Difference between revisions of "Astrophysics" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 18:28, 19 August 2023

NGC 4414, a typical spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices, is about 56,000 light-years in diameter and approximately 60 million light-years distant from Earth.

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe. It involves studies of the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature) and chemical composition of celestial objects as well as their interactions. Scientists in the field of astrophysics are known as astrophysicists. They typically apply many areas of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.

Astrophysics can be subdivided into observational and theoretical aspects. Through observational astrophysics, scientists have discovered and studied such objects as planets, stars, pulsars, magnetars, galaxies, nebulae, and black holes. They have also observed the birth and death of stars, cosmic rays, the cosmic microwave background radiation, and the composition of the interstellar medium. Theoretical astrophysics has led to models for the formation and evolution of stars, galaxies, and the universe as a whole. It has led to theories about the Big Bang and cosmic inflation, proposals about the existence of dark matter and dark energy, and the formulation of string cosmology and astroparticle physics. Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity plays a major role in theoretical astrophysics.

History

Although astronomy is as ancient as recorded history itself, it was long separated from the study of physics. In the Aristotelian worldview, the celestial world tended towards perfection: Bodies in the sky seemed to be perfect spheres moving in perfectly circular orbits. By contrast, the earthly world seemed linked to imperfection. These two realms were not seen as related.

Aristarchus of Samos (about 310–250 B.C.E.) first put forward the notion that the motions of the celestial bodies could be explained by assuming that the Earth and all other planets in the Solar System orbited the Sun. Unfortunately, in the geocentric thinking of the time, Aristarchus' heliocentric theory was deemed outlandish and heretical, and for centuries, the apparently common-sense view that the Sun and other planets circled the Earth went basically unquestioned.

Later, in the sixteenth century, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model, giving it a mathematical foundation. In 1609, Galileo Galilei discovered the four brightest moons of Jupiter and documented their orbits about that planet. His work gave observational support to the heliocentric model. However, he was compelled to recant his heliocentric ideas to escape serious punishment from the Catholic Church, which held the geocentric dogma that was prevalent at that time.

The availability of accurate observational data (mainly from the observatory of Tycho Brahe) led to research into theoretical explanations for the observed behavior. At first, only empirical rules were discovered, such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion, discovered at the start of the seventeenth century. In the later part of that century, Isaac Newton bridged the gap between Kepler's laws and Galileo's dynamics, discovering that the same laws that rule the dynamics of objects on Earth rule the motion of planets and the Moon. Celestial mechanics, the application of Newtonian gravity and Newton's laws to explain Kepler's laws of planetary motion, became the first unification of astronomy and physics.

After Isaac Newton published his book, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, maritime navigation was transformed. Starting around 1670, the entire world was measured using essentially modern latitude instruments and the best available clocks. The needs of navigation provided a drive for progressively more accurate astronomical observations and instruments, providing a background for ever more available data for scientists.

At the end of the nineteenth century, when analyzing sunlight, a multitude of spectral lines were discovered (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique chemical elements. In this way, it was shown that chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly hydrogen) were also found on Earth. Indeed, the element helium was first discovered in the spectrum of the Sun and only later on Earth, hence its name. During the twentieth century, spectroscopy (the study of these spectral lines) advanced, particularly as quantum physics was developed and found necessary to understand the astronomical and experimental observations.^[1]

Observational astrophysics

The Pleiades, an open cluster of stars observed in the constellation of Taurus. NASA photo

Astrophysical observations are generally made in various segments of the electromagnetic spectrum, as indicated below.

Optical astronomy is the oldest kind of astronomy, involving the observation of celestial objects in the visible range of light. The instrument most commonly used is the telescope, paired with a charge-coupled device or spectroscope. The Earth's atmosphere interferes somewhat with optical observations, so image quality is improved by the use of adaptive optics and space telescopes. By studying the spectra of objects in the night sky, researchers are able to determine the chemical composition of stars, galaxies, and nebulae.
In radio astronomy, scientists study radiation with a wavelength greater than a few millimeters. The instruments used are very large radio telescopes. Radio waves are usually emitted by cold objects, including interstellar gas and dust clouds. The cosmic microwave background radiation is thought to be the redshifted light from the Big Bang. Pulsars were first detected at microwave frequencies.
Infrared astronomy involves the study of radiation of wavelengths longer than the wavelengths of visible light but shorter than those of radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with telescopes similar to the usual optical telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.
Ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma ray astronomy involve the study of very energetic processes, such as binary pulsars, black holes, magnetars, and many others. These types of radiation are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere to a large extent. To observe celestial objects and phenomena in these regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, scientists rely on space-based telescopes and ground-based imaging air Cherenkov telescopes (IACT). Observatories of the first type include RXTE, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Examples of IACTs are the High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S.) and the MAGIC telescope.

Besides studying electromagnetic radiation from distant objects, astrophysicists also look for such things as gravitational waves, neutrinos, and cosmic rays. A few gravitational wave observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect. Neutrino observatories have also been built, primarily to study the Sun. Cosmic rays, consisting of very high energy particles, can be observed striking the Earth's atmosphere.

Observations can also vary by timescale. Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that occur faster than that cannot be readily observed. Also, historical data on some objects is available spanning centuries or millennia. On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale (millisecond pulsars) or combine years of data (pulsar deceleration studies). The information obtained from these different timescales is very different.

Study of the Sun occupies a special place in observational astrophysics. Given the tremendous distances of all other stars, the Sun can be observed at a level of detail unparalleled by any other star. Human understanding of the Sun serves as a guide to the understanding of other stars.

The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modeled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on what is called the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. This diagram can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object from birth to destruction.

The material composition of astronomical objects can often be examined using:

Spectroscopy
Radio astronomy
Neutrino astronomy (future prospects)

Theoretical astrophysics

Theoretical astrophysicists endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those models. This approach helps observers look for data that can confirm or refute a model, or helps them choose between several alternate models.

Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to make minimal modifications to a model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model.

Theoretical astrophysicists use a variety of tools, including analytical models (such as polytropes to approximate the behavior of a star) and computational numerical simulations. Each offers some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better at giving insights into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that cannot otherwise be seen.^[2]

Topics studied by theoretical astrophysicists include: Stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation; large-scale structure of matter in the Universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including string cosmology and astroparticle physics. Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large-scale structures in which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena, and as a basis for understanding black holes and gravitational waves.

Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astrophysics, now included in the Lambda-CDM model are the Big Bang, cosmic inflation, dark matter, and fundamental theories of physics.

A few examples of this process:

Physical process	Experimental tool	Theoretical model	Explains/predicts
Gravitation	Radio telescopes	Self-gravitating system	Emergence of a star system
Nuclear fusion	Spectroscopy	Stellar evolution	How the stars shine and how metals formed
The Big Bang	Hubble Space Telescope, COBE	Expanding universe	Age of the Universe
Quantum fluctuations		Cosmic inflation	Flatness problem
Gravitational collapse	X-ray astronomy	General relativity	Black holes at the center of Andromeda galaxy
CNO cycle in stars

Dark matter and dark energy are the current leading topics in astrophysics, as their discovery and controversy originated during the study of galaxies.

Notes

↑ H. Falcke and P.L. Biermann, Frontiers of Astrophysics: Workshop Summary. Retrieved February 26, 2017.
↑ H. Roth, A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability, Physics Review 39(1953): 525–529.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Carroll, Bradley W., and Dale A. Ostlie. An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, 2nd edition. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2007. ISBN 978-0805304022.
Inglis, Mike. Astrophysics Is Easy!: A Complete Introduction for Amateur Astronomers. New York: Springer, 2007. ISBN 978-1852338909.
Maoz, Dan. Astrophysics in a Nutshell. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0691125848.
Seaborn, James B. Understanding the Universe: An Introduction to Physics and Astrophysics. New York: Springer, 1998. ISBN 0387982957.

External links

All links retrieved August 19, 2023.

Astrophysical Chemistry Video Lectures by Harry Kroto, 8 Freeview Lectures provided by the Vega Science Trust.
Institute for Space Astrophysics and Cosmic Physics, IASF-Bologna, one of the institutes of INAF – the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics.
Astronomy and Astrophysics, a European Journal.

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[1] H. Falcke and P.L. Biermann, Frontiers of Astrophysics: Workshop Summary. Retrieved February 26, 2017.

[2] H. Roth, A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability, Physics Review 39(1953): 525–529.

[1]

[2]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-<<IMPORT LATEST VERSION>>
+{{Ready}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{copyedited}}
+[[Image: NGC_4414_(NASA-med).jpg|right|thumb|350px|'''[[NGC 4414]],''' a typical [[spiral galaxy]] in the [[constellation]] [[Coma Berenices]], is about 56,000 [[light-year]]s in diameter and approximately 60 million light-years distant from [[Earth]].]]
-[[Image:Galaxy.ap19.2003.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|[[Spiral Galaxy ESO 269-57]]]]
+'''Astrophysics''' is the branch of [[astronomy]] that deals with the [[physics]] of the [[universe]]. It involves studies of the physical properties ([[luminosity]], [[density]], [[temperature]]) and [[chemistry|chemical]] composition of [[astronomical object|celestial object]]s as well as their interactions. Scientists in the field of astrophysics are known as ''astrophysicists''. They typically apply many areas of physics, including [[mechanics]], [[electromagnetism]], [[statistical mechanics]], [[thermodynamics]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[theory of relativity| relativity]], [[nuclear physics|nuclear]] and [[particle physics]], and [[atomic, molecular, and optical physics|atomic and molecular physics]].
+{{toc}}
+Astrophysics can be subdivided into observational and theoretical aspects. Through observational astrophysics, scientists have discovered and studied such objects as [[planet]]s, [[star]]s, [[pulsar]]s, [[magnetar]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[nebula]]e, and [[black hole]]s. They have also observed the birth and death of stars, [[cosmic ray]]s, the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]], and the composition of the [[interstellar medium]]. Theoretical astrophysics has led to models for the formation and evolution of stars, galaxies, and the [[universe]] as a whole. It has led to theories about the [[Big Bang]] and [[cosmic inflation]], proposals about the existence of [[dark matter]] and [[dark energy]], and the formulation of [[string theory|string]] cosmology and [[astroparticle physics]]. [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[General theory of relativity, an introduction|general theory of relativity]] plays a major role in theoretical astrophysics.
-'''Astrophysics''' is the branch of [[astronomy]] that deals with the [[physics]] of the universe, including the physical properties ([[luminosity]], [[density]], [[temperature]] and [[chemistry|chemical]] composition) of [[astronomical object]]s such as [[star]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], and the [[interstellar medium]], as well as their interactions.  The study of [[cosmology]] is theoretical astrophysics at the largest scales.
+==History==
+Although [[astronomy]] is as ancient as recorded history itself, it was long separated from the study of physics. In the [[Aristotel]]ian worldview, the celestial world tended towards perfection: Bodies in the sky seemed to be perfect spheres moving in perfectly circular orbits. By contrast, the earthly world seemed linked to imperfection. These two realms were not seen as related.
-Because it is a very broad subject, ''astrophysicists'' typically apply many disciplines of physics including, but not limited to, [[mechanics]], [[electromagnetism]], [[statistical mechanics]], [[thermodynamics]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[relativity]], [[nuclear physics|nuclear]] and [[particle physics]], and [[atomic, molecular, and optical physics|atomic and molecular physics]]. In practice, modern astronomical research involves a substantial amount of physics. The name of a university's department ("astrophysics" or "astronomy") often has to do more with the department's history than with the contents of the programs.
+[[Aristarchus of Samos]] (about 310–250 B.C.E.) first put forward the notion that the motions of the celestial bodies could be explained by assuming that the [[Earth]] and all other [[planet]]s in the [[Solar System]] orbited the [[Sun]]. Unfortunately, in the geocentric thinking of the time, Aristarchus' [[heliocentric theory]] was deemed outlandish and heretical, and for centuries, the apparently common-sense view that the Sun and other planets circled the Earth went basically unquestioned.
-== History ==
+Later, in the sixteenth century, the astronomer [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] revived the heliocentric model, giving it a mathematical foundation. In 1609, [[Galileo Galilei]] discovered the four brightest moons of [[Jupiter]] and documented their orbits about that planet. His work gave observational support to the heliocentric model. However, he was compelled to recant his heliocentric ideas to escape serious punishment from the [[Catholic Church]], which held the geocentric dogma that was prevalent at that time.
-Although astronomy is as old as recorded history, it was long separated from the study of physics. In the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] worldview, the celestial pertained to perfection&mdash;bodies in the sky being perfect spheres moving in perfectly circular orbits&mdash;while the earthly pertained to imperfection; these two realms were seen as unrelated.
+The availability of accurate observational data (mainly from the observatory of [[Tycho Brahe]]) led to research into theoretical explanations for the observed behavior. At first, only [[empirical]] rules were discovered, such as [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]], discovered at the start of the seventeenth century. In the later part of that century, [[Isaac Newton]] bridged the gap between Kepler's laws and Galileo's dynamics, discovering that the same laws that rule the dynamics of objects on Earth rule the motion of planets and the [[Moon]]. [[Celestial mechanics]], the application of Newtonian [[gravity]] and Newton's laws to explain Kepler's laws of planetary motion, became the first unification of astronomy and physics.
-For centuries, the apparently common-sense view that the [[Sun]] and other [[planet]]s went round the [[Earth]] went unquestioned, until [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] suggested in the [[16th century]] that the [[Earth]] and all the other planets in the [[Solar System]] orbited the Sun. [[Galileo Galilei]] made quantitative measurements central to physics, but in astronomy his observation did not have astrophysical significance.
+After Isaac Newton published his book, ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]],'' maritime [[navigation]] was transformed. Starting around 1670, the entire world was measured using essentially modern [[latitude]] instruments and the best available [[clock]]s. The needs of navigation provided a drive for progressively more accurate astronomical observations and instruments, providing a background for ever more available data for scientists.
-The availability of accurate observational data led to research into theoretical explanations for the observed behavior. At first, only ad-hoc rules were discovered, such as [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]], discovered at the start of the [[17th century]]. Later that century, [[Isaac Newton]], bridged the gap between Kepler's laws and Galileo's dynamics, discovering that the same laws that rule the dynamics of objects on earth rules the motion of planets and the moon. [[Celestial mechanics]], the application of Newtonian [[gravity]] and Newton's laws to explain Kepler's laws of planetary motion, was the first unification of astronomy and physics.
+At the end of the nineteenth century, when analyzing sunlight, a multitude of [[spectral line]]s were discovered (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique [[chemical element]]s. In this way, it was shown that chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly [[hydrogen]]) were also found on Earth. Indeed, the element [[helium]] was first discovered in the spectrum of the Sun and only later on Earth, [[etymology|hence]] its name. During the twentieth century, [[spectroscopy]] (the study of these spectral lines) advanced, particularly as [[quantum physics]] was developed and found necessary to understand the astronomical and experimental observations.<ref>H. Falcke and P.L. Biermann, [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9711066 Frontiers of Astrophysics: Workshop Summary.] Retrieved February 26, 2017.</ref>
-After Isaac Newton published his ''[[Principia]]'', maritime [[navigation]] was transformed. Starting around 1670, the entire world was measured using essentially modern [[latitude]] instruments and the best available [[clock]]s. The needs of navigation provided a drive for progressively more accurate astronomical observations and instruments, providing a background for ever more available data for scientists.
+==Observational astrophysics==
+[[Image:Pleiades large.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Pleiades (star cluster)|Pleiades]], an [[open cluster]] of stars observed in the [[constellation]] of [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]. ''[[NASA]] photo'']]
-At the end of the [[19th century]] it was discovered that, when
+Astrophysical observations are generally made in various segments of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], as indicated below.
-decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of [[spectral line]]s were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique [[chemical element]]s. In this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun (chiefly [[hydrogen]]) were also found on Earth. Indeed, the element [[helium]] was first discovered in the spectrum of the sun and only later on earth, [[etymology|hence]] its name. During the [[20th century]], [[spectrometry]] (the study of these spectral lines) advanced, particularly as a result of the advent of [[quantum physics]] that was necessary to understand the astronomical and experimental observations.
-See also:
+* [[Optical astronomy]] is the oldest kind of astronomy, involving the observation of celestial objects in the visible range of light. The instrument most commonly used is the [[telescope]], paired with a [[charge-coupled device]] or [[spectroscope]]. The Earth's [[atmosphere]] interferes somewhat with optical observations, so image quality is improved by the use of [[adaptive optics]] and [[space telescope]]s. By studying the spectra of objects in the night sky, researchers are able to determine the chemical composition of stars, [[galaxy|galaxies]], and [[nebula]]e.
-*[[Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure]]
+* In [[radio astronomy]], scientists study radiation with a [[wavelength]] greater than a few [[millimeter]]s. The instruments used are very large [[radio telescope]]s. [[Radio waves]] are usually emitted by cold objects, including [[interstellar gas]] and dust clouds. The [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] is thought to be the [[redshift]]ed light from the [[Big Bang]]. [[Pulsar]]s were first detected at [[microwave]] frequencies.
-*[[Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae]]
+* [[Infrared]] astronomy involves the study of radiation of wavelengths longer than the wavelengths of visible light but shorter than those of radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with telescopes similar to the usual [[optical]] telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.
-*[[Timeline of black hole physics]]
+* [[Ultraviolet]], [[X-ray astronomy|X-ray]], and [[gamma ray astronomy|gamma ray]] astronomy involve the study of very energetic processes, such as [[binary pulsar]]s, [[black hole]]s, [[magnetar]]s, and many others. These types of radiation are blocked by the Earth's atmosphere to a large extent. To observe celestial objects and phenomena in these regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, scientists rely on [[space-based telescope]]s and ground-based [[imaging air Cherenkov telescope]]s (IACT). [[Observatory|Observatories]] of the first type include [[RXTE]], the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]], and the [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]]. Examples of IACTs are the [[High Energy Stereoscopic System]] (H.E.S.S.) and the [[MAGIC (telescope)|MAGIC]] telescope.
-*[[Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity]]
-== Observational astrophysics ==
+Besides studying electromagnetic radiation from distant objects, astrophysicists also look for such things as [[gravitational wave]]s, [[neutrino]]s, and [[cosmic ray]]s. A few gravitational wave observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect. Neutrino observatories have also been built, primarily to study the [[Sun]]. Cosmic rays, consisting of very high energy particles, can be observed striking the Earth's atmosphere.
-Most astrophysical processes cannot be reproduced in laboratories on Earth.  However, there is a huge variety of astronomical objects visible all over the electromagnetic spectrum.  The study of these objects through passive collection of data is the goal of observational astrophysics.
+Observations can also vary by timescale. Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that occur faster than that cannot be readily observed. Also, historical data on some objects is available spanning [[century|centuries]] or [[millennia]]. On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale ([[millisecond pulsar]]s) or combine years of data ([[Rotation-powered pulsar|pulsar deceleration]] studies). The information obtained from these different timescales is very different.
-The equipment and techniques required to study an astrophysical phenomenon can vary widely.  Many astrophysical phenomena that are of current interest can only be studied by using very advanced technology and were simply not known until very recently.
+Study of the Sun occupies a special place in observational astrophysics. Given the tremendous distances of all other stars, the Sun can be observed at a level of detail unparalleled by any other star. Human understanding of the Sun serves as a guide to the understanding of other stars.
-The majority of astrophysical observations are made using the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].
+The topic of how stars change, or [[stellar evolution]], is often modeled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on what is called the [[Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]]. This diagram can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object from birth to destruction.
-* [[Radio astronomy]] studies radiation with a [[wavelength]] greater than a few millimeters.  Radio waves are usually emitted by cold objects, including interstellar gas and dust clouds.  The [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] is the [[redshift]]ed light from the [[Big Bang]].  [[Pulsar]]s were first detected at microwave frequencies. The study of these waves requires very large [[radio telescope]]s.
+The material composition of astronomical objects can often be examined using:
-* [[Infrared]] astronomy studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible but shorter than radio waves.  Infrared observations are usually made with [[telescope]]s similar to the usual [[optical]] telescopes.  Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies.
+* [[Spectroscopy]]
-* [[Optical astronomy]] is the oldest kind of astronomy.  [[Telescope]]s and [[spectroscope]]s are the most common instruments used.  The Earth's atmosphere interferes somewhat with optical observations, so [[adaptive optics]] and [[space telescope]]s are used to obtain the highest possible image quality.  In this range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies and [[nebula]]e.
+* [[Radio astronomy]]
-* [[Ultraviolet]], [[X-ray astronomy|X-ray]] and [[gamma ray astronomy|gamma ray]] astronomy study very energetic processes such as [[binary pulsar]]s, [[black hole]]s, [[magnetar]]s, and many others.  These kinds of radiation do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere well, so they are studied with space-based telescopes such as [[RXTE]], the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] and the [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]].
+* [[Neutrino astronomy]] (future prospects)
-Other than electromagnetic radiation, few things may be observed from the Earth that originate from great distances.  A few [[gravitational wave]] observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect.  [[Neutrino]] observatories have also been built, primarily to study our Sun.  [[Cosmic ray]]s consisting of very high energy particles can be observed hitting the Earth's atmosphere.
-Observations can also vary in their time scale.  Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that change faster than this cannot readily be observed.  However, historical data on some objects is available spanning centuries or millennia.  On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale ([[millisecond pulsar]]s) or combine years of data ([[pulsar deceleration]] studies).  The information obtained from these different timescales is very different.
-The study of our own Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics.  Due to the tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail unparalleled by any other star.  Our understanding of our own sun serves as a guide to our understanding of other stars.
-The topic of how stars change, or [[stellar evolution]], is often modelled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on the [[Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]], which can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object, from birth to destruction. The material composition of the astronomical objects can often be examined using:
+==Theoretical astrophysics==
+Theoretical astrophysicists endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those models. This approach helps observers look for data that can confirm or refute a model, or helps them choose between several alternate models.
-* [[Spectroscopy]]
+Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to make minimal modifications to a model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model.
-* [[Radio astronomy]]
-<!-- * [[List of observatories|Astronomical observatories]] WHY WAS THIS HERE??? —>
-== Theoretical astrophysics ==
+Theoretical astrophysicists use a variety of tools, including [[mathematical model|analytical model]]s (such as [[polytrope]]s to approximate the behavior of a [[star]]) and [[Computation|computational]] [[Numerical analysis|numerical simulations]]. Each offers some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better at giving insights into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that cannot otherwise be seen.<ref>H. Roth, A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability, ''Physics Review'' 39(1953): 525–529.</ref>
-{{main|Theoretical astrophysics}}
+Topics studied by theoretical astrophysicists include: [[Stellar dynamics]] and [[Stellar evolution|evolution]]; [[Galaxy formation and evolution|galaxy formation]]; [[large-scale structure]] of [[matter]] in the [[Universe]]; origin of [[cosmic ray]]s; [[general relativity]] and [[physical cosmology]], including [[string theory|string]] cosmology and [[astroparticle physics]]. Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large-scale structures in which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena, and as a basis for understanding [[black hole]]s and [[gravitational wave]]s.
-Theoretical astrophysicists create and evaluate models to reproduce and predict observations. They use a wide variety of tools which include analytical models (for example, [[polytrope]]s to approximate the behaviors of a [[star]]) and [[Computation|computational]] [[Numerical analysis|numerical simulations]].
+Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astrophysics, now included in the [[Lambda-CDM model]] are the [[Big Bang]], [[cosmic inflation]], [[dark matter]], and fundamental theories of [[physics]].
 A few examples of this process:
@@ Line 67: / Line 63: @@
 ||<!--A—>[[Gravitation]]
 ||<!--B—>[[Radio telescope]]s
-||<!--C—>[[Self-gravitating system]]
+||<!--C—>[[Nordtvedt effect|Self-gravitating system]]
 ||<!--D—>Emergence of a [[star system]]
 |-
@@ Line 73: / Line 69: @@
 ||<!--B—> [[Spectroscopy]]
 ||<!--C—> [[Stellar evolution]]
-||<!--D—> How the stars shine
+||<!--D—> How the stars shine and how [[nucleosynthesis|metals formed]]
 |-
-||<!--A—>[[Big Bang]]
+||<!--A—>[[The Big Bang]]
 ||<!--B—>[[Hubble Space Telescope]], [[COBE]]
 ||<!--C—> [[Expanding universe]]
@@ Line 88: / Line 84: @@
 ||<!--B—> [[X-ray astronomy]]
 ||<!--C—> [[General relativity]]
-||<!--D—> [[Black hole]]s at the center of Andromeda galaxy
+||<!--D—> [[Black hole]]s at the center of [[Andromeda galaxy]]
 |-
 ||<!--A—> [[CNO cycle]] in [[star]]s
 ||<!--B—>
 ||<!--C—>
 ||<!--D—>
 |-
+|}
-|} <!-- END of Table —>
+[[Dark matter]] and [[dark energy]] are the current leading topics in astrophysics, as their discovery and controversy originated during the study of galaxies.
-[[Dark matter]] and [[dark energy]] are currently topics in astrophysics, as their discovery and controversy originated during the study of the galaxies.
+== Notes ==
+<references />
-== Astrodynamics ==
+==References==
+* Carroll, Bradley W., and Dale A. Ostlie. ''An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics,'' 2nd edition. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Addison-Wesley, 2007. ISBN 978-0805304022.
+* Inglis, Mike. ''Astrophysics Is Easy!: A Complete Introduction for Amateur Astronomers.'' New York: Springer, 2007. ISBN 978-1852338909.
+* Maoz, Dan. ''Astrophysics in a Nutshell.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0691125848.
+* Seaborn, James B. ''Understanding the Universe: An Introduction to Physics and Astrophysics.'' New York: Springer, 1998. ISBN 0387982957.
-''Main article: [[Astrodynamics]]''
+==External links==
+All links retrieved August 19, 2023.
-[[Astrodynamics]] is the branch of celestial mechanics concerned with the motion of rockets, satellites and missiles.  It is based upon [[Newton's laws of motion]], and [[law of universal gravitation]].  The formula for [[escape velocity]] is defined in astrodynamics as: <center><math>v\geq\sqrt{2 G M / r}</math></center>  Astrodynamics is also used to compute the position of a satellite at a given time, a problem first solved by [[Johannes Kepler]], who computed the formula:
+* [http://www.vega.org.uk/video/subseries/16 Astrophysical Chemistry Video Lectures by Harry Kroto], 8 Freeview Lectures provided by the Vega Science Trust.
+* [http://www.iasfbo.inaf.it Institute for Space Astrophysics and Cosmic Physics], IASF-Bologna, one of the institutes of INAF – the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics.
+* [http://www.aanda.org/ Astronomy and Astrophysics, a European Journal].
-<math>MT = E - e \sin E \;</math>
+[[Category:Physical sciences]]
-This formula is commonly referred to as ''Kepler's equation'', and can compute the time required for a satellite to travel from [[periapsis]] P to a given point S.
-Modern techniques for computing time-of-flight include the ''patched conic approximation'', where one must choose the one dominant gravitating body in each region of space through which the [[trajectory]] will pass, and to model only that body's effects in that region, or the ''universal variable formulation''.
-== Astrophysicists ==
-''Main article: [[List of astrophysicists]]''
-{{sect-stub}}
-== References ==
-Herman Roth, "A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability" ''Phys. Rev.'' '''39,''' 525–529 ([[1932]]) [Issue 3 – 1 February 1932 ]
-<!--
-Arthur S. Eddington, ''Internal Constitution of the Stars''.
-Subramamian Chandrasekhar
-—>
-== See also ==
-* [[list of publications in physics#Astrophysics|Important publications in astrophysics]]
-* [[Particle accelerator]]
-== External links ==
-* [http://home.slac.stanford.edu/ppap.html Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford, California]
-[[Category:Astrophysics| ]]
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+{{Astronomy subfields}}
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