Vinegar

Vinegar is sometimes infused with spices or herbs—as here, with oregano.

Vinegar is a liquid produced from the fermentation of ethanol in a process that yields its key ingredient, acetic acid.

Variety of materials; first made from wine

Process/reactions: sugars → ethanol → acetic acid

Louis Pasteur showed in 1864 that vinegar results from a natural fermentation process. (more on acetobacter’s function)

Vinegar as old as civ itself; Vinegar has been made and used by people for thousands of years. Traces of it have been found in Egyptian urns from around 3000 B.C.E. relation to human civ and culture: OFr vinaigre The word "vinegar" derives from the Old French vinaigre, meaning "sour wine."

It has been used since ancient times, and is an important element in Western and European, Asian, and other traditional cuisines of the world.

Components and properties

Acetic acid

Acetic acid, also known as ethanoic acid, is an organic chemical compound best recognized for giving vinegar its sour taste and pungent smell. It is one of the simplest carboxylic acids (the second-simplest, after formic acid).

CH₃COOH

The acetic acid concentration ranges typically from 4 to 8 percent by volume for table vinegar (typically 5%) and higher concentrations for pickling (up to 18%) although in some countries the minimum strength may be less. Natural vinegars also contain smaller amounts of tartaric acid, citric acid, and other acids.

The greater number of oxygen attached, the stronger the acid; Carboxylic acids are weak acids, but stronger than alcohols, in part as a result of the electron-withdrawing power of their second oxygen atom.

Acetic acid gives sour taste and pungent smell; in concentrated form, corrosive and its vapor irritates the eyes

The pH of vinegar is typically in the range of 2 to 3.5, depending on the concentration of acetic acid. Commercially available vinegar usually has a pH of about 2.4^{[citation needed]}.

Vinegar has a density of approximately 0.96 g/mL. The density level depends on the acidity of the vinegar.

Commercial production

Acetic acid is produced both synthetically and by bacterial fermentation. Today, the biological route accounts for only about 10% of world production, but it remains important for vinegar production, as many of the world food purity laws stipulate that vinegar used in foods must be of biological origin.

Acetic acid bacteria are bacteria that derive their energy from the oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid during respiration. They are Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria.

The acetic acid bacteria are found in nature where ethanol is being formed as a result of yeast fermentation of sugars and plant carbohydrates. They can be isolated from the nectar of flowers and from damaged fruit. Other good sources are fresh apple cider and unpasteurized beer which has not been filter sterilized. In these liquids the acetic acid bacteria grow as a surface film due to their aerobic nature and active motility. Vinegar is produced when acetic acid bacteria act on alcoholic beverages such as wine.

Some genera, such as Acetobacter, can eventually oxidize acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water using Krebs cycle enzymes. Other genera, such as Gluconobacter, doesn't further oxidize acetic acid, as they do not have a full set of Krebs cycle enzymes.

Acetobacter is a genus of acetic acid bacteria characterized by the ability to convert alcohol (ethanol) to acetic acid in the presence of air. There are several species within this genus, and there are other bacteria capable of forming acetic acid under various conditions; but all of the Acetobacter are known by this characteristic ability.

Acetobacter are of particular importance commercially, because:

• they are used in the production of vinegar (intentionally converting the ethanol in the wine to acetic acid)
• they can destroy wine which it infects by producing excessive amounts of acetic acid or ethyl acetate, both of which can render the wine unpalatable.

Acetic acid is produced and excreted by certain bacteria, notably the Acetobacter genus and Clostridium acetobutylicum. These bacteria are found universally in foodstuffs, water, and soil, and acetic acid is produced naturally as fruits and some other foods spoil.

For most of human history, acetic acid, in the form of vinegar, has been made by bacteria of the genus Acetobacter. Given sufficient oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic foodstuffs. Commonly used feeds include apple cider, wine, and fermented grain, malt, rice, or potato mashes. The overall chemical reaction facilitated by these bacteria is

C₂H₅OH + O₂ → CH₃COOH + H₂O

A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with Acetobacter and kept in a warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months. Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the supply of oxygen to the bacteria.

The first batches of vinegar produced by fermentation probably followed errors in the winemaking process. If must is fermented at too high a temperature, acetobacter will overwhelm the yeast naturally occurring on the grapes. As the demand for vinegar for culinary, medical, and sanitary purposes increased, vintners quickly learned to use other organic materials to produce vinegar in the hot summer months before the grapes were ripe and ready for processing into wine. This method was slow, however, and not always successful, as the vintners did not understand the process.

One of the first modern commercial processes was the "fast method" or "German method", first practised in Germany in 1823. In this process, fermentation takes place in a tower packed with wood shavings or charcoal. The alcohol-containing feed is trickled into the top of the tower, and fresh air supplied from the bottom by either natural or forced convection. The improved air supply in this process cut the time to prepare vinegar from months to weeks.

Most vinegar today is made in submerged tank culture, first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 2–3 days.

Anaerobic fermentation

Some species of anaerobic bacteria, including several members of the genus Clostridium, can convert sugars to acetic acid directly, without using ethanol as an intermediate. The overall chemical reaction conducted by these bacteria may be represented as:

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 3 CH₃COOH

More interestingly from the point of view of an industrial chemist, many of these acetogenic bacteria can produce acetic acid from one-carbon compounds, including methanol, carbon monoxide, or a mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen:

2 CO₂ + 4 H₂ → CH₃COOH + 2 H₂O

This ability of Clostridium to utilise sugars directly, or to produce acetic acid from less costly inputs, means that these bacteria could potentially produce acetic acid more efficiently than ethanol-oxidisers like Acetobacter. However, Clostridium bacteria are less acid-tolerant than Acetobacter. Even the most acid-tolerant Clostridium strains can produce vinegar of only a few per cent acetic acid, compared to some Acetobacter strains that can produce vinegar of up to 20% acetic acid. At present, it remains more cost-effective to produce vinegar using Acetobacter than to produce it using Clostridium and then concentrating it. As a result, although acetogenic bacteria have been known since 1940, their industrial use remains confined to a few niche applications.

Vinegar is made from the oxidation of ethanol in wine, cider, beer, fermented fruit juice, or nearly any other liquid containing alcohol. Commercial vinegar is produced either by fast or slow fermentation processes. Slow methods are generally used with traditional vinegars and fermentation proceeds slowly over the course of weeks or months. The longer fermentation period allows for the accumulation of a nontoxic slime composed of acetic acid bacteria and soluble cellulose, known as the mother of vinegar (confusing construction because it’s the bacteria that are the mother of vinegar). Fast methods add mother of vinegar (i.e. bacterial culture) to the source liquid and then add air using a venturi pump system or a turbine to promote oxygenization to give the fastest fermentation. In fast production processes, vinegar may be produced in a period ranging between 20 hours and three days.

Need something on the importance of aeration (contact with oxygen). Curious about what the advantages are of slow fermentation then; why does it yield a richer result?

Vinegar eels (Turbatrix aceti), a form of nematode, may occur in some forms of vinegar. These feed on the mother and occur in naturally fermenting vinegar. Most manufacturers filter and pasteurize their product before bottling to eliminate any potential adulteration.

Types of vinegar

can be made from any carbohydrate-containing liquid capable of being converted into alcohol, hence, the diversity of materials

White vinegar

So-called "white vinegar" (actually transparent in appearance) can be made by oxidizing a distilled alcohol. Alternatively, it may be nothing more than a solution of acetic acid in water. Most commercial white vinegars are 5% acetic acid solutions. They are made from grain (often maize) and water. White vinegar is used for culinary as well as cleaning purposes.

Malt vinegar

Malt vinegar is made by malting barley, causing the starch in the grain to turn to maltose. An ale is then brewed from the maltose and allowed to turn into vinegar, which is then aged. It is typically light brown in color.

A less expensive alternative to malt vinegar, called non-brewed condiment, is a solution of 4-8% acetic acid colored with caramel. There is also around 1-3% citric acid present. Non-brewed condiment is popular in the North of England, and gained popularity with the rise of the Temperance movement.

Apple cider vinegar

Apple cider vinegar, otherwise known simply as cider vinegar, is made from cider or apple must, and is often sold unfiltered, with a brownish-yellow color; it often contains mother of vinegar. It is currently very popular, partly due to its alleged beneficial health and beauty properties (see below).

Wine vinegars

Wine vinegar is made from red or white wine, and is the most commonly used vinegar in Mediterranean countries and Central Europe. As with wine, there is a considerable range in quality. Better quality wine vinegars are matured in wood for up to two years and exhibit a complex, mellow flavor. Wine vinegar tends to have a less acidity than that of white or cider vinegars. There are more expensive wine vinegars made from individual grape varieties, such as Champagne, Sherry, or pinot grigio.

Fruit vinegars

Fruit vinegars are made from fruit wines usually without any additional flavoring. Common flavors of fruit vinegar include apple, black currant, raspberry, quince, and tomato. Typically, the flavors of the original fruits remain tasteable in the final vinegar.

Most such vinegars are produced in Europe, where there is a growing market for high price vinegars made solely from specific fruits (as opposed to non-fruit vinegars which are infused with fruits or fruit flavors). Persimmon vinegar is popular in South Korea, and jujube vinegar is produced in China.[1]

Balsamic vinegar

Balsamic vinegar is an aromatic, aged type of vinegar traditionally manufactured in Modena, Italy, from the concentrated juice, or must, of white grapes (typically of the Trebbiano variety). It is very dark brown in color and its flavor is rich, sweet, and complex, with the finest grades being the end product of years of aging in a successive number of casks made of various types of wood (including oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, ash, and acacia). Originally an artisanal product available only to the Italian upper classes, balsamic vinegar became widely known and available around the world in the late 20th century. True balsamic is aged between 3 - 12 years. One can sometimes even find balsamics that have been aged for up to 100 years, though they are very expensive.

The commercial balsamic sold in supermarkets is typically made with red wine vinegar or concentrated grape juice mixed with a strong vinegar which is laced with caramel and sugar. However produced, balsamic needs to be made from a grape product.

Balsamic has a high acid level, but the sweetness covers the tart flavor, making it very mellow.

Barrels of balsamic vinegar aging in a maker's attic.

Balsamic vinegar is manufactured from the juice of white grapes (typically, trebbiano grapes) boiled down to approximately 50% of its original volume to create a concentrated must, which is then fermented with a slow aging process which concentrates the flavours. The flavour intensifies over decades, with the vinegar being kept in fine wooden casks, becoming sweet, viscous and very concentrated (what is gone is romantically referred to as "the angels' share," a term also used in the production of scotch whisky).

The finest and most traditional balsamic vinegar is very labour-intensive to produce; while it ages and gradually evaporates, the liquid is transferred to successively smaller casks made of different woods, absorbing the flavour characteristics of each wood and becoming more concentrated with each transfer. Oak, mulberry, chestnut, cherry, juniper, ash, and acacia are the most commonly used woods.[2] Some older balsamic vinegar is added to the must to create a more complex and intricate taste, and to enhance acidity. At the end of the process, the vinegar is taken from the smallest cask: each cask is filled with the contents of the preceding (larger) cask and the cooked must is added to the largest cask.

Balsamic vinegar of the highest quality, labeled tradizionale, usually sells for very high prices; a small (100 ml) bottle can cost between US $100 and $400. Most producers, however, do not employ all seven of the aforementioned woods in the aging process; some employ only oak. Several mass-produced, less expensive varieties may not be aged in wood at all, being nothing more than ordinary wine vinegar with coloring and added sugar. Legally, according to the rules of the Consortium, these are not allowed to be called "traditional". However, since the wording "Aceto Balsamico di Modena" failed to achieve the DOP status ("Denominazione di Origine Protetta" or "Protected Denomination of Origin"), products marketed by that name may not have even been produced in Modena.

Rice vinegars

Rice vinegar is most popular in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia. It is available in white (actually light yellow), red, and black variants. The Japanese prefer a light and more delicate rice vinegar for the preparation of sushi rice and salad dressings. Red rice vinegar is traditionally colored with red yeast rice, although some Chinese brands use artificial food coloring instead.[3] Black rice vinegar (made with black glutinous rice) is most popular in China, although it is also produced in Japan (see East Asian black, below).[4] It may be used as a substitute for balsamic vinegar, although its dark color and the fact that it is aged may be the only similarity between the two products.

Some varieties of rice vinegar are sweetened or otherwise seasoned with spices or other added flavorings.

Chinese black vinegar is an aged product made from rice, wheat, millet, or sorghum, or a combination thereof. It has an inky black color and a complex, malty flavor.[5] There is no fixed recipe and thus some Chinese black vinegars may contain added sugar, spices, or caramel color. The most popular variety, Chinkiang vinegar, originated in the city of Zhenjiang, in the eastern coastal province of Jiangsu, China[6], and is also produced in Tianjin and Hong Kong.

A somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, made from rice, is also produced in Japan, where it is called kurozu. Since 2004 it has been marketed as a healthful drink; its manufacturers claim that it contains high concentrations of amino acids.[7][8][9]

Other types

although vinegars made from — are the most common, also xyz:

• Coconut vinegar, made from the sap, or "toddy," of the coconut palm, is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (particularly in the Philippines, a major producer of the product), as well as in some cuisines of India. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.
• Cane vinegar, made from sugar cane juice, is most popular in the Ilocos Region of the northern Philippines (where it is called sukang iloko), although it is also produced in France and the United States. It ranges from dark yellow to golden brown in color and has a mellow flavor, similar in some respects to rice vinegar, though with a somewhat "fresher" taste. Contrary to expectation, it is not sweeter than other vinegars, containing no residual sugar. In the Philippines, it is often labeled as sukang maasim, although this is simply a generic term meaning "sour vinegar."
• Raisin vinegar is used in cuisines of the Middle East, and is produced in Turkey. It is cloudy and medium brown in color, with a mild flavor.[10][11]
• Vinegar made from dates is a traditional product of the Middle East.[12]
• Vinegar made from honey is rare, though commercially available honey vinegars are produced in Italy and France.
• Kombucha vinegar, also referred to as probiotic vinegar,^{[citation needed]} is made from kombucha, a symbiotic culture of yeast and bacteria. The bacteria produce a complex array of nutrients and populate the vinegar with symbiotic bacteria which promote a heathy digestive tract. Kombucha vinegar is primarily used to make a vinaigrette and flavored by adding strawberries, blackberries, mint, or blueberries at the beginning of fermentation.

Flavored vinegars

Popular fruit-flavored vinegars include those infused with whole raspberries, blueberries, or figs (or else from flavorings derived from these fruits). Some of the more exotic fruit-flavored vinegars include blood orange and pear.

Herb vinegars are flavored with herbs, most commonly Mediterranean herbs such as thyme or oregano. Such vinegars can be prepared at home by adding sprigs of fresh or dried herbs to store-bought vinegar; generally a light-colored, mild tasting vinegar such as that made from white wine is used for this purpose.

Sweetened vinegar is made from rice wine, sugar and herbs including ginger, cloves and other spices.

Spiced vinegar, from the Philippines (labeled as spiced sukang maasim), is flavored with chili peppers, onions, and garlic.[13][14]

Uses

Culinary

Vinegar is commonly used in food preparation, particularly in pickling processes, vinaigrettes, and other salad dressings. It is an ingredient in sauces such as mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise. Vinegar is an essential component of chutneys. It is often used as a condiment. Marinades often contain vinegar.

• Condiment for fish and chips - Britons commonly use malt vinegar (or non-brewed condiment) on chips; it may be used in other territories where British-style fish and chips are served.

• Flavouring for potato chips - In the case of American-style chips or crisps, many manufacturers of pre-packaged potato chips/crisps feature a variety flavored with vinegar and salt.

• Vinegar pie - is a North American dessert made with a vinegar to one's taste.

• Pickling - any vinegar can be used to pickle foods.

• Cider vinegar and sauces - cider vinegar is not usually suitable for use in delicate sauces.

• Substitute for lemon juice - cider vinegar can usually be substituted for lemon juice in recipes and obtain a pleasing effect.

• Saucing roast lamb - pouring cider vinegar over the meat when roasting lamb, especially when combined with honey or when sliced onions have been added to the roasting pan, produces a tasty sauce.
• Sweetened vinegar (see Flavored vinegars above) is used in the dish of Pork Knuckles and Ginger Stew which is made among Chinese people of Cantonese backgrounds to celebrate the arrival of a new child.

• Sushi rice - Japanese use rice vinegar as an essential ingredient for sushi rice.

• Red vinegar - Sometimes used in Chinese soups

Medicinal uses

Many remedies and treatments have been ascribed to vinegar over millennia in many different cultures. However, few have been verifiable using controlled medical trials and several that are effective to some extent have significant risks and side effects. In most cases, alternative treatments are more effective and less risky. Nevertheless, there is verifiable evidence that vinegar is effective for certain conditions.

Small amounts of vinegar (approx. 20 mls or two tablespoons of domestic vinegar) added to food, or taken along with a meal, have been shown by a number of medical trials to reduce the glycemic index of carbohydrate food in both healthy and diabetic recipients. This has also been expressed as lower glycemic index ratings in the region of 30%.

Multiple trials indicate that taking vinegar with food increases satiety (the feeling of fullness) and so reduces the amount of food consumed. Even a single application of vinegar can lead to reduced food intake for a whole day.

Treatment for jellyfish stings Applying vinegar to jellyfish stings deactivates the nematocysts. However, placing the affected areas into hot-water is a more effective treatment because the venom is deactivated by heat. The latter requires immersion in 45 degrees celsius water for at least four minutes for the pain to be reduced to less than that of vinegar.

Traditional and anecdotal treatments

• Hippocrates prescribed vinegar for many ailments, from skin rash to ear infection.

• Vinegar is a folk medicine used in China to prevent the spread of virus such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) and other pneumonia outbreaks:

• In February 2003, an outbreak in China's Guangdong province of an atypical pneumonia caused massive demand and soaring prices for vinegar, isatis root, and other medicines believed to to be useful in killing the infectious agent.

• The therapeutic use of vinegar is recorded in the second verse of the nursery rhyme “Jack and Jill”: “Went to bed and bound his head / With vinegar and brown paper.” As with some nursery rhymes, there is truth in the story. The vinegar used would likely have been cider vinegar.

• Apple cider vinegar is a much more useful astringent than ice and will reduce inflammation, bruising and swelling in approximately a third of the time that ice will take. Application is directly onto the skin with a flannel, and left on for an hour or so.^{[citation needed]}

• Apple cider vinegar in particular is often touted as a medical aid, from cancer prevention to alleviation of joint pain to weight loss. Claims of its benefits go back at least to Hippocrates. In 1958, Dr. D. C. Jarvis made the remedy popular with a book that sold 500,000 copies.

• Claims that cider vinegar can be used as a beauty aid also persist, it is a powerful remedy for Acne skin conditions when diluted 50:50 with water and used as a toner. despite the fact that apple cider vinegar can sometimes be very dangerous to the eyes. The acid will burn and the eyes will become red, but no damage to the eyes has ever been described. If the vinegar contains mother of vinegar the slime bacteria of the mother can cause ophthalmitis.^{[citation needed]}

• Many believe that vinegar is also a cure to mild to moderate sunburn when soaked on the area with a towel or in a bath.^{[citation needed]}

• Cider vinegar is also claimed to be a solution to dandruff, in that the acid in the vinegar kills the fungus Malassezia furfur (formerly known as Pityrosporum ovale) and restores the chemical balance of the skin.^{[citation needed]}

• Cider vinegar is a natural remedy for yeast infections, when diluted with water and used as a douche.

Vinegar along with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is used in the livestock industry to kill bacteria and viruses before refrigeration storage. A chemical mixture of peracetic acid is formed when acetic acid is mixed with hydrogen peroxide. It is being used in some Asian countries by aerosol sprays for control of pneumonia. A mixture of five-percent acetic acid and three-percent hydrogen peroxide is commonly used.^{[citation needed]}

Apple cider vinegar can be used to prevent some problems in the digestive systems of dogs, such as E. Coli. The vinegar is acidic until it enters the dog's body, and it lines their intestines. E. coli cannot attach to an alkaline vinegar-coated intestine.^{[citation needed]}

Cleaning uses

White vinegar is often used as a natural household cleaning agent. With most such purposes dilution with water is recommended for safety, reduced risk of damaging certain surfaces, and budgetary reasons. It is especially useful for cleaning mineral deposits on glass and other smooth surfaces. Care should be taken to not allow contact with eyes (if such contact occurs, the eyes should be flushed immediately and persistently with warm water) or skin (the affected skin area should be washed thoroughly after use). See Household chemicals.

Agricultural and horticultural uses

Vinegar can be used as a herbicide as shown by scientific trials reported by the US Dept of Agriculture in 2002. Vinegar made from natural products classifies as organic and so there is interest in it being used on farms/orchards/gardens certified as organic. The trials showed that a number of common weeds could be effectively controlled using vinegar with 5% to 20% acetic acid. The lower concentration is less effective. A crop of corn can be sprayed with vinegar at 20% strength without causing harm to that crop and so it can be used to help keep a corn crop clear of weeds.

Acetic acid is not absorbed into root systems and so vinegar will kill top growth but perennial plants will reshoot.

Commercial vinegar available to consumers for household use does not exceed 5% and solutions above 10% need careful handling since they are corrosive and damaging to skin. Stronger solutions (i.e. greater than 5%) that are labeled for use as herbicides are available from some retailers.

Miscellaneous

• According to the Prophet Muhammed, vinegar is one of the best condiments (Ref. Sahih Muslim Book 023, Number 5091).

• Lord Byron would consume vast quantities of white vinegar in an attempt to keep his complexion pale. ^{[citation needed]}

External links

• [15] - Apple Cider Vinegar Cure Research- Page 2
• [16] - Apple Cider Vinegar Cure Research - Page 1
• The Vinegar Institute - Promotional website from members of the vinegar industry
• Acetic Acid
• Vinegar: Medicinal Uses and Antiglycemic Effect - Medscape.com article by Carol S. Johnston, PhD, RD and Cindy A. Gaas, BS.
• Vinegar Connoisseurs International
• Information about production and uses
• Weird Facts - 50 Uses for Vinegar
• Apple Vinegar- Therapeutical properties.

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