill Books, 1994, ISBN 978-1556522307).
  51. ↑ George Orwell, Reflections on Gandhi Retrieved January 9, 2020.
  52. ↑ Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (Wipf & Stock Pub, 2010, ISBN 978-1608998012).
  53. ↑ Larry Rasmussen (ed.), Reinhold Niebuhr: Theologian of Public Life (Fortress Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0800634070).
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Peter Gelderloos, How Nonviolence Protects the State (Detritus Books, 2018, ISBN 978-1909798571).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ackerman, Peter, and Jack DuVall. A Force More Powerful: A Century of Non-violent Conflict. St. Martin's Griffin, 2000. ISBN 978-0312240509
  • Bartholomeusz, Tessa J. In Defense of Dharma. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0700716821
  • Batchelor, Martine. The Spirit of the Buddha. Yale University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0300164077
  • Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. Wisdom Publications, 2003. ISBN 978-0861713318
  • Chapple, Christopher. Non-violence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian Traditions. Sri Satguru Publications, 1995. ISBN 978-8170304265
  • Dundas, Paul. The Jains. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0415266062
  • Dyke, Harvey L. (ed.). The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective. University of Toronto Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0802007773
  • Eppert, Claudia, and Hongyu Wang (eds.). Cross-Cultural Studies in Curriculum: Eastern Thought, Educational Insights. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 978-1843153665
  • Fischer, Louis. Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World. Signet, 2010. ISBN 978-0451531704
  • Flugel, Peter (ed.). Studies in Jaina History and Culture. Routledge, 2006. ISBN 978-0415360999
  • Gandhi, Mohandas K. Hind Swaraj Or Indian Home Rule. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2009. ISBN 978-1449922214
  • Gelderloos, Peter. How Nonviolence Protects the State. Detritus Books, 2018. ISBN 978-1909798571
  • Harvey, Peter (ed.). Buddhism. Bloomsbury Academic, 2001. ISBN 978-0826453518
  • Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press, 2012. ISBN 0521676746
  • Jackson, George. Soledad Brother: The Prison Letters of George Jackson. Lawrence Hill Books, 1994. ISBN 978-1556522307
  • Jain, Vijay K. Acharya Amritchandra's Purusartha Siddhi Upaya. Vikalp Printers, 2012. ISBN 978-8190363945
  • Jha, D.N. The Myth of the Holy Cow. Verso, 2004. ISBN 978-1859844243
  • Johansson, Rune E.A. The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism. Curzon Press, 1979. ISBN 978-0700701148
  • King, Martin Luther Jr. Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. Beacon Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0807000694
  • Kool, V.K. (ed.). Perspectives on Nonviolence. Springer New York, 2011. ISBN 978-1461287834
  • Kurlansky, Mark. Nonviolence: The History of a Dangerous Idea. Modern Library, 2008. ISBN 978-0812974478
  • Kurtz, Lester R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, and Conflict. Academic Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0123695031
  • Lakey, George. Powerful Peacemaking: A Strategy For A Living Revolution. New Society Publishers, 1987. ISBN 978-0865710962
  • Niebuhr, Reinhold. Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics. Wipf & Stock Pub, 2010. ISBN 978-1608998012
  • Pandey, Janardan (ed.). Gandhi and 21st Century. Concept Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-8170226727
  • Patel, Haresh. Thoughts from the Cosmic Field in the Life of a Thinking Insect [A Latter-Day Saint]. Eloquent Books, 2009. ISBN 978-1606938461
  • Pope, G.U. Tirukkural: English Translation and Commentary. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017. ISBN 978-1975616724
  • Preece, Rod. Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities. University of British Columbia Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0774807241
  • Rasmussen, Larry (ed.). Reinhold Niebuhr: Theologian of Public Life. Fortress Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0800634070
  • Roberts, Adam, and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.). Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199691456
  • Robinson, Paul F. (ed.). Just War in Comparative Perspective. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 978-0754635871
  • Saddhatissa, Hammalawa. Buddhist Ethics. Wisdom Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-0861711246
  • Sharp, Gene. The Politics of Nonviolent Action. P. Sargent Publisher, 1973. ISBN 978-0875580685
  • Sharp, Gene. Waging Nonviolent Struggle: 20th Century Practice And 21st Century Potential. Extending Horizons Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0875581620
  • Sharp, Gene. Sharp's Dictionary of Power and Struggle: Language of Civil Resistance in Conflicts. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199829880
  • Sundararajan, K.R., and Bithika Mukerji (eds.). Hindu Spirituality: Postclassical and Modern. Herder & Herder, 1997. ISBN 978-0824516710
  • Walters, Kerry S., and Lisa Portmess (eds.). Religious Vegetarianism: From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama. SUNY Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0791449721
  • Walli, Koshelya. The Conception of Ahimsa in Indian Thought. Bharata Manisha, 1974.
  • Walter, Nicolas, David Goodway (ed.). Damned Fools in Utopia and Other Writings on Anarchism and War Resistance. PM Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1604862225
  • X, Malcolm, and Alex Haley. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Ballantine Books, 1992. ISBN 978-9990065169

External links

All links retrieved November 15, 2022.

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