Difference between revisions of "Papacy" - New World Encyclopedia

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| colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size: 170%;" | '''Pope'''
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[[Image:StPetersBasilicaEarlyMorning.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Saint Peter]]'s Square in [[Vatican City]], the seat of the papacy]]
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[[Image:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg|thumb|120px|Seal of the papacy]]
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The '''papacy''' is the office of the '''pope''' (from [[Latin]]: "papa" or "father"), the [[bishop of Rome]], who is the leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and head of state of [[Vatican City]]. The pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "[[Holy See]]" or "[[Apostolic See]]."
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| colspan="2" align="center" style="border-bottom: solid 1px #ccd2d9;"| [[Image:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg|120px]]<br>'''Seal of the Papacy'''
 
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| colspan="2"| Incumbent:<br>[[Benedict XVI]]
 
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| [[His Holiness]]
 
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| [[Holy Father]]
 
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| [[Vatican City]]
 
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! First Pope
 
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| [[Sacred Tradition#Sacred Tradition in the Roman Catholic Church|Traditionally]], [[Saint Peter]]
 
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| Traditionally, first century
 
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| {{nowrap|[http://www.vatican.va www.vatican.va]}}
 
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The '''papacy'' is the office of the '''pope''' (from [[Latin]]: "papa" or "father" from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|πάπας}}, ''pápas'', "papa", ''Papa'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is the [[bishop of Rome]], the leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]and head of state of [[Vatican City]]. The current (265th) pope is '''[[Pope Benedict XVI]]''', who was elected April 19, 2005 in [[Papal conclave, 2005|papal conclave]].
 
  
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The pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "[[Holy See]]" or "[[Apostolic See]]." In addition to his spiritual role, the pope is [[head of state]] of the sovereign state of the [[Vatican City]].
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The importance of the Roman [[bishop]] is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to [[Saint Peter]], to whom [[Jesus]] gave the keys of heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing," naming him as the "rock" upon which the church would be built.  
  
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The early bishops of Rome were not yet "popes" as the word is understood today. Rather, the papacy developed gradually [[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. Rather, Rome seems to have had a collective leadership involving a council of elders or bishops until the mid second century. The Roman church gradually gain prominenece, especially after the scattering of the Jerusalem church in 70 C.E., and eventually become the leading church in the Roman empire. After Christianity become the religion of the emperors in the fourth century, the papacy was involved a period of close interaction with the rulers of the West, while often struggling for supremacy with the eastern emperors and the patriarch of Constantinople. In medieval times, popes played powerful roles in Western Europe, often struggling with monarchs for power over wide-ranging affairs of church and state, crowning emperors and regulating disputes among secular rulers.
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After [[Christianity]] became the favored religion of the [[Roman Empire|Roman emperors]] in the fourth century, the papacy was involved in a period of close interaction with the rulers of the West, while often struggling for supremacy with the eastern emperors and the patriarch of [[Constantinople]]. In [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times, popes played powerful political roles in [[Western Europe]], crowning emperors, ruling the [[papal states]], and regulating disputes among secular rulers. After the [[Protestant Reformation]] and the rise of powerful nation-states successfully challenged the authority of the papacy in the West, the popes gradually gave up secular power. In the modern period the papacy has come to focus almost exclusively on spiritual matters.  
  
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Gradually forced to give up secular power, in recent decades, the papacy has come to focus again almost exclusively on spiritual matters. Over the centuries, the papacy's claim of spiritual authority has been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in the proclamation of the [[Dogma (Roman Catholic)|dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]]. The last such occasion was in the year 1950 with the definition of the dogma of the [[Assumption of Mary]].
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Over the centuries, the papacy's claim of spiritual authority has been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in the proclamation of the [[Dogma (Roman Catholic)|dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' when issuing a statement of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].
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{{toc}}
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Today, the pope is the leader of the largest organized body of religious believers of the world, and arguably the single most powerful voice in moral and spiritual affairs. He has become a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. The papacy remains one of the most influential institutions of any kind in today's world.  
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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The importance of the Roman bishop is largely derived from his role as the successor to [[Saint Peter]], to whom Jesus gays the keys of heaven and powering of "binding and loosing" on earth and in heaven, naming him as the "rock" upon which the church would be built.
 
  
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In the earliest Christian era, however, it was Jerusalem, not Rome, that served as Christianity's the central Christian community, from which missionary were sent and to which delegates came to resolve disputes. [[James the Just]], known as "the brother of the Lord", served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "Mother Church" in Orthodox tradition. Antioch and Alexandria also had important congregations. Rome, the capital of the Roman empire, was one of the first Gentile cities to develop a large congregation early in the apostolic period, and it was at Rome that the [[Apostle Paul]] was  martyred, soon followed by Peter, according to tradition.
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===Earliest church===
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[[Image:Pope-peter pprubens.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Saint Peter]], by [[Rubens]]]]
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In Catholic tradition, Peter is recognized as the first pope, who was martyred in [[Rome]]. Yet the early [[bishop]]s of Rome were not yet "popes" as the word is understood today. Rather, the Roman church seems to have had a collective leadership involving a council of [[presbyter|elders]] or bishops until the mid-second century.  
  
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During the first century of the Christian Church (''ca.'' 30-130 C.E.), there are few if any reference to Rome's primacy among the churches, and even the idea of Peter's acting as bishop of Rome is heavily disputed. However, after the Jerusalem church was disbanded in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Rome gradually came to the fore. For example in the last years of the first century, [[Clement of Rome]], probably one of a council of bishops traditionally recognized as the second pope, wrote to the church [[Corinth]] to intervene in an internal dispute there.
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In the [[earliest Christianity]], however, it was [[Jerusalem]], not Rome, that served as the Christian movement's central city, from which missionaries were dispatched and to which delegates came to resolve disputes. [[James the Just]], known as "the brother of the Lord," served as head of the [[Jerusalem church]], which is still honored as the "mother church" in Orthodox tradition. [[Antioch]] and [[Alexandria]] also had important Christian congregations. Rome, the capital of the [[Roman Empire]], was one of the first Gentile cities to develop a substantial church early in the apostolic period, and it was at Rome that the [[Apostle Paul]] was [[martyr]]ed, soon followed by Peter, according to tradition.
  
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In the second century, Roman bishops received visits and letters from other churches indicating that Rome held a position of unique respect. By the second half of the century, it is probably that the tradition of collective leadership at Rome had given way to a single ruling bishop, as was the case in several other major cities. Because of the relative wealth of the Roman church, the early popes helped spread Christianity abroad. They were also instrumental in resolving doctrinal disputes, both because of Rome's position as capital of the empire and on the basis of Rome's connection with [[Saint Peter]]. [[Irenaeus of Lyons]]'s ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (3:3:2) stated: "With [the Church of Rome], because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition."  However, in 195, when [[Pope Victor I]] excommunicated several Eastern churches for observing [[Easter]] on the Jewish [[Passover]], Irenaeus himself disagreed with this action, which was later rescinded.
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Until around 130 C.E.., there are few if any references to Rome's primacy among the churches, and even the idea of Peter's acting as "[[bishop of Rome]]" is heavily disputed. However, after the Jerusalem church was disbanded in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Rome gradually came to the fore. In the last years of the first century, [[Clement of Rome]], probably one of a collective group of Roman church leaders but traditionally recognized as the fourth pope, wrote on behalf of Rome's congregation to the church in [[Corinth]] to intervene in an internal dispute there.
  
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When Emperor Constantine I legalized Christianity and showed special favor to the Christian churches, Rome's position was initially bolstered, and the office of the papacy became a political and financial prized of great power. However, when Constantine established his hew capital at Byzantium under the new name of Constantinople, this effectively split into a Greek East and a Latin West. The popes, with some notable exceptions became increasingly independent of the emperor  and became a major force in politics in the West. Meanwhile, the See of Constantinople emerged as a second center of ecclesiastical authority in the East, although it was often compromised by its dependence on imperial power.
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===The papacy emerges===
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In the second century, Roman [[bishop]]s received visits and letters from other [[church]]es, indicating that Rome held a position of increasing centrality and respect. By the second half of the century, it is probable that the tradition of collective leadership at Rome had given way to a single ruling bishop, as was the case in several other major cities. Because of the relative wealth of the Roman church, the early popes were in a position to assist other churches financially and help spread [[Christianity]] abroad. They were also instrumental in resolving doctrinal disputes, both because of Rome's position as capital of the empire and on the basis of Rome's connection with [[Saint Peter]]. In the late second century, Bishop [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] wrote: "Because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree [with Rome]... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." (''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' 3:3:2) However, in 195, when [[Pope Victor I]] excommunicated several Eastern churches for observing [[Easter]] on the Jewish [[Passover]], Irenaeus himself disagreed with this action, which was later rescinded.
  
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At the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 Pope Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter". At this same council, the Bishop of Constantinople was given a primacy of honor equal to that of the bishop of Rome was declared the "New Rome." In practice, Rome and Constantinople continued to struggle for supremacy, and several schism's followed. During this period there five metropolitan [[archbishop]]s held the title of "patriarch": [[Rome]], [[Constantinople]], [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]]. The title of "pope" was used from the early third century as an honorific designation used for ''any'' bishop in the West. In the East it was used only for the bishop of [[Alexandria]]. From the early sixth century it began to be confined in the West to the bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. However, the Alexandrian churches, both Coptic and Orthodox, still refer to their bishops as popes.
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In the third century, several writers appealed to the authority of the Rome's tradition to justify their theological views and ecclesiastical practices. At the same time, the pope's office was sometimes the victim of factional strife, with popes and [[antipopes]] vying for recognition. The first antipope, [[Hippolytus]] (d. 250), was later recognized as a [[saint]]. Pope [[Marcellinus]] (d. 304) was the first bishop of Rome whom sources show actually used the title of "pope."
  
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====Medieval development====
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[[Image:Attila-PopeLeo-ChroniconPictum.jpg|thumb|225px|[[Pope Leo I]] meets with [[Attila the Hun]].]]
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[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg|thumb|250px|Gregory the Great (''c'' 540-604) administered the church wisely and established medieval themes in the Church.]]
 
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After the fall of Rome to the "[[barbarians]]," the Roman served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity in the West. [[Gregory the Great]] (''c'' 540-604) administered the church with wisdom and stern reform. However, Gregory's successors were sometimes dominated by the exarch or the Eastern emperor. Pope Stephen II turned to the Lombards and getting no help from Emperor Constantine V, the pope appealed to the Franks to protect his lands.<ref name="AF:CC"/> Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards and donated Italian land to the Papacy.<ref name="AF:CC"/> When Leo III crowned Charlemagne (800), he established the precedent that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope.<ref name="AF:CC"/>
 
  
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Around 850, a forger, probably from among the French opposers of [[Hincmar]], [[Archbishop]] of [[Reims]]<ref name=ODCC:fd>"False Decretals." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> made a collection of church legislation that contained forgeries as well as genuine documents.<ref name=ODCC:fd/><ref name=EB:fd>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/200996/False-Decretals Encyclopaedia Britannica: ''False Decretals'']</ref> At first some attacked it as false, but it was taken as genuine throughout the rest of the [[Middle Ages]]<ref name=ODCC:fd/> It is now known as the [[False Decretals]]. It was part of a series of falsifications of past legislation by a party in the Carolingian Empire whose principal aim was to free the church and the bishops from interference by the state and the [[Metropolitan archbishop#Roman Catholic|metropolitans]] respectively,<ref name=EB:fd/><ref name=ODCC:fd/> and who were concerned for papal supremacy as guaranteeing those rights.<ref name=ODCC:fd/> The author, a French cleric calling himself Isidore Mercator, created false documents purportedly by early church popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions.<ref name="AF:CC"/> The decretals include the ''[[Donation of Constantine]]'', in which [[Constantine]] grants [[Pope Sylvester I]] secular authority over all Western Europe.<ref name="AFself">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. p. 525-526</ref> Thanks to this forgery in the collection, the decretals became one of the most persuasive forgeries in the history of the West. It supported Papal policies for centuries.<ref name="AF:CC"/>
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When Emperor [[Constantine I]] legalized Christianity and showed special favor to the Christian churches, the office of the papacy became a major political and financial prize. Though the progressive [[Christianization]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops any direct civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the fifth century left the pope in the ''de facto'' position of the senior imperial civilian official in Rome. During the [[arianism|Arian controversy]] of the fourth century and other theological controversies, Rome's relatively steady position further developed its reputation as a bastion of [[orthodoxy]].  
  
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Pope Nicholas I (858-867) asserted that the pope should have suzerain authority over all Christians, even royalty, in matters of faith and morals.<ref name="AF:CC"/> Only Photius, bishop of Constantinople, dared gainsay him.<ref name="AF:CC"/> He sternly defended morality and justice in a decadent age.<ref name="AF:CC"/> After his death, the authority of the papacy was acknowledged more widely than ever before.<ref name="AF:CC"/>
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Meanwhile, after Constantine established his hew capital at [[Byzantium]] with the new name of [[Constantinople]], the churches of the Greek East and a Latin West became increasingly divided. The popes, with some notable exceptions, achieved a growing independence from the emperor and became a major force in politics in the West. Meanwhile, the See of Constantinople emerged as the center of ecclesiastical authority in the East, often at odds with Rome over questions of [[jurisdiction]], honor, [[authority]], and even [[theology]]. During this period there were five metropolitan [[archbishop]]s who held the title of "patriarch": [[Rome]], Constantinople, [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]]. While the papacy was universally afforded the primacy of honor, the other patriarchal sees did not recognize the right of the pope to determine policy, which was often decided at church councils, the most widely attended being recognized as "ecumenical," or universal, and thus more binding.
  
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The low point of the Papacy was 867-1049.<ref name = "AF"/> The Papacy came under the control of vying political factions.<ref name="AF"/> Popes were variously imprisoned, starved, killed, and deposed by force.<ref name="AF"/> The family of a certain papal official made and unmade popes for fifty years.<ref name="AF"/> The official's great-grandson, Pope John XII, held orgies of debauchery in the Lateran palace.<ref name="AF"/> Emperor Otto I of Germany had John accused in an ecclesiastical court, which deposed him and elected a layman as Pope Leo VIII.<ref name="AF"/> John mutilated the Imperial representatives in Rome and had himself reinstated as Pope.<ref name="AF"/> Conflict between the Emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes in league with the emperor were buying bishops and popes almost openly.<ref name="AF"/>
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At the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, Pope [[Leo I]] (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter." At this same council, the patriarch of Constantinople was given a primacy of honor equal to that of the bishop of Rome, and Constantinople was declared the "New Rome." In practice, however, Rome and Constantinople continued to struggle for supremacy, and several schisms followed. Nor did the other major centers of Christianity always follow the pope's lead, either in administrative or theological matters.
  
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In 1049, Leo IX became pope, at last a pope with the character to face the papacy's problems.<ref name="AF"/> He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services (simony) and clerical marriage and concubinage.<ref name="AF"/> With his long journey, he restored the prestige of the Papacy in the north.<ref name="AF"/>
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In terms of the title of pope, the bishops of several cities in the West had been known by this title, which simply means "father." In the East, however, this title was generally reserved for the bishop of [[Alexandria]]. From the early sixth century the term began to be confined in the West to the bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. However, the Alexandrian churches, both [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Orthodox]], still refer to their bishops as popes.
  
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===East-West Schism to Reformation  (1054 to 1517)===
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====Medieval developments====
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[[Image:Great schism 1378 1417-C2.jpg|thumb|200px|Historical map of the Western Schism: red is support for Avignon, blue for Rome]]
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[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Gregory the Great]] (c. 540-604)]]
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The East and West churches split definitively in 1054. This split was caused more by political events than by slight diversities of creed.<ref name = "AF"/> Popes had galled the emperors by siding with the king of the Franks, crowning a rival Roman emperor, appropriating the exarchate of Ravenna, and driving into Greek Italy.<ref name="AF">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref>
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After the fall of Rome to the "[[barbarians]]," the Roman church served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity in the West. Pope [[Gregory the Great]] (c. 540-604) administered the church with  a stern, reforming spirit. However, his successors were sometimes dominated by the Eastern emperor. Pope [[Stephen II]], seeking protection from the [[Lombards]], appealed to the [[Franks]] to protect papal territory. In 754, [[Pepin the Short]] subdued the Lombards, giving the pope the conquered lands, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. In 800 C.E., [[Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]] as [[holy Roman emperor]], establishing the precedent in the West that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope. The East, however, continued its imperial Christian tradition without papal authority, upon which it had never depended.
  
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In the [[Middle Ages]], popes struggled with monarchs over power.<ref name = "World History"/>
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Around 850, a collection of church legislation was promulgated, known today as the [[False Decretals]]. Containing both [[Forgery|forgeries]] and genuine documents, its principal aim was to free the church and its bishops from interference by the imperial state. The author, a French cleric calling himself [[Isidore Mercator]], presented various documents purportedly by early popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions. The decretals also included the forged ''[[Donation of Constantine]],'' in which [[Constantine]] supposedly granted [[Pope Sylvester I]] secular authority over all Western Europe. The "Pseudo-Isidorian" decretals provided support for papal authority for centuries.
  
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From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon (see [[Avignon Papacy]]). The Avignon Papacy was notorious for greed and corruption.<ref name="R:RCC">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1957. "Chapter I. The Roman Catholic Church." 1300-1517. p. 3-25</ref> During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England.<ref name="R:EWCGR">[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1957. "Chapter II. England: Wyclif, Chaucer, and the Great Revolt." 1308-1400. p. 26-57</ref>
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Nevertheless, during the last two centuries of the first millennium, the popes came under the control of vying political factions, and the papacy's prestige was badly tarnished. Conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes, in league with the emperor, were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX became pope and attempted serious reforms. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the [[Simony|sale of church offices]] or services and clerical marriage and concubinage.
  
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The pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, reducing one's time in [[purgatory]].<ref name="R:RCC"/> The concept that a monetary fine or donation accompanied contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common understanding that indulgences depended on a simple monetary contribution.<ref name="R:RCC"/> Popes condemned misunderstandings and abuses but were too pressed for income to exercise effective control over indulgences.<ref name="R:RCC"/>
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[[Image:PopeleoIX.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Leo IX]] was pope during the [[Great Schism]] of 1054]]
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The churches of the East and West split definitively in 1054. This "[[Great Schism]]" was caused more by political events than by diversities of creed, although the famous [[filioque clause]] inserted into the [[Nicene Creed]] by the popes played no small role in it. Shortly afterward, the papacy launched the [[Crusades]], the ebbs and flows of which contributed to both the church's glory and its great shame. Increasing corruption of the clergy—including some of the popes themselves, as well as their administrative bureaucracy—also became a major challenge for the papacy. Several popes attempted to reform the situation, while others pursued wealth and power in a spirit much at odds with the poverty and humility of their apostolic forbears.
  
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Popes also contended with the cardinals, who sometimes attempted to assert the authority of councils over the pope's. Conciliar theory holds that the supreme authority of the church lies with a General Council, not with the pope.<ref>"Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Its foundations were laid early in the 13th century, and it culminated in the 15th century.<ref>"Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The failure of the conciliar theory to win general acceptance after the 15th century is taken as a factor in the Protestant Reformation.<ref>"Conciliar theory." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>
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From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in [[Avignon Papacy|Avignon]]. The [[Avignon]] papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of [[France]], alienating France's enemies, such as [[England]]. Various [[antipope]]s also challenged papal authority, especially during the [[Western Schism]] (1378 - 1417). During this schism, one pope reigned in Avignon while another (or even two) popes reigned in Rome. While the papacy soon reunited, it continued to develop a reputation for wealth and corruption, even while supporting some of the great artistic and architectural projects of the [[Renaissance]].
  
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Various antipopes challenged papal authority, especially during the [[Western Schism]] (1378 - 1417). In this schism, the papacy had returned to Rome from Avignon, but an antipope was installed in Avignon, as if to extend the papacy there.
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During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the [[conciliar movement]] attempted to reform corruption within the papacy by affirming the ancient tradition of church councils as the supreme ecclesiastical authority. However, the councils condemned more fundamental reforms promoted by such leaders as [[John Wycliffe]] (1330-1384) and [[Jan Hus]] (1373-1415), who was burned at the stake at the [[Council of Constance]]. In the end, the papacy was able to reassert its authority but did not succeed in reforming the culture of the Church.
  
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The Eastern Church continued to decline with the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, undercutting Constantinople's claim to equality with Rome. Twice an Eastern Emperor tried to force the Eastern Church to reunify with the West. Papal claims of superiority were a sticking point in reunification, which failed in any event. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.
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===Reformation to the present===
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Spiritually, the pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the [[saints]] and by [[Christ]], so that he could grant [[indulgence]]s, to reduce one's time in [[purgatory]]. The concept of indulgences involving a monetary donation accompanied by [[contrition]], [[confession]], and [[prayer]] eventually gave way to the common understanding that indulgences depended on a simple monetary payment. Popes condemned such misunderstandings and abuses of the practice, but were too pressed for income to reign in their most effective fundraisers, thus providing the basis for [[Martin Luther]]'s famous ''[[95 Theses]]'' against indulgences, sparking the [[Protestant Reformation]].
  
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===Reformation to present (1517 to today)===
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[[Image:Council Trent.jpg|frame|As part of the [[Counter Reformation]], [[Pope Paul III]] (1534-1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563).]]
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[[Image:Council Trent.jpg|frame|As part of the Catholic Reformation, [[Pope Paul III]] (1534-1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563), which established the triumph of the Papacy over those who sought to reconcile with Protestants or oppose Papal claims.]]
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The Reformation criticized the papacy as corrupt and challenged to idea of papal authority both administratively and theologically. The movement succeeded in establishing several national churches in Europe independent of the papacy and led to [[Protestantism]] emerging as a major force in the western world.
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Protestant Reformers criticized the Papacy as corrupt and characterized the pope as the antichrist.
 
  
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Popes instituted the [[Catholic Reformation]]<ref name = "World History"/>  (1560 - 1648), which addressed challenges of the [[Protestant Reformation]] and instituted internal reforms. Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563), which established the triumph of the Papacy over rulers who sought to reconcile with Protestants and against French and Spanish bishops opposed to Papal claims.<ref>"Counter-Reformation." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>
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The papacy instituted the [[Counter Reformation]] (1560-1648) to address this challenge and institute internal reforms. Pope [[Paul III]] (1534-1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563), which succeeded in the papacy's retaining control over southern and much of central Europe. Gradually, however, the papacy was forced to give up secular power, focusing increasingly on spiritual issues. Meanwhile, missionary efforts succeeded in winning millions of new converts to the Catholic Church outside of Europe.
  
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Gradually forced to give up secular power, popes focused on spiritual issues.<ref name = "World History"/>
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In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] proclaimed the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of faith or [[morals]].
  
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The pope's claims of spiritual authority have been ever more clearly expressed since the first centuries. In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] proclaimed the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].<ref name="World History">Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994.</ref>
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Later in 1870, King [[Victor Emmanuel II]] [[Capture of Rome|seized Rome]] from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy. In 1929, the [[Lateran Treaty]] between Italy and Pope [[Pius XI]] established the Vatican state and guaranteed papal independence from secular rule.
−
 
 
−
Later in 1870, Victor Emmanuel II [[Capture of Rome|seized Rome]] from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy.<ref name="World History">Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994.</ref> The Papal States that the pope lost had been used to support papal independence.<ref name="World History"/>
 
−
 
 
−
In 1929, the [[Lateran Treaty]] between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican guaranteed papal independence from secular rule.<ref name="World History">Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
In 1950, the pope defined the [[Assumption of Mary]] as dogma, the only time that a pope has spoken ex cathedra since papal infallibility was explicitly declared.
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Petrine Doctrine]] is still controversial as an issue of doctrine that continues to divide the eastern and western churches as well as separating Protestants from Rome.
 
  
 
==In Roman Catholic ecclesiology==
 
==In Roman Catholic ecclesiology==
−
The [[dogma]]s and traditions of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] teach that the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Biblical passages:
+
[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|right|''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' painted by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1492)]]
−
 
+
According to [[Roman Catholic]] tradition, the institution of the papacy was first mandated by [[Jesus]] through his words to [[Peter]], who would later become the first pope:
−
{{cquote|'''Matt.16:18-19:''' "And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this ''rock'' I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it.  I will give you the ''keys'' of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."
 
−
 
 
−
'''Isaiah 22:20-22:''' "On that day I will summon my servant Eliakim, son of Hilkiah; I will clothe him with your robe, and gird him with your sash, and give over to him your authority. He shall be a father to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Judah. I will place the key of the House of David on his shoulder; when he opens, no one shall shut, when he shuts, no one shall open." (shows a parallel to Matthew 16:18-20)
 
−
 
 
−
'''John 21:15-17:''' "..Jesus said to Simon Peter, "Simon, son of John, do you love me more than these?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Feed my lambs." He then said to him a second time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" He said to him, "Yes, Lord, you know that I love you." He said to him, "Tend my sheep." He said to him the third time, "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" Peter was distressed that he had said to him a third time, "Do you love me?" and he said to him, "Lord, you know everything; you know that I love you." (Jesus) said to him, "Feed my sheep."
 
−
 
 
−
'''Luke 12:41:''' "Then Peter said, "Lord, is this parable meant for us or for everyone?" And the Lord replied, "Who, then, is the faithful and prudent steward whom the master will put in charge of his servants to distribute (the) food allowance at the proper time?" (Feeding theme appears again here)
 
−
 
 
−
'''Luke 22:31-32:''' "Simon, Simon, behold Satan has demanded to sift all of you like wheat, but I have prayed that your own faith may not fail; and once you have turned back, you must strengthen your brothers."}}
 
  
−
For Catholic [[Apologists]] the most important passage used to defend the Papacy is Matthew 16:18-19. Catholics believe that this passage shows Jesus establishing his church on the shoulders of Simon son of John, whom Jesus re-named Peter (meaning rock). Thus Peter was the rock upon which Christ's Church was built, therefore Jesus established a head to his earthly Church, calling for a successor to that head and thus the Papacy was established.
+
<blockquote>"And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." (Matt.16:18-19)</blockquote>
  
−
However, this interpretation of events is challenged by non-Catholics. Some say it was Peter's confession of faith that Jesus referred to. However, others propose that Jesus never called Peter rock at all but instead he was called "small stone".
+
John 21:15-17 further shows Jesus as appointing Peter as the primary "shepherd" of Christ's flock. Peter is thus the rock upon which Christ's church was built, and his successors at Rome stand in his position as the "vicar of Christ," acting on Jesus' behalf. The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here is the basis for keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms.
  
−
The names "Petros" and "Peter" are Greek and Latin translations of the Aramaic word "Cephas," spoken by Jesus Christ.  "Cephas" means "rock."
 
−
 
−
The Aramaic word for small stone is "Evna"<ref>[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/worship/origin_papacy/ The Origin of the Papacy | About Catholics<!--Bot-generated title—>]</ref> John (1:41) is scriptural proof that, in the original Aramaic language, Jesus did not name Simon "Evna" (small stone) Christ named Simon "Cephas" (rock):
 
−
 
−
{{cquote|'''John 1:41-42:''' ”He findeth first his brother Simon, and saith to him: We have found the Messias, which is, being interpreted, the Christ. And he brought him to Jesus. And Jesus looking upon him, said: Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called Cephas, which is interpreted Peter.”
 
−
}}
 
−
 
−
For the above Scripture to imply that Simon's new name was meant to be understood as "small stone," the writer would use the Latin word "calculus" which means "small stone." However, the Scripture explicitly states that "Cephas" is interpreted as "Peter." "Peter" means "rock" in Latin.
 
−
 
−
The translation of Matthew's Gospel into Greek named Simon "Petros" rather than "petra" because "petra" is a feminine noun and unsuitable for a man's name.  The translator had no problem substituting the masculine form "Petros" because in Koine Greek, which was the dialect in use at the time of the New Testament, "petra" and "petros" both meant the same thing, "rock."
 
−
 
−
"Petros" and "petras" meant "small stone" and "large rock" in some ancient Greek poetry, centuries before the time of Christ, but that distinction had disappeared from the language by the time Matthew’s Gospel was rendered in Greek. As Greek scholars—even non-Catholic ones—admit, the words "petros" and "petra" were synonyms in first century Greek.
 
−
 
−
The difference between "petros" and "petras" can only be found in Attic Greek, but the New Testament was written in Koine Greek—an entirely different dialect. In Koine Greek, both "petros" and "petra" simply meant "rock." If Jesus had wanted to call Simon a small stone, the translation of Christ's Aramaic into Greek would have been "lithos," which means "small stone" in Koine Greek.<ref>Paraphrased from [http://www.catholic.com/library/Peter_the_Rock.asp]</ref>
 
−
 
−
Simon-Peter's Aramaic name given by Christ is also preserved at later points in the New Testament:
 
−
 
−
{{cquote|'''1 Corinthians 15:1-5:''' “For I delivered unto you first of all that which also I received: that Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures; and that he was buried; and that he hath been raised on the third day according to the scriptures; and that he appeared to Cephas; then to the twelve” (1Cor 15:3)}}
 
−
 
−
Isaiah 22:22 is used to show the Old Testament connection to the "keys."  The Bible further explains the position of Eliakim in Isaiah in the following:
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
"Then Eliakim son of Hilkiah, who was ''in charge of the palace''..." ({{bibleverse|2|Kings|18:37|NRSV}})
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
 
−
Some Jewish commentators of the Old Testament understood {{bibleverse||Numbers|23:9|HE}} in a manner similar to Peter with this commentary from the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]] on Peter regarding Abraham:
 
−
 
−
"Upon Abraham as top of the rocks God said I shall build my kingdom"
 
−
 
−
The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here are the basis for the symbolic keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms (see below).
 
−
 
−
==Election, death and abdication==
 
 
===Election===
 
===Election===
−
{{main|Papal election}}
+
[[Image:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|The conclave in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
−
[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|right|''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' painted by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1492)]]
+
[[Image:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]
−
The pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In 1059 the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. [[Pope Urban VI]], elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. [[Canon law]] requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.
+
In the early church, the popes were chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. The elections were often contentious, resulting in schisms between factions, and sometimes involved imperial intervention. In 1059 the electors were restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]]. The [[Second Council of Lyons]] (1274) decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form.
−
 
 
−
The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on 7 May 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion (see [[Papal conclave]]) until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''[[Sede Vacante]]'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1268. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.
 
−
 
 
−
Traditionally, the vote was conducted by [[acclamation]], by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all Popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]] (see [[Papal election]]).
 
−
 
 
−
[[Image:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|left|The conclave in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
 
−
[[Image:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|left|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]
 
−
The election of the pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[Papal conclave|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clave'', until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar (in the 2005 conclave, a special urn was used for this purpose instead of a chalice and plate). The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Otherwise, each ballot is read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a Pope is elected by a two-thirds majority<ref>With the promulgation of ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]'' in 1996, a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days was allowed, but this was revoked by Pope [[Benedict XVI]] by ''[[motu proprio]]'' in 2007.</REF>.
 
−
 
 
−
One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special stove erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St. Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally, wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke (''fumata bianca'') through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen.
 
−
 
 
−
The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the cardinal who has been successfully-elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word ''"Accepto"'', his reign as Pope begins at that instant, ''not'' at the inauguration ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. (If the Dean himself is elected pope, the Vice Dean performs this duty).
 
−
 
 
−
The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments (''immantatio'') await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the [[Cardinal Camerlengo]], whom he first either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" (''adoratio'') and to receive his blessing.
 
−
 
 
−
The senior [[Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name.
 
−
 
 
−
Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[Papal Coronation]]. A procession with great pomp and circumstance formed from the [[Sistine Chapel]] to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly elected pope borne in the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]''. There, after a solemn [[Papal Mass]], the new pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' (papal tiara) and he gave for the first time as pope the famous blessing ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another renowned part of the coronation was the lighting of a bundle of [[flax]] at the top of a gilded pole, which would flare brightly for a moment and then promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''[[Sic transit gloria mundi]]'' ("Thus passes worldly glory"). A similar sombre warning against papal hubris made on this occasion was the ritual exclamation ''"Annos Petri non videbis"'', reminding the newly crowned Pope that he would not live to see his rule lasting as long as that of St. Peter, who according to tradition headed the church for 35 years and has thus far been the longest reigning Pope in the history of the Catholic Church.
 
−
 
 
−
A [[traditionalist Catholic]] belief claims the existence of the [[Papal Oath (Traditionalist Catholic)|Papal Oath]] (not to be confused with the [[Oath Against Modernism]] mandated by [[Pope Pius X]]), which the popes from [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]] on are said to have refused to swear, but there is no reliable authority for this claim.
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal [[interregnum]], the period between the death of a pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the term [[sedevacantism]], which designates a category of dissident Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected Pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''. One of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Mass of Paul VI]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of papal infallibility, it is impossible for a valid Pope to have done these things. Secevacantists are considered to be [[schism]]atics by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church.
 
−
 
 
−
For centuries, the papacy was an institution dominated by [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the Italian domination of the papacy to be over.
 
  
−
===Death===
+
Under present canon law, the pope is elected by those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The election normally takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[Papal conclave|conclave]]." Each elector writes the name of his choice on his ballot and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected." Each ballot is read aloud by the presiding cardinal, and voting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority.
−
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]]{{ndash}} that is, a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat"){{ndash}} were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Sede Vacante", the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that requires the assent of the pope has to wait until the new pope has been elected and accepts office.
 
  
−
It has long been claimed that a pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A [[medical doctor|doctor]] may or may not have already determined that the pope had died before this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman]]. Usually the ring is on the pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.
+
Once the ballots are counted, they are burned in a special stove, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St. Peter's Square]]. If no pope is elected yet, a chemical compound is added to the fire to produce black smoke. When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope.
  
−
The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning (''novem dialis'') follows after the interment of the late Pope.  Vatican tradition holds that no [[autopsy]] is to be performed on the body of a dead Pope.
+
The [[dean]] of the College of Cardinals then asks the one who was elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word ''Accepto'', his reign as pope begins at that instant. The dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. The pope is then led to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" and receives the obeisance of his former colleagues.
  
−
===Abdication===
+
The senior cardinal then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!''—"I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!" Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[papal coronation]], which has since been suspended.
−
{{mainarticle|Papal abdication}}
 
−
The [[Code of Canon Law]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P16.HTM 332 §2] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone."
 
  
−
This right has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, Gregory XII being the last to do so.
+
For centuries, the papacy was dominated by [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope [[John Paul II]] in 1978, the last non-Italian was [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the [[Netherlands]], elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born [[Benedict XVI]], leading some to believe the age of Italian domination of the papacy to be over.
  
−
It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper [[Corriere della Sera]].
+
===Abdication and death===
 +
[[Image:Gregory XII.jpg|thumb|125px|Gregory XII was the last pope to abdicate.]]
 +
The pope's term of office is for life. The [[Code of Canon Law]] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." The canonical right to abdicate has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, who was the last pope to do so. The first pope to abdicate was [[Pontian]] in 235, although he did not do so freely, but under the duress of a sentence of exile.
  
−
Nevertheless, 332 §2 caused speculation that:
+
The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]].'' During the vacancy caused by a pope's death the [[College of Cardinals]] is collectively responsible for the government of the Catholic Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]. Canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]].
−
* Pope [[John Paul II]] would have resigned as his health failed, or
 
−
* a properly manifested legal instrument had been prepared which effected his resignation if he could not perform his duties.
 
  
−
Pope John Paul II, however, did not resign. He died on 2 April 2005 after a long period of ill-health and was buried on 8 April 2005. After his death, it was reported in [[Testament of Pope John Paul II|his last will and testament]] that he considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday. That portion of the will, however, is unclear and others interpret it differently.
+
A dead pope's body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral. The popes of the twentieth century were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning ''(novem dialis)'' follows after the interment of the late pope. Vatican tradition holds that no [[autopsy]] is to be performed on the body of a dead pope.
  
−
==Titles==
+
===Titles===
−
{{infobox popestyles
+
[[Image:BentoXVI-30-10052007.jpg|150px|thumb|Pope [[Benedict XVI]]]]
−
|papal name=The Pope
 
−
|dipstyle=[[His Holiness]]
 
−
|offstyle=Your Holiness
 
−
|relstyle=Holy Father
 
−
|deathstyle=NA|}}
 
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===Current===
 
 
The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
 
The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
 
:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
 
:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
Line 215: Line 107:
 
:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]
 
:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]
  
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===Former===
+
The ancient title ''[[Pontifex Maximus]],'' which was formerly associated with the pagan [[Roman emperor]]s, was used until [[Gratian]] (359-383), who formally renounced the title. The title "Servant of the Servants of God," although used by other church leaders including [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Saint Benedict]], was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "[[Ecumenical Patriarch]]." It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The pope is addressed as "Your Holiness" or "Holy Father."
−
:* [[Patriarch]] of the West (dropped 2006)
 
−
:* [[Vicar]] of the [[Apostolic See]]
 
−
:* Vicar of Peter
 
−
 
 
−
===Forms of address===
 
−
* "Your Holiness"
 
−
* "Holy Father"
 
−
* "Il Papa"
 
−
 
 
−
===History===
 
−
Marcellinus (d. 304) is the first Bishop of Rome whom sources show used the title of "pope". In the 11th century, [[Pope Gregory VII]] declared the term "Pope" to be reserved for the Bishop of Rome.
 
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−
Early [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] occupying the [[See of Rome]] were designated [[Vicar|"Vicar of Peter"]] (St. Peter being considered "Prince of the Apostles" or leader of the apostolic Church); for later popes the more authoritative-sounding "Vicar of Christ" was substituted. The designation "Vicar of Christ" was first used by the Roman [[Synod]] of 495 to refer to [[Pope Gelasius I]], an advocate of [[Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|papal supremacy]]. The title "Vicar of Christ" refers to the Pope's claims of divine commission. Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 220) used the phrase "Vicar of Christ" of the Holy Spirit with regard to the Spirit's role of maintaining in the Church the teaching given by the [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]]:
 
−
 
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
"Grant, then, that all have erred; that the apostle was mistaken in giving his testimony; that the Holy Ghost had no such respect to any one (church) as to lead it into truth, although sent with this view by Christ, ... grant also that He, the Steward of God, the Vicar of Christ neglected His office, permitting the churches for a time to understand differently, (and) to believe differently, what He Himself was preaching by the apostles,— is it likely that so many churches, and they so great, should have gone astray into one and the same faith?"<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0311.htm Prescription Against the Heretics, Chapter 28)]</ref>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
 
 
−
He also referred to the Holy Spirit as the "Vicar of the Lord":
 
−
<blockquote>
 
−
"For what kind of (supposition) is it, that, while the devil is always operating and adding daily to the ingenuities of iniquity, the work of God should either have ceased, or else have desisted from advancing? whereas the reason why the Lord sent the Paraclete was, that, since human mediocrity was unable to take in all things at once, discipline should, little by little, be directed, and ordained, and carried on to perfection, by that Vicar of the Lord, the Holy Spirit."<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0403.htm Tertullian, On the Veiling of Virgins, Chapter 1)]</ref>
 
−
</blockquote>
 
−
 
 
−
The [[Second Vatican Council]] confirmed the titles "Vicar of Christ" and "Successor of Peter" or  "Successor of the Prince of the Apostles" as titles of the pope.
 
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The term "Supreme Pontiff" (''Summus Pontifex'') or, more completely, "Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church" (''Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis'') is another of the official titles of the Pope.
 
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The ancient title ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'', which dates back to the early years of the [[Roman Republic]], and, beginning with [[Julius Caesar]], was associated with the [[Roman Emperor]]s, until [[Gratian]] (359-383), under the influence of Saint [[Ambrose]], formally renounced the title, is not included in the official list of the Pope's titles, but is commonly found in inscriptions on buildings erected in the time of a particular Pope. It is usually abbreviated as "''Pont. Max.''" or as "''P.M.''" The phrase literally means "Greatest Pontifex", but is often rendered as "Supreme Pontiff", which is instead a literal translation of "''Summus Pontifex''".
 
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The title "Servant of the Servants of God", although used by Church leaders including [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and [[St. Benedict]], was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "[[Ecumenical Patriarch]]". It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The documents of the [[Second Vatican Council]] reinforced the understanding of this title as a reference to the pope's role as a function of collegial authority, in which the Bishop of Rome serves the world's bishops.
 
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The best-known title of the Popes, that of "Pope", does not appear in the official list, but is commonly used in the titles of documents, and appears, in abbreviated form, in their signatures. Thus [[Pope Paul VI]] signed as "Paulus PP. VI", the "PP." standing for "''Papa''" ("Pope").
 
  
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[[Papal bull]]s are headed ''N. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("N., Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God") and in general are not signed by the Pope. Bulls of canonization are an exception: the Pope signs them as ''N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae'' ("N., Bishop of the Catholic Church"), and to his signature are added those of all the cardinals present in Rome.<ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Curia_Romana Classic Encyclopedia: ''Curia Romana'']</ref>. In the mid-1980s, [[Pope John Paul II]] introduced the custom by which the Pope also signs bulls of nomination of bishops, using his normal signature, such as "Benedictus PP. XVI". Decrees of ecumenical councils also bear the Pope's signature as Bishop of the universal Church (''N. Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae''), followed by the signatures of the other bishops participating in the council, each signing as Bishop of a particular see.
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Since, in the Eastern churches, the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the bishop of Rome, these churches often use the expression "pope of Rome" to refer to Roman pontiff.
  
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The full list of the official titles of [[Pope Benedict XVI]], as published in the ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' is as follows: "Benedict XVI, Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of [[Saint Peter|the Prince of the Apostles]], Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Province of Rome, Sovereign of the State of [[Vatican City]], Servant of the Servants of God".<ref>Annuario Pontificio 2007 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana. ISBN 978-88-209-7908-9)</ref>
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===Regalia and insignia===
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[[Image:Holysee-arms.svg|thumb|[[Coat of arms]] of the Holy See.]]
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[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius VII]], seated, wearing the [[pallium]]]]
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*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]," also called the papal [[tiara]] or triple crown, represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor," "supreme teacher," and "supreme priest." Recent popes have not worn the ''triregnum'', although it remains the official symbol of the papacy. In liturgical ceremonies, today's popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
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*[[Pastoral Staff]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the thirteenth century.
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*The ''[[pallium]]'', a circular band or stole worn around the neck, breast and shoulders, with two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Until recently, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the [[primate (religion)|primates]], but in 2005 Pope [[Benedict XVI]] began to use a larger papal pallium adorned with red crosses instead of black.
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*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven," the image of two keys, one gold and one silver, symbolizing the power to "bind and loose" on earth and in heaven.
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*[[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.
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*''[[Umbraculum]]'', a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
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*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'' (now discontinued), a mobile throne carried by 12 [[footmen]]  in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing fans made of white ostrich feathers, and sometimes a large [[canopy]] carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]], and the use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].
  
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From 1863 until 2005, the ''Annuario Pontificio'' included also the title "Patriarch of the West". This title was first used by [[Pope Theodore]] in 642, and was only used occasionally. Indeed, it did not begin to appear in the pontifical yearbook until 1863. On 22 March 2006, the Vatican released a statement explaining this omission on the grounds of expressing a "historical and theological reality" and of "being useful to ecumenical dialogue". The title Patriarch of the West symbolized the pope's special relationship with, and jurisdiction over, the Latin Church{{ndash}} and the omission of the title neither symbolizes in any way a change in this relationship, nor distorts the relationship between the Holy See and the [[Eastern Churches]], as solemnly proclaimed by the Second Vatican Council.<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/general-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_20060322_patriarca-occidente_fr.html Communiqué concernant la suppression du titre «Patriarche d’Occident» dans l'Annuaire pontifical 2006]</ref>
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In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own coat of arms, which includes the aforementioned two keys behind the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] (shield), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns.
  
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Other titles commonly used are "His Holiness", "Holy Father". In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], "''Beatísimo/Beatissimo Padre''" (Most Blessed Father) is often used in preference to "''Santísimo/Santissimo Padre''" (Most Holy Father). In the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], "''Dominus Apostolicus''" ("the [[Saint Peter|Apostolic Lord]]") was also used.
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The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See on the right-hand side. Although Pope [[Benedict XVI]] replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, the triregnum has been retained on the flag.
  
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The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer residence at [[Castel Gandolfo]] (situated on the site of the ancient city of [[Alba Longa]]). Until the time of the [[Avignon Papacy]], the residence of the Pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]].
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===Offices and residences===
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The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer residence at [[Castel Gandolfo]]. Until the time of the [[Avignon Papacy]], the residence of the pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]]. The pope's specific ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the [[Holy See]], is distinct from his secular jurisdiction of Vatican City.
  
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The Pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the [[Holy See]]) is distinct from his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City). It is the Holy See which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the papal court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.
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===Infallible authority===
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The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] on July 18, 1870. In its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ,'' the council established that:
  
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The names "Holy See" and "Apostolic See" are in ecclesiastical terminology the [[ordinary jurisdiction]] of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honors, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Twelve apostles|Apostle]] [[Saint Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently, Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the Pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378, the popes lived in [[Avignon]] (see [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[exile]] of [[Israel]].
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*Peter was established by Christ as the chief of the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church.
  
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Since in the Eastern Churches the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the Bishop of Rome, they often use the expression "Pope of Rome", whether they are in communion with Rome or not.
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*It is [[heresy]] to deny that the Roman Pontiff is the successor of Peter holding the same primacy as him.
  
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==Regalia and insignia==
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*It is also heresy to deny that pope's authority pertains not only to matters of faith and morals, but also to the discipline and government of the Church throughout the whole world.
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{{main|Papal regalia and insignia}}
 
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[[Image:Holysee-arms.svg|thumb|200px|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See. That of the State of Vatican City is the same except that the positions of the gold and silver keys are interchanged.<ref>[http://www.fotw.net/flags/va).html Vatican City (Holy See) - The Keys and Coat of Arms<!--Bot-generated title—>]</ref>]]
 
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*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]", also called the "tiara" or "triple crown", represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor", "supreme teacher" and "supreme priest". Recent popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'', though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies Popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
 
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*[[Pastoral Staff]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the 13th century (see [[papal cross]]).
 
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*[[Pallium]], or pall, a circular band of fabric worn around the neck over the [[chasuble]].  It forms a yoke about the neck, breast and shoulders and has two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Previously, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the [[primate (religion)|primates]], but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a distinct papal pallium that is larger than the primatial, and was adorned with red crosses instead of black.
 
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*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven", the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolizes the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
 
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*[[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning Pope around it.
 
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*''[[Umbraculum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
 
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*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve [[footmen]] (''palafrenieri'') in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich feathers), and sometimes a large [[canopy]], carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]]. The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].
 
  
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In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in [[saltire]] (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an ''X'') behind the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] (shield) (one silver key and one gold key, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'' ([[lappet]]s—two strips of fabric hanging from the back of the triregnum which fall over the neck and shoulders when worn). This is [[blazon]]ed: "two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). With the recent election of [[Benedict XVI]] in 2005, his personal coat of arms eliminated the papal tiara; a [[mitre]] with three horizontal lines is used in its place, with the pallium, a papal symbol of authority more ancient than the tiara, the use of which is also granted to metropolitan [[archbishops]] as a sign of communion with the See of Rome, was added underneath of the shield. The distinctive feature of the crossed keys behind the shield was maintained. The omission of the tiara in the Pope's personal coat of arms, however, did not mean the total disappearance of it from papal heraldry, since the coat of arms of the Holy See was kept unaltered.
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*The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'', operates with infallibility, and his decisions are unalterable.
  
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The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See (blazoned: "Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right-hand side (the "fly") in the white half of the flag (the left-hand side—the "hoist"—is yellow). The pope's escucheon does not appear on the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colors of the papacy. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, it has been retained on the flag.
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The [[Second Vatican Council]], while not repeating the anathemas directed by its predecessor against "heretics" who deny papal infallibility, nevertheless reaffirmed the doctrine. In 1964, this council declared:
  
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==Status and authority==
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<blockquote>"…In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of [[Christ]] and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ''ex cathedra''… His definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the [[Holy Spirit]], promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment.</blockquote>
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{{main|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff|Papal infallibility}}
 
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[[Image:Kruisheren uden bij paus pius xii Crosiers from Uden Holland with PiusXII.jpg|thumb|350px|left|To maintain contacts with local clergymen and Catholic communities, the popes grant private audiences as well as public ones. Here the [[Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] from [[Uden]] ([[Netherlands]]) are received by [[Pope Pius XII]].]]
 
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===First Vatican Council===
 
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The status and authority of the Pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] on 18 July 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the Council established the following canons:<ref>The texts of these canons are given in [[Denzinger]], [http://catho.org/9.php?d=byj#dez Latin original;] [http://www.catecheticsonline.com/SourcesofDogma19.php English translation]</ref>
 
  
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"If anyone says that the blessed Apostle Peter was not established by the Lord Christ as the chief of all the [[twelve apostles|apostles]], and the visible head of the whole militant Church, or, that the same received great honour but did not receive from the same our Lord Jesus Christ directly and immediately the primacy in true and proper jurisdiction: let him be [[anathema]].<ref>Denzinger 3055 (old numbering, 1823)</ref>
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==The Papacy today==
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[[Image:Bush greets Pope Benedict XVI 2008.jpg|thumb|300px|Pope [[Benedict XVI]] greets former US President Bush.]]
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While the papacy has lost considerable political power in recent centuries, its prestige as a moral and spiritual authority has grown considerable. The pope remains the sole ruler of the [[Catholic Church]], which is not only the largest Christian denomination, but the largest organized body of any world [[religion]], with over one billion members, accounting for approximately one in six of the world's population. No longer a primarily [[Europe]]an faith, the majority the pope's flock hail from [[Latin America]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]]. The papacy also controls or supervises a vast network of Catholic financial institutions, [[religious order]]s, [[real estate]] holdings, [[school]]s, [[monastery|monasteries]] and [[convent]]s, charitable organizations, [[museum]]s, [[hospital]]s, retirement homes, youth organizations, and social groups.
  
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If anyone says that it is not from the institution of Christ the Lord Himself, or by divine right that the blessed Peter has perpetual successors in the primacy over the universal Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in the same primacy, let him be anathema.<ref>Denzinger 3058 (old numbering, 1825)</ref>
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The pope commands huge audiences of up to and over a million people when he travels, notably including many young people. His moral teachings remain highly influential, probably more so than any single individual in the world today. Politically, the papacy of [[John Paul II]] is considered to have been a major factor in the fall of the [[Soviet Union]].  
  
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If anyone thus speaks, that the Roman Pontiff has only the office of inspection or direction, but not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the universal Church, not only in things which pertain to faith and morals, but also in those which pertain to the discipline and government of the Church spread over the whole world; or, that he possesses only the more important parts, but not the whole plenitude of this supreme power; or that this power of his is not ordinary and immediate, or over the churches altogether and individually, and over the pastors and the faithful altogether and individually: let him be anathema.<ref> Denzinger 3064 (old numbering, 1831)</ref>
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The pope is a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. He frequently meets with the presidents of the greatest nations of the world. It is no exaggeration to say that the papacy remains one of the world's most important world institutions today.
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We, adhering faithfully to the tradition received from the beginning of the Christian faith, to the glory of God, our Saviour, the elevation of the Catholic religion and the salvation of Christian peoples, with the approbation of the sacred Council, teach and explain that the dogma has been divinely revealed: that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is, when carrying out the duty of the pastor and teacher of all Christians by virtue of his supreme apostolic authority he defines a doctrine of faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, through the divine assistance promised him in blessed Peter, operates with that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer wished that His church be instructed in defining doctrine on faith and morals; and so such definitions of the Roman Pontiff from himself, but not from the consensus of the Church, are unalterable. But if anyone presumes to contradict this definition of Ours, which may God forbid: let him be anathema."<ref>Denzinger 3073-3075 (old numbering, 1839-1840</ref>
 
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===Second Vatican Council===
 
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[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Pope Pius VII]], bishop of Rome, next to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Caprara. The Pope wears the [[pallium]], a liturgical [[vestment]] that is used [[heraldry|heraldically]] at the foot of the coat of arms of [[Benedict XVI]].]]
 
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In its [[Lumen Gentium|Dogmatic Constitution on the Church]] (1964), the [[Second Vatican Council]] declared:
 
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"Among the principal duties of bishops the preaching of the Gospel occupies an eminent place. For bishops are preachers of the faith, who lead new disciples to Christ, and they are authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the authority of Christ, who preach to the people committed to them the faith they must believe and put into practice, and by the light of the Holy Spirit illustrate that faith. They bring forth from the treasury of Revelation new things and old, making it bear fruit and vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock. Bishops, teaching in communion with the Roman Pontiff, are to be respected by all as witnesses to divine and Catholic truth. In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra; that is, it must be shown in such a way that his supreme magisterium is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will. His mind and will in the matter may be known either from the character of the documents, from his frequent repetition of the same doctrine, or from his manner of speaking.
 
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[[Image:GestatorialChair1.jpg|270px|left|thumb|[[Pope Pius XII]], wearing the traditional 1877 [[Papal Tiara]], is carried through St Peter's Basilica on a [[sedia gestatoria]] circa 1955.]]
 
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… this infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer willed His Church to be endowed in defining doctrine of faith and morals, extends as far as the deposit of Revelation extends, which must be religiously guarded and faithfully expounded. And this is the infallibility which the Roman Pontiff, the head of the college of bishops, enjoys in virtue of his office, when, as the supreme shepherd and teacher of all the faithful, who confirms his brethren in their faith, by a definitive act he proclaims a doctrine of faith or morals. And therefore his definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment. For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith. The infallibility promised to the Church resides also in the body of Bishops, when that body exercises the supreme magisterium with the successor of Peter. To these definitions the assent of the Church can never be wanting, on account of the activity of that same Holy Spirit, by which the whole flock of Christ is preserved and progresses in unity of faith."<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html ''Lumen gentium'', 25]</ref>
 
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==Political role==
 
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{{main|Politics of the Vatican City}}
 
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{{Infobox sovereignofvatican
 
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|body            = Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City
 
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|insignia        = Coat of arms of the Vatican City.svg
 
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|insigniasize    = 120px
 
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|insigniacaption = Coat of Arms of the Vatican
 
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|image          = BentoXVI-28-10052007.jpg
 
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|incumbent      = [[Pope Benedict XVI| Benedict XVI]]
 
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|style          = [[His Holiness]]
 
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|residence      = [[Papal Palace]]
 
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|firstsovereign  = [[Pope Pius XI]]
 
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|formation      = 11 February 1929
 
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|website        = http://www.va
 
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}}
 
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[[Image:PapalPolitics2.JPG|270px|left|thumb|''Antichristus'', a woodcut by Lucas Cranach of the pope using the temporal power to grant authority to a generously contributing ruler]]
 
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Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the fifth century left the pope the senior imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil ruler was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in 452. The first expansion of papal rule outside of Rome came in 728 with the [[Donation of Sutri]], which in turn was substantially increased in 754, when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] gave to the pope the land from his conquest of the [[Lombards]]. The pope may have utilized the forged [[Donation of Constantine]] to gain this land, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. This document, accepted as genuine until the 1400s, states that [[Constantine I]] placed the entire Western Empire of Rome under papal rule. In 800 [[Pope Leo III]] [[coronation|crowned]] the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]], a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date onward the popes claimed the prerogative to crown the Emperor, though the right fell into disuse after the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in 1530.  [[Pope Pius VII]] was present at the coronation of [[Napoleon I]] in 1804, but did not actually perform the crowning. As mentioned above, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by [[Italy]].
 
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Popes like [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politician, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman, were not afraid to use power to achieve their own ends, which included increasing the power of the papacy. This political and temporal authority was demonstrated through the papal role in the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]). [[Papal bull]]s, [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]], and [[excommunication]] (or the threat thereof) have been used many times to increase papal power. The Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in 1155 authorized [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]. In 1207, [[Innocent III]] placed England under interdict until [[John of England|King John]] made his kingdom a [[fiefdom]] to the Pope, complete with yearly [[tribute]], saying, "we offer and freely yield...to our lord Pope Innocent III and his catholic successors, the whole kingdom of England and the whole kingdom of Ireland with all their rights and appurtenences for the remission of our sins".<ref>Quoted from the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html Medieval Sourcebook]</ref> The Bull ''[[Inter Caeteras]]'' in 1493 led to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494, which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule. The Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in 1570 excommunicated [[Elizabeth I of England]] and declared that all her subjects were released from all allegiance to her. The Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in 1582 established the [[Gregorian Calendar]].<ref>See [http://tera-3.ul.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/getImage.pl?target=/data/www/NASD/4a7f1db4-5792-415c-be79-266f41eef20a/009/499/PTIFF/00000673.tif&rs=2 selection from ''Concordia Cyclopedia'': Roman Catholic Church, History of]</ref>
 
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==Objections to the papacy==
 
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[[Image:Antichrist1.JPG|thumb|right|230px|''Antichristus'', by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], from Luther's 1521 ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The Pope is signing and selling [[indulgence]]s.]]The Pope's claim of being the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is recognized as [[dogma]]tic and not considered open to debate within the [[Roman Church]] (however, like all teaching of the Catholic Church, the Church permits, indeed, encourages, its members to ask questions about any aspects of it that they do not fully understand and encourages Catholics to learn about their faiths). The First Vatican Council [[anathema]]tized all who dispute the pope's claims of primacy of honor and of jurisdiction.
 
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The Pope's claim to authority is disputed outside the [[Roman Church]].  These objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as objections to the extent of the primacy of the pope and to the institution of the papacy itself.<ref>For a look at some of those objections, see 16th century Reformer [Philip Melancthon]'s [http://www.bookofconcord.com/treatise.html A Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope]</ref>
 
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Some Christian communities ([[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Anglican Communion]], the [[Independent Catholic Churches]], etc.) accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and to varying extents, Papal claims to a primacy of honour while generally rejecting that the pope is the successor to Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop. Primacy is regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. These churches see no foundation to papal claims of ''universal immediate jurisdiction'', or to claims of [[papal infallibility]]. Several of these communities refer to such claims as ''[[ultramontanism]]''.
 
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Some Christian denominations reject the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]],<ref>See the comparative dogmatic text ''[http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 Popular Symbolics]'' by Engelder, p. 109, 161, 498,</ref> and thereby also reject the claims of [[Primacy of Simon Peter|Petrine primacy]] of honor, Petrine primacy of jurisdiction, and papal infallibility. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the Pope's claim to authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the Pope is the [[Antichrist]]<ref>'Therefore on the basis of a renewed study of the pertinent Scriptures we reaffirm the statement of the Lutheran Confessions, that “the Pope is the very Antichrist”' from [http://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?2617&collectionID=795&contentID=4441&shortcutID=5297 Statement on the Antichrist], from the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]], also [http://www.ianpaisley.org/antichrist.asp The Pope is the Antichrist]</ref> from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18],<ref>[http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 Brief Statment]</ref> the Man of Sin from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thessalonians 2:3-12],<ref>See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/EP_MINOR/2TH_2.htm ''Popular Commentary''], 2 Thessalonians chapter two and [http://www.wlsessays.net/authors/IJ/JeskeThessalonians/JeskeThessalonians.PDF An Exegesis of 2 Thessalonians 2:1-10] by Mark Jeske</ref> and the Beast out of the Earth from [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation%2013:11-18;&version=9; Revelation 13:11-18].<ref>See See Kretzmann's [http://www.kretzmannproject.org/REV/REV_13.htm ''Popular Commentary''], Revelation Chapter 13</ref> [[Confessional Lutheran]]s hold that the pope is the Antichrist, stating that this article of faith is part of a ''quia'' rather than ''quatenus'' subscription to the [[Book of Concord]]. In 1932, the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]] (LCMS) adopted ''A Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'', which a number of Lutheran church bodies now hold.<ref>The [[Lutheran Churches of the Reformation]][http://www.lcrusa.org/brief_statement.htm], the [[Concordia Lutheran Conference]][http://www.concordialutheranconf.com/clc/doctrine/brief_1932.cfm], the [[Church of the Lutheran Confession]][http://clclutheran.org/library/BriefStatement.html], and the Illinois Lutheran Conference [http://www.illinoislutheranconference.org/our-solid-foundation/doctrinal-position-of-the-ilc.lwp/odyframe.htm] all hold to ''Brief Statement'', which the LCMS adopted in 1932 and places in the [http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 LCMS.org website]</ref> Statement 43, ''Of the Antichrist'':<ref>Online at[http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=579 Of the Antichrist]</ref> [[Image:ChristWashingFeet.JPG|thumb|left|250px|''Christus'', by Lucas Cranach. This woodcut of John 13:14-17 is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. Cranach shows Jesus kissing Peter's foot during the footwashing. This stands in contrast to the opposing woodcut, where the Pope demands others kiss his feet.]][[Image:PopeKissing Feet.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''Antichristus'', by the Lutheran [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. This woodcut of the traditional practice of kissing the Pope's toe is from ''Passionary of the Christ and Antichrist''. The two fingers the Pope is holding up symbolizes his claim to be the Church's substitute for Christ's earthly presence.]]
 
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<blockquote>43. As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:3-12&version=9 2 Thess. 2:3-12];[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:18;&version=9; 1 John 2:18], have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thess.%202:4;&version=9; 2 Thess. 2:4]; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom.%203:20-28;&version=9; Rom. 3:20-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gal.%202:16;&version=9; Gal. 2:16]); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation{{ndash}} these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy. (Cf. [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 515, Paragraphs 39-41; p. 401, Paragraph 45; M. pp. 336, 258.]) Hence we subscribe to the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist." ([http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Triglot, p. 475, Paragraph 10; M., p. 308.])</blockquote>
 
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−
The claim of temporal power over all secular governments, including territorial claims in Italy, raises objection.<ref>See the [http://books.google.com/books?id=Zr3lGJei6fkC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r#PPA168,M1 Baltimore Catechism] on the temporal power of the pope over governments and Innocent III's [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/innIII-policies.html  Letter to the prefect Acerbius and the nobles of Tuscany]. For objection to this, see the [http://www.archive.org/details/concordiacyclope009499mbp Concordia Cyclopedia], p.564 and 750</ref> The papacy's complex relationship with secular states such as the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires are also objections. Some disapprove of the autocratic character of the papal office.<ref>See Luther, [http://www.bookofconcord.com/smalcald.html#article4 Smalcald Articles, Article four]</ref> In [[Western Christianity]] these objections both contributed to and are products of the [[Protestant Reformation]].
 
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−
Some objectors to the papacy use [[Empiricism|empirical argument]]s, pointing out that popes [[Callixtus III]] and [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An [[omniscience|omniscient]] and [[omnibenevolent]] God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the Roman Catholic Church. Defenders of the papacy counter that the [[Bible]] shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men, citing examples like some of the kings of Israel and the apostle [[Judas Iscariot]], as well as St. Peter's rejection of Jesus during the period leading up to the crucifixion.
 
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==Antipopes==
 
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{{main|Antipope|Western Schism}}
 
−
Groups sometimes form around [[antipope]]s, who claim the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it.
 
−
 
 
−
Traditionally, this term was reserved for claimants with a significant following of cardinals or other clergy. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church ([[heresy]]) or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see [[schism]]). Briefly in the 1400s, three separate lines of Popes claimed authenticity (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]). Even Catholics don't all agree whether certain historical figures were Popes or antipopes. Though antipope movements were significant at one time, they are now overwhelmingly minor [[fringe]] causes.
 
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−
==Other popes==
 
−
In the earlier centuries of Christianity, the title "Pope," meaning "father," had been used by all bishops. Some popes used the term and others didn't. Eventually, the title became associated especially with the Bishop of Rome. In a few cases, the term is used for other Christian clerical authorities.
 
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===In the Roman Catholic Church===
 
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The "Black Pope" is a name that was popularly, but quite unofficially, given to the [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] in reference to the importance, within the Church, of the Jesuit order. This name, based on the black colour of his cassock, was used to suggest a parallel between him and the "White Pope" (since the time of [[Pope Pius V]] the Popes dress in white) and the Cardinal Prefect of the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] (formerly called the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith), whose red cardinal's cassock gave him the name of the "Red Pope" in view of the authority over all territories that were not considered in some way Catholic. In the present time this cardinal has power over mission territories for Catholicism, essentially the Churches of Africa and Asia,<ref name = "Magister">[http://www.chiesa.espressonline.it/dettaglio.jsp?id=7049&eng=ylink Sandro Magister], Espresso Online.</ref> but in the past his competence extended also to all lands where [[Protestantism|Protestants]] or [[Eastern Christianity]] was dominant. Some remnants of this situation remain, with the result that, for instance, [[New Zealand]] is still in the care of this Congregation.
 
−
 
 
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===In the Eastern Churches===
 
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Today, the heads of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] continue to be called "Pope", the former being called "Coptic Pope" or, more properly, "[[List of Coptic Popes|Pope and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle]]" and the last called "[[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa]]".
 
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In the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church]], it is not unusual for a village priest to be called a "pope" ("поп" ''pop''). However, this should be differentiated from the words used for the head of the Catholic Church (Bulgarian "папа" ''papa'', Russian "папа римский" ''papa rimskiy'').
 
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−
==Longest-reigning Popes==
 
−
[[Image:Popepiusix.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius IX]], excluding Saint Peter, the longest-reigning pope]]Although the average reign of the pope from the [[middle ages]] was a decade, a number of those whose reign lengths can be determined from contemporary historical data are the following:
 
−
# [[Pope Pius IX|Pius IX]] (1846&ndash;1878): 31 years, 7 months and 23 days (11,560 days).
 
−
# [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (1978&ndash;2005): 26 years, 5 months and 18 days (9,665 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] (1878&ndash;1903): 25 years, 5 months and 1 day (9,281 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Pius VI|Pius VI]] (1775&ndash;1799): 24 years, 6 months and 15 days (8,962 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Adrian I|Adrian I]] (772&ndash;795): 23 years, 10 months and 25 days (8,729 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Pius VII|Pius VII]] (1800&ndash;1823): 23 years, 5 months and 7 days (8,560 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III]] (1159&ndash;1181): 21 years, 11 months and 24 days (8,029 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Sylvester I|St. Sylvester I]] (314&ndash;335): 21 years, 11 months and 1 day (8,005 days).
 
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# [[Pope Leo I|St. Leo I]] (440&ndash;461): 21 years, 1 month, and 13 days. (7,713 days).
 
−
# [[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII]] (1623&ndash;1644): 20 years, 11 months and 24 days (7,664 days).
 
−
 
 
−
[[Saint Peter]] is thought to have reigned for over thirty years (AD 29 - 64?/67?), but the exact length is not reliably known.
 
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==Shortest-reigning Popes==
 
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<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Urban VII.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Urban VII, the shortest-reigning Pope]] —>
 
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[[Image:urban3355.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Urban VII]], the shortest-reigning pope]]
 
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Conversely, there have been a number of popes whose reign lasted less than a month. In the following list the number of calendar days includes partial days.  Thus, for example, if a pope's reign commenced on 1 August and he died on 2 August, this would count as having reigned for two calendar days.
 
−
#[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII]] (15 September&ndash;27 September 1590): reigned for 13 calendar days, died before [[consecration]].<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-popes-by-length-of-reign Answers.com]</ref>
 
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#[[Pope Boniface VI|Boniface VI]] (April, 896): reigned for 16 calendar days
 
−
#[[Pope Celestine IV|Celestine IV]] (25 October&ndash;10 November 1241): reigned for 17 calendar days, died before [[consecration]].
 
−
#[[Pope Theodore II|Theodore II]] (December, 897): reigned for 20 calendar days
 
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#[[Pope Sisinnius|Sisinnius]] (15 January&ndash;4 February 708): reigned for 21 calendar days
 
−
#[[Pope Marcellus II|Marcellus II]] (9 April&ndash;1 May 1555): reigned for 22 calendar days
 
−
#[[Pope Damasus II|Damasus II]] (17 July&ndash;9 August 1048): reigned for 24 calendar days
 
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#[[Pope Pius III|Pius III]] (22 September&ndash;18 October 1503): reigned for 27 calendar days
 
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#[[Pope Leo XI|Leo XI]] (1 April&ndash;27 April 1605): reigned for 27 calendar days
 
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#[[Pope Benedict V|Benedict V]] (22 May&ndash;23 June 964): reigned for 33 calendar days.
 
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Note: [[Pope-elect Stephen|Stephen]] (23 March&ndash;26 March 752), died of [[apoplexy]] three days after his election, and before his [[consecration]] as a bishop. He is not recognized as a valid Pope, but was added to the lists of popes in the fifteenth century as ''Stephen II'', causing difficulties in enumerating later Popes named Stephen. He was removed in 1961 from the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] [[List of Popes|list]] (see "[[Pope-elect Stephen]]" for detailed explanation).
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
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{{col-begin}}
+
*[[Roman Catholicism]]
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{{col-3}}
 
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*[[List of popes]]
 
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*[[List of popes (graphical)]]
 
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*[[List of popes by length of reign]]
 
−
*[[List of canonised popes]]
 
−
*[[List of names of popes]]
 
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*[[Caesaropapism]]
 
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*[[Sedevacantism]]
 
 
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
 
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
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*[[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy]]
 
−
*[[Prophecy of the Popes]]
 
−
{{Col-3}}
 
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*[[History of the Papacy]]
 
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*[[African popes]]
 
−
*[[List of French popes]]
 
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*[[List of German popes]]
 
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*[[Papal regalia and insignia]]
 
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*[[Papal Slippers]]
 
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*[[Papal Coronation]]
 
−
*[[Papal Inauguration]]
 
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*[[Pontiff]]
 
−
{{col-3}}
 
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{{Christianityportal}}
 
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{{Catholicismportal}}
 
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{{Portalpar | Pope | Holysee-arms.svg | 35}}
 
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{{Col-end}}
 
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==Notes==
 
−
{{reflist|2}}
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
{{refbegin}}
+
* Chapman, John. ''Studies on the Early Papacy.'' Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1971. ISBN 9780804611398
−
*{{cite book |author=Loomis, Louise Ropes |title=The Book of the Popes (Liber Pontificalis): To the Pontificate of Gregory I |location=[[Evolution Publishing]] |publisher=[[Merchantville, NJ]] |year=2006 |isbn=1-889758-86-8}}. Reprint of an English translation originally published in 1916.
+
* Duffy, Eamon. ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0300091656
−
*[[Ludwig von Pastor]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder 1898 - ([http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/b92040657d7c02f6.html World Cat entry])
+
* Fortescue, Adrian, and Scott M. P. Reid. ''The Early Papacy: To the Synod of Chalcedon in 451.'' Southampton: Saint Austin Press, 1997. ISBN 9781901157604
−
* Hartmann Grisar (1845-1932), ''History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages'', AMS Press; Reprint edition (1912). ISBN 0-404-09370-1
+
* Kelly, John N. D., and Michael J. Walsh. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes.'' Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. ISBN 9780198614333
−
*[[James Joseph Walsh]], [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC22760194&id=B-cQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=%22popes+and+science%22 ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time''], Fordam University Press, 1908,  reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9
+
* Loomis, Louise Ropes. ''The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis).'' Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1889758868
−
{{refend}}
+
* Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. ''Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present.'' New York, NY: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500017980.
−
 
+
* Walsh, Michael J. ''An Illustrated History of the Popes: Saint Peter to John Paul II.'' Bonanza Books, 1980. ISBN 9780312408176
−
==Further reading==
 
−
*Brusher, Joseph H. ''Popes Through The Ages''. Princeton: D. Van Nostland Company, Inc. 1959.
 
−
*Chamberlain, E.R. ''The Bad Popes''. 1969. Reprint: Barnes and Noble. 1993.
 
−
*Dollison, John ''Pope - Pourri''. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1994.
 
−
*Kelly, J.N.D. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes''. Oxford: University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-213964-9
 
−
*Maxwell-Stuart, P.G. ''Chronicles of the Popes - The Reign By Reign Record of The Papacy From St. Peter To The Present''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1997. ISBN 0-500-01798-0
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
{{Commons|Pope}}
+
All links retrieved November 18, 2022.
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*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm The Holy See - The Holy Father] – website for the past and present Holy Fathers (since [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]])
+
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm Vatican website: The Holy See - The Holy Father]
−
*[http://www.apostleshipofprayer.org/2008.html The Holy Father's 2008 Prayer Intentions]
 
 
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
 
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
−
*[http://kolonisera.rymden.nu/pope/popes.php?l=1 Pope Endurance League - Sortable list of Popes]
+
*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_Magisterium_Paparum.html Database of more than 23,000 documents of the popes in Latin and modern languages]
−
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subjects/R/rsubind.htm#RomanCCPapacy Scholarly articles on the Roman Catholic Papacy from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library]
 
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*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_Magisterium_Paparum.html Data Base of more than 23,000 documents of the Popes in latin and modern languages]
 
  
 
{{Popes}}
 
{{Popes}}
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[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
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[[Category:religion]]
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[[Category:Christianity]]
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[[Category:history]]
 
[[Category:Popes]]
 
[[Category:Popes]]
  
 
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Latest revision as of 06:38, 18 November 2022

Saint Peter's Square in Vatican City, the seat of the papacy
Seal of the papacy

The papacy is the office of the pope (from Latin: "papa" or "father"), the bishop of Rome, who is the leader of the Roman Catholic Church and head of state of Vatican City. The pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" or "Apostolic See."

The importance of the Roman bishop is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to Saint Peter, to whom Jesus gave the keys of heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing," naming him as the "rock" upon which the church would be built.

After Christianity became the favored religion of the Roman emperors in the fourth century, the papacy was involved in a period of close interaction with the rulers of the West, while often struggling for supremacy with the eastern emperors and the patriarch of Constantinople. In medieval times, popes played powerful political roles in Western Europe, crowning emperors, ruling the papal states, and regulating disputes among secular rulers. After the Protestant Reformation and the rise of powerful nation-states successfully challenged the authority of the papacy in the West, the popes gradually gave up secular power. In the modern period the papacy has come to focus almost exclusively on spiritual matters.

Over the centuries, the papacy's claim of spiritual authority has been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a statement of faith or morals.

Today, the pope is the leader of the largest organized body of religious believers of the world, and arguably the single most powerful voice in moral and spiritual affairs. He has become a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. The papacy remains one of the most influential institutions of any kind in today's world.

History

Earliest church

Saint Peter, by Rubens

In Catholic tradition, Peter is recognized as the first pope, who was martyred in Rome. Yet the early bishops of Rome were not yet "popes" as the word is understood today. Rather, the Roman church seems to have had a collective leadership involving a council of elders or bishops until the mid-second century.

In the earliest Christianity, however, it was Jerusalem, not Rome, that served as the Christian movement's central city, from which missionaries were dispatched and to which delegates came to resolve disputes. James the Just, known as "the brother of the Lord," served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "mother church" in Orthodox tradition. Antioch and Alexandria also had important Christian congregations. Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire, was one of the first Gentile cities to develop a substantial church early in the apostolic period, and it was at Rome that the Apostle Paul was martyred, soon followed by Peter, according to tradition.

Until around 130 C.E., there are few if any references to Rome's primacy among the churches, and even the idea of Peter's acting as "bishop of Rome" is heavily disputed. However, after the Jerusalem church was disbanded in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Rome gradually came to the fore. In the last years of the first century, Clement of Rome, probably one of a collective group of Roman church leaders but traditionally recognized as the fourth pope, wrote on behalf of Rome's congregation to the church in Corinth to intervene in an internal dispute there.

The papacy emerges

In the second century, Roman bishops received visits and letters from other churches, indicating that Rome held a position of increasing centrality and respect. By the second half of the century, it is probable that the tradition of collective leadership at Rome had given way to a single ruling bishop, as was the case in several other major cities. Because of the relative wealth of the Roman church, the early popes were in a position to assist other churches financially and help spread Christianity abroad. They were also instrumental in resolving doctrinal disputes, both because of Rome's position as capital of the empire and on the basis of Rome's connection with Saint Peter. In the late second century, Bishop Irenaeus of Lyons wrote: "Because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree [with Rome]... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." (Against Heresies 3:3:2) However, in 195, when Pope Victor I excommunicated several Eastern churches for observing Easter on the Jewish Passover, Irenaeus himself disagreed with this action, which was later rescinded.

In the third century, several writers appealed to the authority of the Rome's tradition to justify their theological views and ecclesiastical practices. At the same time, the pope's office was sometimes the victim of factional strife, with popes and antipopes vying for recognition. The first antipope, Hippolytus (d. 250), was later recognized as a saint. Pope Marcellinus (d. 304) was the first bishop of Rome whom sources show actually used the title of "pope."

Pope Leo I meets with Attila the Hun.

When Emperor Constantine I legalized Christianity and showed special favor to the Christian churches, the office of the papacy became a major political and financial prize. Though the progressive Christianization of the Roman Empire in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops any direct civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the fifth century left the pope in the de facto position of the senior imperial civilian official in Rome. During the Arian controversy of the fourth century and other theological controversies, Rome's relatively steady position further developed its reputation as a bastion of orthodoxy.

Meanwhile, after Constantine established his hew capital at Byzantium with the new name of Constantinople, the churches of the Greek East and a Latin West became increasingly divided. The popes, with some notable exceptions, achieved a growing independence from the emperor and became a major force in politics in the West. Meanwhile, the See of Constantinople emerged as the center of ecclesiastical authority in the East, often at odds with Rome over questions of jurisdiction, honor, authority, and even theology. During this period there were five metropolitan archbishops who held the title of "patriarch": Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. While the papacy was universally afforded the primacy of honor, the other patriarchal sees did not recognize the right of the pope to determine policy, which was often decided at church councils, the most widely attended being recognized as "ecumenical," or universal, and thus more binding.

At the ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451, Pope Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter." At this same council, the patriarch of Constantinople was given a primacy of honor equal to that of the bishop of Rome, and Constantinople was declared the "New Rome." In practice, however, Rome and Constantinople continued to struggle for supremacy, and several schisms followed. Nor did the other major centers of Christianity always follow the pope's lead, either in administrative or theological matters.

In terms of the title of pope, the bishops of several cities in the West had been known by this title, which simply means "father." In the East, however, this title was generally reserved for the bishop of Alexandria. From the early sixth century the term began to be confined in the West to the bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. However, the Alexandrian churches, both Coptic and Orthodox, still refer to their bishops as popes.

Medieval developments

Gregory the Great (c. 540-604)

After the fall of Rome to the "barbarians," the Roman church served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity in the West. Pope Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) administered the church with a stern, reforming spirit. However, his successors were sometimes dominated by the Eastern emperor. Pope Stephen II, seeking protection from the Lombards, appealed to the Franks to protect papal territory. In 754, Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards, giving the pope the conquered lands, which formed the core of the Papal States. In 800 C.E., Leo III crowned Charlemagne as holy Roman emperor, establishing the precedent in the West that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope. The East, however, continued its imperial Christian tradition without papal authority, upon which it had never depended.

Around 850, a collection of church legislation was promulgated, known today as the False Decretals. Containing both forgeries and genuine documents, its principal aim was to free the church and its bishops from interference by the imperial state. The author, a French cleric calling himself Isidore Mercator, presented various documents purportedly by early popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions. The decretals also included the forged Donation of Constantine, in which Constantine supposedly granted Pope Sylvester I secular authority over all Western Europe. The "Pseudo-Isidorian" decretals provided support for papal authority for centuries.

Nevertheless, during the last two centuries of the first millennium, the popes came under the control of vying political factions, and the papacy's prestige was badly tarnished. Conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes, in league with the emperor, were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX became pope and attempted serious reforms. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services and clerical marriage and concubinage.

Leo IX was pope during the Great Schism of 1054

The churches of the East and West split definitively in 1054. This "Great Schism" was caused more by political events than by diversities of creed, although the famous filioque clause inserted into the Nicene Creed by the popes played no small role in it. Shortly afterward, the papacy launched the Crusades, the ebbs and flows of which contributed to both the church's glory and its great shame. Increasing corruption of the clergy—including some of the popes themselves, as well as their administrative bureaucracy—also became a major challenge for the papacy. Several popes attempted to reform the situation, while others pursued wealth and power in a spirit much at odds with the poverty and humility of their apostolic forbears.

From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon. The Avignon papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England. Various antipopes also challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378 - 1417). During this schism, one pope reigned in Avignon while another (or even two) popes reigned in Rome. While the papacy soon reunited, it continued to develop a reputation for wealth and corruption, even while supporting some of the great artistic and architectural projects of the Renaissance.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the conciliar movement attempted to reform corruption within the papacy by affirming the ancient tradition of church councils as the supreme ecclesiastical authority. However, the councils condemned more fundamental reforms promoted by such leaders as John Wycliffe (1330-1384) and Jan Hus (1373-1415), who was burned at the stake at the Council of Constance. In the end, the papacy was able to reassert its authority but did not succeed in reforming the culture of the Church.

Reformation to the present

Spiritually, the pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, to reduce one's time in purgatory. The concept of indulgences involving a monetary donation accompanied by contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common understanding that indulgences depended on a simple monetary payment. Popes condemned such misunderstandings and abuses of the practice, but were too pressed for income to reign in their most effective fundraisers, thus providing the basis for Martin Luther's famous 95 Theses against indulgences, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

As part of the Counter Reformation, Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563).

The Reformation criticized the papacy as corrupt and challenged to idea of papal authority both administratively and theologically. The movement succeeded in establishing several national churches in Europe independent of the papacy and led to Protestantism emerging as a major force in the western world.

The papacy instituted the Counter Reformation (1560-1648) to address this challenge and institute internal reforms. Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which succeeded in the papacy's retaining control over southern and much of central Europe. Gradually, however, the papacy was forced to give up secular power, focusing increasingly on spiritual issues. Meanwhile, missionary efforts succeeded in winning millions of new converts to the Catholic Church outside of Europe.

In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of faith or morals.

Later in 1870, King Victor Emmanuel II seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican state and guaranteed papal independence from secular rule.

In Roman Catholic ecclesiology

The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter painted by Pietro Perugino (1492)

According to Roman Catholic tradition, the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Jesus through his words to Peter, who would later become the first pope:

"And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." (Matt.16:18-19)

John 21:15-17 further shows Jesus as appointing Peter as the primary "shepherd" of Christ's flock. Peter is thus the rock upon which Christ's church was built, and his successors at Rome stand in his position as the "vicar of Christ," acting on Jesus' behalf. The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here is the basis for keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms.

Election

The conclave in Konstanz where Pope Martin V was elected
The formal declaration of "Habemus Papam" after the election of Pope Martin V

In the early church, the popes were chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. The elections were often contentious, resulting in schisms between factions, and sometimes involved imperial intervention. In 1059 the electors were restricted to the cardinals. The Second Council of Lyons (1274) decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form.

Under present canon law, the pope is elected by those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The election normally takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a sequestered meeting called a "conclave." Each elector writes the name of his choice on his ballot and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected." Each ballot is read aloud by the presiding cardinal, and voting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority.

Once the ballots are counted, they are burned in a special stove, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St. Peter's Square. If no pope is elected yet, a chemical compound is added to the fire to produce black smoke. When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope.

The dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the one who was elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word Accepto, his reign as pope begins at that instant. The dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. The pope is then led to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" and receives the obeisance of his former colleagues.

The senior cardinal then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!—"I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!" Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the papal coronation, which has since been suspended.

For centuries, the papacy was dominated by Italians. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was Pope Adrian VI of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the age of Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

Abdication and death

Gregory XII was the last pope to abdicate.

The pope's term of office is for life. The Code of Canon Law states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." The canonical right to abdicate has been exercised by Pope Celestine V in 1294 and Pope Gregory XII in 1409, who was the last pope to do so. The first pope to abdicate was Pontian in 235, although he did not do so freely, but under the duress of a sentence of exile.

The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the vacancy caused by a pope's death the College of Cardinals is collectively responsible for the government of the Catholic Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain. Canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See.

A dead pope's body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral. The popes of the twentieth century were all interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late pope. Vatican tradition holds that no autopsy is to be performed on the body of a dead pope.

Titles

Pope Benedict XVI

The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:

  • Bishop of Rome
  • Vicar of Christ
  • Successor of the Prince of the Apostles
  • Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church
  • Primate of Italy
  • Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province
  • Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City
  • Servant of the Servants of God

The ancient title Pontifex Maximus, which was formerly associated with the pagan Roman emperors, was used until Gratian (359-383), who formally renounced the title. The title "Servant of the Servants of God," although used by other church leaders including Augustine of Hippo and Saint Benedict, was first used by Pope St. Gregory the Great in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "Ecumenical Patriarch." It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The pope is addressed as "Your Holiness" or "Holy Father."

Since, in the Eastern churches, the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the bishop of Rome, these churches often use the expression "pope of Rome" to refer to Roman pontiff.

Regalia and insignia

Coat of arms of the Holy See.
Pope Pius VII, seated, wearing the pallium
  • "Triregnum," also called the papal tiara or triple crown, represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor," "supreme teacher," and "supreme priest." Recent popes have not worn the triregnum, although it remains the official symbol of the papacy. In liturgical ceremonies, today's popes wear an episcopal mitre (an erect cloth hat).
  • Pastoral Staff topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the thirteenth century.
  • The pallium, a circular band or stole worn around the neck, breast and shoulders, with two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Until recently, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the primates, but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a larger papal pallium adorned with red crosses instead of black.
  • "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven," the image of two keys, one gold and one silver, symbolizing the power to "bind and loose" on earth and in heaven.
  • Ring of the Fisherman, a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.
  • Umbraculum, a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
  • Sedia gestatoria (now discontinued), a mobile throne carried by 12 footmen in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing fans made of white ostrich feathers, and sometimes a large canopy carried by eight attendants. The use of the flabella was discontinued by Pope John Paul I, and the use of the sedia gestatoria was discontinued by Pope John Paul II, being replaced by the so-called Popemobile.

In heraldry, each pope has his own coat of arms, which includes the aforementioned two keys behind the escutcheon (shield), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns.

The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See on the right-hand side. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, the triregnum has been retained on the flag.

Offices and residences

The pope's official seat or cathedral is the Basilica of St. John Lateran, and his official residence is the Palace of the Vatican. He also possesses a summer residence at Castel Gandolfo. Until the time of the Avignon Papacy, the residence of the pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. The pope's specific ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the Holy See, is distinct from his secular jurisdiction of Vatican City.

Infallible authority

The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council on July 18, 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the council established that:

  • Peter was established by Christ as the chief of the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church.
  • It is heresy to deny that the Roman Pontiff is the successor of Peter holding the same primacy as him.
  • It is also heresy to deny that pope's authority pertains not only to matters of faith and morals, but also to the discipline and government of the Church throughout the whole world.
  • The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, operates with infallibility, and his decisions are unalterable.

The Second Vatican Council, while not repeating the anathemas directed by its predecessor against "heretics" who deny papal infallibility, nevertheless reaffirmed the doctrine. In 1964, this council declared:

"…In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra… His definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment.

The Papacy today

Pope Benedict XVI greets former US President Bush.

While the papacy has lost considerable political power in recent centuries, its prestige as a moral and spiritual authority has grown considerable. The pope remains the sole ruler of the Catholic Church, which is not only the largest Christian denomination, but the largest organized body of any world religion, with over one billion members, accounting for approximately one in six of the world's population. No longer a primarily European faith, the majority the pope's flock hail from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. The papacy also controls or supervises a vast network of Catholic financial institutions, religious orders, real estate holdings, schools, monasteries and convents, charitable organizations, museums, hospitals, retirement homes, youth organizations, and social groups.

The pope commands huge audiences of up to and over a million people when he travels, notably including many young people. His moral teachings remain highly influential, probably more so than any single individual in the world today. Politically, the papacy of John Paul II is considered to have been a major factor in the fall of the Soviet Union.

The pope is a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. He frequently meets with the presidents of the greatest nations of the world. It is no exaggeration to say that the papacy remains one of the world's most important world institutions today.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chapman, John. Studies on the Early Papacy. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1971. ISBN 9780804611398
  • Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0300091656
  • Fortescue, Adrian, and Scott M. P. Reid. The Early Papacy: To the Synod of Chalcedon in 451. Southampton: Saint Austin Press, 1997. ISBN 9781901157604
  • Kelly, John N. D., and Michael J. Walsh. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. ISBN 9780198614333
  • Loomis, Louise Ropes. The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1889758868
  • Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present. New York, NY: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500017980.
  • Walsh, Michael J. An Illustrated History of the Popes: Saint Peter to John Paul II. Bonanza Books, 1980. ISBN 9780312408176

External links

All links retrieved November 18, 2022.

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