Difference between revisions of "Papacy" - New World Encyclopedia

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:''This entry is about the Catholic Pontiff. For other uses of the word, see [[Pope (disambiguation)]].''
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[[Image:StPetersBasilicaEarlyMorning.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Saint Peter]]'s Square in [[Vatican City]], the seat of the papacy]]
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The '''pope''' is the Catholic Bishop and patriarch of [[Rome]], and head of the [[ Catholic Church]]. The office of the pope is called the Papacy; his ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the [[Holy See]] ''(Sancta Sedes)''. Early bishops of Rome were designated '''vicar (representative) of Peter'''; for later popes the more authoritative '''vicar of Christ''' was substituted; this designation was first used by the Roman Synod of AD 495 to refer to [[Pope Gelasius I]], an originator of papal supremacy among the patriarchs.
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[[Image:Emblem of the Papacy SE.svg|thumb|120px|Seal of the papacy]]
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The '''papacy''' is the office of the '''pope''' (from [[Latin]]: "papa" or "father"), the [[bishop of Rome]], who is the leader of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and head of state of [[Vatican City]]. The pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "[[Holy See]]" or "[[Apostolic See]]."
  
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In addition to his service in this spiritual role, the pope is also [[head of state]] of the independent sovereign [[Vatican City|State of the Vatican City]], a [[city-state]] and [[nation]] entirely enclaved by the city of [[Rome]]. Prior to 1870, the pope's temporal authority extended over a large area of central [[Italy]], the territory of the [[Papal States]] that was formally known as the "Patrimony of St Peter." Although the document on which the territorial powers of the Pontificate was based —the so-called [[Donation of Constantine]]— was proved a forgery in the 15th century, the papacy retained sovereign authority over the Papal States until the [[Italian Unification]] of 1870; a final political settlement with the Italian government was not reached until the [[Lateran Treaties]] of 1929.
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The importance of the Roman [[bishop]] is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to [[Saint Peter]], to whom [[Jesus]] gave the keys of heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing," naming him as the "rock" upon which the church would be built.  
  
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[[Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]] (born Joseph Ratzinger), who was elected at the age of 78 on April 19, 2005, succeeded [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], who was elected at the age of 58 in 1978.
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After [[Christianity]] became the favored religion of the [[Roman Empire|Roman emperors]] in the fourth century, the papacy was involved in a period of close interaction with the rulers of the West, while often struggling for supremacy with the eastern emperors and the patriarch of [[Constantinople]]. In [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times, popes played powerful political roles in [[Western Europe]], crowning emperors, ruling the [[papal states]], and regulating disputes among secular rulers. After the [[Protestant Reformation]] and the rise of powerful nation-states successfully challenged the authority of the papacy in the West, the popes gradually gave up secular power. In the modern period the papacy has come to focus almost exclusively on spiritual matters.  
  
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[[Pope Benedict XVI]] is the second non-Italian to be elected to the pontificate since [[Pope Adrian VI|Adrian VI]], who was briefly pope in 1522-23, ([[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (pope 1978-2005) was the first), and the first German to take the seat since the eleventh century (although it can be argued that Adrian VI, who is considered both Dutch and German - he lived in Holland but came from German ancestors, at a time when Holland had not yet been separated from Germany - was the previous German pope).
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Over the centuries, the papacy's claim of spiritual authority has been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in the proclamation of the [[Dogma (Roman Catholic)|dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' when issuing a statement of [[dogma|faith]] or [[morals]].
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Today, the pope is the leader of the largest organized body of religious believers of the world, and arguably the single most powerful voice in moral and spiritual affairs. He has become a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. The papacy remains one of the most influential institutions of any kind in today's world.  
  
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==Office and nature==
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==History==
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In [[canon law]], the Catholic Pope is referred to as the '''Roman Pontiff''' ('''''Pontifex Romanus'''''). He is styled "[[Your Holiness]]" ''(Sanctitas Vestra)'' and is frequently referred to as '''the [[Holy Father]]'''. The title "Pope" is an informal one meaning "papa"; the formal title of the pope is "[[Bishop of Rome]], Vicar of Jesus Christ, [[Apostolic Succession|Successor]] of the [[Saint Peter|Prince of the Apostles]], [[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme Pontiff]] of the [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|Universal Church]], [[Patriarch]] of the West, [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of Italy, [[Archbishop]] and [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]] of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City, [[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]."
 
  
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Understandably, the above title is rarely used. By comparison, the formal title of the [[Eastern_Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] is "Successor of Saint Mark the Apostle, Shepherd of Shepherds, Father of Fathers, Supreme Pontiff of All Metropolitans and Bishops, Judge of the World, and Beloved of Christ," often called the "Ecumenical Judge"; the [[Coptic_Christianity|Coptic]] [[Coptic_Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Alexandria|Pope]] is styled "Pope and Patriarch of the See of Alexandria and of All the Predication of the Evangelist St. Mark."
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===Earliest church===
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[[Image:Pope-peter pprubens.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Saint Peter]], by [[Rubens]]]]
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In Catholic tradition, Peter is recognized as the first pope, who was martyred in [[Rome]]. Yet the early [[bishop]]s of Rome were not yet "popes" as the word is understood today. Rather, the Roman church seems to have had a collective leadership involving a council of [[presbyter|elders]] or bishops until the mid-second century.  
  
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The pope's signature is usually in the format "''NN. PP. x''" (''e.g.'', [[Pope Paul VI]] signed his name as "Paulus PP. VI"), the "PP." standing for ''Papa'' ("Pope") or ''Pater Patrum'' ("Father of Fathers"), and his name is frequently accompanied in inscriptions by the abbreviation "Pont. Max." or "P.M." (abbreviation of the ancient title ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'', literally "Greatest Bridge-maker," but usually translated "Supreme Pontiff"). The signature of [[Papal bull]]s is customarily ''NN. Episcopus Ecclesia Catholicae'' ("NN. Bishop of the Catholic Church"), while the heading is ''NN. Episcopus [[Servus Servorum Dei]]'' ("NN. Bishop and Servant of the Servants of God"), the latter title dating to the time of [[Pope Gregory I]] ''the Great''. Other titles used in some official capacity include ''Summus Pontifex'' ("Highest Pontiff"), ''Sanctissimus Pater'' and ''Beatissimus Pater'' ("Most [[Holy Father]]" and "Most Blessed Father"), ''Sanctissimus Dominus Noster'' ("Our Most Holy Lord"), and, in the [[Middle Ages|Medieval period]], ''Dominus Apostolicus'' ("Apostolic Lord"). This title, however, was not abandoned altogether: the pope is still refered to as "Dominum Apostolicum" in the Latin version of the Litany of the Saints, a solemn Catholic prayer, and in some translations of it.
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In the [[earliest Christianity]], however, it was [[Jerusalem]], not Rome, that served as the Christian movement's central city, from which missionaries were dispatched and to which delegates came to resolve disputes. [[James the Just]], known as "the brother of the Lord," served as head of the [[Jerusalem church]], which is still honored as the "mother church" in Orthodox tradition. [[Antioch]] and [[Alexandria]] also had important Christian congregations. Rome, the capital of the [[Roman Empire]], was one of the first Gentile cities to develop a substantial church early in the apostolic period, and it was at Rome that the [[Apostle Paul]] was [[martyr]]ed, soon followed by Peter, according to tradition.
  
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[[Image:Flag_of_Vatican_City.png|right|thumb|125px|[[Flag of the Vatican City|Flag]] of the [[Vatican City]]]]
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Until around 130 C.E., there are few if any references to Rome's primacy among the churches, and even the idea of Peter's acting as "[[bishop of Rome]]" is heavily disputed. However, after the Jerusalem church was disbanded in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Rome gradually came to the fore. In the last years of the first century, [[Clement of Rome]], probably one of a collective group of Roman church leaders but traditionally recognized as the fourth pope, wrote on behalf of Rome's congregation to the church in [[Corinth]] to intervene in an internal dispute there.
  
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The pope's official seat is the [[Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer palace at [[Castel Gandolfo]] (situated on the site of the ancient city-state [[Alba Longa]]). Historically the official residence of the pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantinus I]]. The former Papal summer palace, the [[Quirinal Palace]], has subsequently been the official residence of the [[King of Italy|Kings of Italy]] and [[President of Italy|Presidents of the Italian Republic]].
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===The papacy emerges===
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In the second century, Roman [[bishop]]s received visits and letters from other [[church]]es, indicating that Rome held a position of increasing centrality and respect. By the second half of the century, it is probable that the tradition of collective leadership at Rome had given way to a single ruling bishop, as was the case in several other major cities. Because of the relative wealth of the Roman church, the early popes were in a position to assist other churches financially and help spread [[Christianity]] abroad. They were also instrumental in resolving doctrinal disputes, both because of Rome's position as capital of the empire and on the basis of Rome's connection with [[Saint Peter]]. In the late second century, Bishop [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] wrote: "Because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree [with Rome]... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." (''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' 3:3:2) However, in 195, when [[Pope Victor I]] excommunicated several Eastern churches for observing [[Easter]] on the Jewish [[Passover]], Irenaeus himself disagreed with this action, which was later rescinded.
  
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It is the pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction (the Holy See) and not his secular jurisdiction (Vatican City) which conducts international relations; for hundreds of years, the pope's court (the [[Roman Curia]]) has functioned as the government of the Catholic Church.
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In the third century, several writers appealed to the authority of the Rome's tradition to justify their theological views and ecclesiastical practices. At the same time, the pope's office was sometimes the victim of factional strife, with popes and [[antipopes]] vying for recognition. The first antipope, [[Hippolytus]] (d. 250), was later recognized as a [[saint]]. Pope [[Marcellinus]] (d. 304) was the first bishop of Rome whom sources show actually used the title of "pope."
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The name "Holy See" (also "Apostolic See") is in ecclesiastical terminology the ordinary jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome (including the Roman Curia); the pope's various honours, powers, and privileges within the Catholic Church and the international community derive from his Episcopate of Rome in lineal succession from the [[Apostle]] [[St. Peter]] (see [[Apostolic Succession]]). Consequently Rome has traditionally occupied a central position in the Catholic Church, although this is not necessarily so. The pope derives his Pontificate from being Bishop of Rome but is not required to live there; according to the Latin formula ''ubi Papa, ibi Curia'', wherever the pope resides is the central government of the Church, provided that the pope is Bishop of Rome. As such, between 1309 and 1378 the popes lived in [[Avignon]] (the [[Avignon Papacy]]), a period often called the [[Babylonian Captivity]] in allusion to the [[Bible|Biblical]] exile of [[Israel]].
 
  
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Catholic [[tradition]] maintains that the institution of the Pontificate can be found in the [[Bible]], and cites certain key passages in support of this contention. Chief among these passages is [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew 16: 18 – 19]], wherein Jesus Christ says to [[St. Peter]]:
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[[Image:Attila-PopeLeo-ChroniconPictum.jpg|thumb|225px|[[Pope Leo I]] meets with [[Attila the Hun]].]]
  
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:''"Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jona! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."''
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When Emperor [[Constantine I]] legalized Christianity and showed special favor to the Christian churches, the office of the papacy became a major political and financial prize. Though the progressive [[Christianization]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops any direct civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the fifth century left the pope in the ''de facto'' position of the senior imperial civilian official in Rome. During the [[arianism|Arian controversy]] of the fourth century and other theological controversies, Rome's relatively steady position further developed its reputation as a bastion of [[orthodoxy]].  
  
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Other important passages include [[Gospel of Luke|Luke 22: 31 – 32]], [[Gospel of John|John 1: 42]], and [[John 21:15-19|John 21: 15 – 17]].
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Meanwhile, after Constantine established his hew capital at [[Byzantium]] with the new name of [[Constantinople]], the churches of the Greek East and a Latin West became increasingly divided. The popes, with some notable exceptions, achieved a growing independence from the emperor and became a major force in politics in the West. Meanwhile, the See of Constantinople emerged as the center of ecclesiastical authority in the East, often at odds with Rome over questions of [[jurisdiction]], honor, [[authority]], and even [[theology]]. During this period there were five metropolitan [[archbishop]]s who held the title of "patriarch": [[Rome]], Constantinople, [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]]. While the papacy was universally afforded the primacy of honor, the other patriarchal sees did not recognize the right of the pope to determine policy, which was often decided at church councils, the most widely attended being recognized as "ecumenical," or universal, and thus more binding.
  
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==Regalia and insignia==
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At the ecumenical [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451, Pope [[Leo I]] (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter." At this same council, the patriarch of Constantinople was given a primacy of honor equal to that of the bishop of Rome, and Constantinople was declared the "New Rome." In practice, however, Rome and Constantinople continued to struggle for supremacy, and several schisms followed. Nor did the other major centers of Christianity always follow the pope's lead, either in administrative or theological matters.
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[[Image:Vatican_coa.png|right|thumb|200px|Vatican coat of arms]]
 
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''Main article: [[Papal regalia and insignia]].''
 
  
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*The "[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]" also called the "tiara" or "triple crown"; recent popes have not, however, worn the ''triregnum'' though it remains the symbol of the papacy and has not been abolished. In liturgical ceremonies popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
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In terms of the title of pope, the bishops of several cities in the West had been known by this title, which simply means "father." In the East, however, this title was generally reserved for the bishop of [[Alexandria]]. From the early sixth century the term began to be confined in the West to the bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. However, the Alexandrian churches, both [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Orthodox]], still refer to their bishops as popes.
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*Staff topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the 13th century.
 
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*The [[pallium]] (a circular band of fabric about two inches wide, worn over the [[chasuble]] about the neck, breast and shoulders and having two twelve-inch-long pendants hanging down in front and behind, ornamented with six small, black crosses distributed about the breast, back, shoulders, and pendants).
 
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*The "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven," the image of two keys, one gold and one silver. The silver key symbolises the power to bind and loose on Earth, and the gold key the power to bind and loose in Heaven.
 
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*The [[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.  
 
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*The ''[[umbracullum]]'' (better known in the Italian form ''ombrellino'') is a canopy or umbrella (consisting of alternating red and gold stripes).
 
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*One of the most familiar (and now discontinued) trappings of the Papacy was the ''[[sedia gestatoria]]'', a mobile throne carried by twelve footmen ''(palafrenieri)'' in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing  ''[[flabella]]'' (fans made of white ostrich-feathers). The use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' and of the ''flabella''  was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], with the former being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].
 
  
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In heraldry, each pope has his own [[Papal Coat of Arms]]. Though unique for each pope, the arms are always surmounted by the aforementioned two keys in saltire (i.e., crossed over one another so as to form an X) behind the escutcheon (one key silver and one key gold, tied with a red cord), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns and red ''infulae'', or the red strips of fabric hanging from the back over the shoulders when worn ("two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or"). The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See ("Gules, two keys in saltire or and argent, interlacing in the rings or, beneath a tiara argent, crowned or") on the right hand side in the white half of the flag. This flag was first adopted in 1808, whereas the previous flag had been red and gold, the traditional colours of the Pontificate.
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====Medieval developments====
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[[Image:Gregorythegreat.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Gregory the Great]] (c. 540-604)]]
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After the fall of Rome to the "[[barbarians]]," the Roman church served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity in the West. Pope [[Gregory the Great]] (c. 540-604) administered the church with a stern, reforming spirit. However, his successors were sometimes dominated by the Eastern emperor. Pope [[Stephen II]], seeking protection from the [[Lombards]], appealed to the [[Franks]] to protect papal territory. In 754, [[Pepin the Short]] subdued the Lombards, giving the pope the conquered lands, which formed the core of the [[Papal States]]. In 800 C.E., [[Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]] as [[holy Roman emperor]], establishing the precedent in the West that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope. The East, however, continued its imperial Christian tradition without papal authority, upon which it had never depended.
  
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==Status and authority==
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Around 850, a collection of church legislation was promulgated, known today as the [[False Decretals]]. Containing both [[Forgery|forgeries]] and genuine documents, its principal aim was to free the church and its bishops from interference by the imperial state. The author, a French cleric calling himself [[Isidore Mercator]], presented various documents purportedly by early popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions. The decretals also included the forged ''[[Donation of Constantine]],'' in which [[Constantine]] supposedly granted [[Pope Sylvester I]] secular authority over all Western Europe. The "Pseudo-Isidorian" decretals provided support for papal authority for centuries.
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[[Image:officialpopebenedict.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Pope Benedict XVI]] was elected on April 19, 2005.]]
 
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The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ'' (July 18, 1870). The first chapter of this document is entitled "On the institution of the apostolic primacy in blessed Peter," and states that (s.1) "according to the Gospel evidence, a primacy of jurisdiction over the whole church of [[God]] was immediately and directly promised to the blessed apostle Peter and conferred on him by Christ the Lord" and that (s.6) "if anyone says that blessed Peter the [[apostle]] was not appointed by Christ the Lord as prince of all the apostles and visible head of the whole [[church militant]]; or that it was a primacy of honour only and not one of true and proper jurisdiction that he directly and immediately received from our Lord Jesus Christ Himself: let him be [[anathema]]."
 
  
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The Dogmatic Constitution's second chapter, "On the permanence of the primacy of blessed Peter in the Roman pontiffs," states that (s.1) "that which our Lord Jesus Christ [...] established in the blessed apostle Peter [...] must of necessity remain forever, by Christ's authority, in the church which, founded as it is upon a rock, will stand firm until the end of time," that (s.3) "whoever succeeds to the chair of Peter obtains by the institution of Christ Himself, the primacy of Peter over the whole church," and that (s.5) "if anyone says that it is not by the institution of Christ the Lord Himself (that is to say, by divine law) that blessed Peter should have perpetual successors in the primacy over the whole church; or that the Roman pontiff is not the successor of blessed Peter in this primacy: let him be anathema."
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Nevertheless, during the last two centuries of the first millennium, the popes came under the control of vying political factions, and the papacy's prestige was badly tarnished. Conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes, in league with the emperor, were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX became pope and attempted serious reforms. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the [[Simony|sale of church offices]] or services and clerical marriage and concubinage.
  
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The Dogmatic Constitution's third chapter, "On the power and character of the [[primacy of the Roman pontiff]]," states that (s.1) "the definition of the [[ecumenical council]] of [[Council of Florence|Florence]], which must be believed by all faithful [[Christianity|Christian]]s, namely that the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff hold a world-wide primacy, and that the Roman pontiff is the successor of blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, true vicar of Christ, head of the whole church and father and teacher of all Christian people," that (s.2) "by divine ordinance, the Roman church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other church, and that the jurisdictional power of the Roman pontiff is both episcopal and immediate" and that "[[clergy]] and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the church throughout the world."
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[[Image:PopeleoIX.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Leo IX]] was pope during the [[Great Schism]] of 1054]]
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The churches of the East and West split definitively in 1054. This "[[Great Schism]]" was caused more by political events than by diversities of creed, although the famous [[filioque clause]] inserted into the [[Nicene Creed]] by the popes played no small role in it. Shortly afterward, the papacy launched the [[Crusades]], the ebbs and flows of which contributed to both the church's glory and its great shame. Increasing corruption of the clergy—including some of the popes themselves, as well as their administrative bureaucracy—also became a major challenge for the papacy. Several popes attempted to reform the situation, while others pursued wealth and power in a spirit much at odds with the poverty and humility of their apostolic forbears.
  
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The powers of the pope are defined by the Dogmatic Constitution (ch.3, s.8) such that "he is the supreme judge of the faithful, and that in all cases which fall under ecclesiastical jurisdiction recourse may be had to his judgement" and that "the sentence of the apostolic see (than which there is no higher authority) is not subject to revision by anyone, nor may anyone lawfully pass judgement thereupon" (can. 331 defines the power of the pope as "supreme, full, immediate and universal ordinary power in the Church, and he can always freely exercise this power"). It also dogmatically defined (ch.4, s.9) the doctrine of [[papal infallibility|Papal infallibility]], ''sc.'' such that
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From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in [[Avignon Papacy|Avignon]]. The [[Avignon]] papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of [[France]], alienating France's enemies, such as [[England]]. Various [[antipope]]s also challenged papal authority, especially during the [[Western Schism]] (1378 - 1417). During this schism, one pope reigned in Avignon while another (or even two) popes reigned in Rome. While the papacy soon reunited, it continued to develop a reputation for wealth and corruption, even while supporting some of the great artistic and architectural projects of the [[Renaissance]].
  
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:when the Roman Pontiff speaks ''ex cathedra'', that is, when in the exercise of his office as shepherd and teacher of all Christians, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole church, he possesses, by the divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, that infallibility which the divine Redeemer willed His church to enjoy in defining doctrine concerning faith or morals. Therefore, such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not by the consent of the church, irreformable.
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During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the [[conciliar movement]] attempted to reform corruption within the papacy by affirming the ancient tradition of church councils as the supreme ecclesiastical authority. However, the councils condemned more fundamental reforms promoted by such leaders as [[John Wycliffe]] (1330-1384) and [[Jan Hus]] (1373-1415), who was burned at the stake at the [[Council of Constance]]. In the end, the papacy was able to reassert its authority but did not succeed in reforming the culture of the Church.
  
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The Roman Catholic Church teaches that "it is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every creature to be united to the Roman Pontiff" ([[Pope Boniface VIII]]). This teaching is often summarized by the phrase "extra Ecclesiam the popeus salus" (outside the Church exists no salvation), which has been reaffirmed by many popes throughout the centuries. [[Blessed John XXIII]] said: "Into this fold of Jesus Christ no man may enter unless he be led by the Sovereign Pontiff, and only if they be united to him can men be saved." [[Pope Paul VI]] also said: "Those outside the Church do not possess the Holy Spirit. The Catholic Church alone is the Body of Christ... and if separated from the Body of Christ he is not one of His members, nor is he fed by His Spirit."
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===Reformation to the present===
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However, this dogma has been misinterpreted by both Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Many popes stressed that those who are invincibly ignorant of the Catholic religion can still obtain salvation. [[Pope Pius IX]] stated in his encyclical Quanto conficiamur moeror (1868): "We all know that those who are afflicted with invincible ignorance with regard to our holy religion, if they carefully keep the precepts of the natural law that have been written by God in the hearts of all men, if they are prepared to obey God, and if they lead a virtuous and dutiful life, can attain eternal life by the power of divine light and grace." [[Pope John Paul II]] wrote in his encyclical Redemptoris Missio: "But it is clear that today, as in the past, many people do not have an opportunity to come to know or accept the Gospel revelation or to enter the Church.... For such people, salvation in Christ is accessible by virtue of a grace which, while having a mysterious relationship to the Church, does not make them formally a part of the Church but enlightens them in a way which is accommodated to their spiritual and material situation. This grace comes from Christ; it is the result of his sacrifice and is communicated by the Holy Spirit. It enables each person to attain salvation through his or her free cooperation."
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Spiritually, the pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the [[saints]] and by [[Christ]], so that he could grant [[indulgence]]s, to reduce one's time in [[purgatory]]. The concept of indulgences involving a monetary donation accompanied by [[contrition]], [[confession]], and [[prayer]] eventually gave way to the common understanding that indulgences depended on a simple monetary payment. Popes condemned such misunderstandings and abuses of the practice, but were too pressed for income to reign in their most effective fundraisers, thus providing the basis for [[Martin Luther]]'s famous ''[[95 Theses]]'' against indulgences, sparking the [[Protestant Reformation]].
  
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The pope has many powers which he exercises. He can appoint [[bishops]] to [[dioceses]], erect and suppress dioceses, appoint prefects to the Roman [[dicasteries]], approve or veto their acts, modify the [[Liturgy]] and issue liturgical laws, revise the [[Code of Canon Law]], canonize and beatify individuals, approve and suppress religious orders, impose canonical sanctions, act as a judge and hear cases, issue encyclicals, and issue infallible statements on matters pertaining to faith and morals which, according to the Church, must be believed by all Catholics. Most of these functions are performed by and through the various dicasteries of the [[Roman Curia]], with the pope simply approving their actions prior to becoming official. While approval is generally granted, it is at the pope's discretion.
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[[Image:Council Trent.jpg|frame|As part of the [[Counter Reformation]], [[Pope Paul III]] (1534-1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563).]]
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The Reformation criticized the papacy as corrupt and challenged to idea of papal authority both administratively and theologically. The movement succeeded in establishing several national churches in Europe independent of the papacy and led to [[Protestantism]] emerging as a major force in the western world.
  
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See [[Donation of Constantine]] for discussion of the broader authority the papacy has argued the Catholic Church possesses in affairs of [[state]].
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The papacy instituted the [[Counter Reformation]] (1560-1648) to address this challenge and institute internal reforms. Pope [[Paul III]] (1534-1549) initiated the [[Council of Trent]] (1545-1563), which succeeded in the papacy's retaining control over southern and much of central Europe. Gradually, however, the papacy was forced to give up secular power, focusing increasingly on spiritual issues. Meanwhile, missionary efforts succeeded in winning millions of new converts to the Catholic Church outside of Europe.
  
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==Political role==
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In 1870, the [[First Vatican Council]] proclaimed the [[dogma]] of [[papal infallibility]] for those rare occasions the pope speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'' (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of faith or [[morals]].
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Though the progressive [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[fourth century]] did not confer upon bishops civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the 5th century left the pope the senior Imperial civilian official in Rome, as bishops were increasingly directing civil affairs in other cities of the Western Empire. This status as a secular and civil leader was vividly displayed by [[Pope Leo I]]'s confrontation with [[Attila]] in 452 and was substantially increased in 754, when the [[Frankish people|Frankish]] ruler [[Pippin the Younger]] donated to the pope a strip of territory which formed the core of the so-called [[Papal States]] (properly the Patrimony of St. Peter). In 800, [[Pope Leo III]] crowned the Frankish ruler [[Charlemagne]] as Roman Emperor, a major step toward establishing what later became known as the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; from that date it became the pope's prerogative to crown the Emperor or any monarch with affiliations with the church until the crowning of Napoleon. As has been hitherto mentioned, the pope's sovereignty over the Papal States ended in 1870 with their annexation by [[Italy]].
 
  
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In addition to the pope's position as a territorial ruler and foremost [[prince bishop]] of Christianity (especially prominent with the [[Renaissance]] popes like [[Pope Alexander VI]], an ambitious if spectacularly corrupt politico, and [[Pope Julius II]], a formidable general and statesman) and as the spiritual head of the Holy Roman Empire (especially prominent during periods of contention with the Emperors, such as during the Pontificates of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and [[Pope Alexander III]]), the pope also possessed a degree of political and temporal authority in his capacity as Supreme Pontiff. Some of the most striking examples of Papal political authority are the Bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' in 1155 (authorising [[Henry II of England]] to invade [[Ireland]]), the Bull ''[[Inter Caeteras]]'' in 1493 (leading to the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] in 1494, which divided the world into areas of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule) the Bull ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'' in 1570 ([[excommunication|excommunicating]] [[Elizabeth I of England]] and purporting to release all her subjects from their allegiance to her), the Bull ''[[Inter Gravissimas]]'' in 1582 (establishing the [[Gregorian Calendar]]).
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Later in 1870, King [[Victor Emmanuel II]] [[Capture of Rome|seized Rome]] from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy. In 1929, the [[Lateran Treaty]] between Italy and Pope [[Pius XI]] established the Vatican state and guaranteed papal independence from secular rule.
  
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==Death, abdication, and election==
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==In Roman Catholic ecclesiology==
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===Death===
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[[Image:Keys to Peter.jpg|thumb|400px|right|''The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter'' painted by [[Pietro Perugino]] (1492)]]
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The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] — i.e., a ''[[sede vacante]]'' ("vacant seat") — were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]]''. During the "Reading Festival," the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]], composed of the pope's principal advisors and assistants, is collectively responsible for the government of the Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]; however, canon law specifically forbids the Cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]]. Any decision that needs the assent of the pope has to wait until a new pope has been elected and takes office.
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According to [[Roman Catholic]] tradition, the institution of the papacy was first mandated by [[Jesus]] through his words to [[Peter]], who would later become the first pope:
  
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It has long been claimed that a pope's death is officially determined by the Cardinal Chamberlain by gently tapping the late pope's head thrice with a silver hammer and calling his birth name three times, though this is disputed and has never been confirmed by the Vatican; there is general agreement that even if this procedure ever actually occurred, it was likely not employed upon the death of John Paul II. A [[medical doctor|doctor]] may or may not have already determined that the pope had passed away prior to this point. The Cardinal Chamberlain then retrieves the [[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]. Usually the ring is on the pope's right hand. But in the case of Paul VI, he had stopped wearing the ring during the last years of his reign. In other cases the ring might have been removed for medical reasons. The Chamberlain cuts the ring in two in the presence of the Cardinals. The deceased pope's seals are defaced, to keep them from ever being used again, and his personal apartment is sealed.
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<blockquote>"And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." (Matt.16:18-19)</blockquote>
  
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The body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral; the popes of the 20th century were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning ''(novem dialis)'' follows after the interment of the late pope.
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John 21:15-17 further shows Jesus as appointing Peter as the primary "shepherd" of Christ's flock. Peter is thus the rock upon which Christ's church was built, and his successors at Rome stand in his position as the "vicar of Christ," acting on Jesus' behalf. The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here is the basis for keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms.
  
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===Abdication===
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===Election===
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The Code of [[Canon law|Canon]] Law [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__P16.HTM 332 §2] states, ''If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone.''
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[[Image:Konklave Konzilsgebaude Konstanz.jpg|thumb|The conclave in [[Konstanz]] where [[Pope Martin V]] was elected]]
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[[Image:Habemus Papam 1415.jpg|thumb|The formal declaration of "[[Habemus Papam]]" after the election of Pope Martin V]]
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In the early church, the popes were chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. The elections were often contentious, resulting in schisms between factions, and sometimes involved imperial intervention. In 1059 the electors were restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]]. The [[Second Council of Lyons]] (1274) decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form.
  
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It was widely reported in June and July 2002 that Pope John Paul II firmly refuted the speculation of his resignation using Canon 332, in a letter to the Milan daily newspaper ''Corriere della Sera''.
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Under present canon law, the pope is elected by those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The election normally takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a sequestered meeting called a "[[Papal conclave|conclave]]." Each elector writes the name of his choice on his ballot and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected." Each ballot is read aloud by the presiding cardinal, and voting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority.
  
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Nevertheless, 332 §2 gave rise to speculation that either:
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Once the ballots are counted, they are burned in a special stove, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St. Peter's Square]]. If no pope is elected yet, a chemical compound is added to the fire to produce black smoke. When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope.
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* Pope John Paul II would have resigned as his health failed, or
 
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* a properly manifested legal instrument had already been drawn up that put into effect his resignation in the event of his incapacity to perform his duties.
 
  
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Pope John Paul II did not resign. He  died on 2 April 2005 after suffering from many diseases and was buried on 8 April 2005. [http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&ned=us&q=Pope+Dead&btnG=Search+News Articles on the death of John Paul II]
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The [[dean]] of the College of Cardinals then asks the one who was elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word ''Accepto'', his reign as pope begins at that instant. The dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself. The pope is then led to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" and receives the obeisance of his former colleagues.
  
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After his death it was reported that in his [[last will and testament]] he had considered abdicating in 2000 as he neared his 80th birthday. However the language of that passage of the will is not clear and others have interpreted it differently.
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The senior cardinal then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!''—"I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!" Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the [[papal coronation]], which has since been suspended.
  
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===[[Papal election|Election]]===
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For centuries, the papacy was dominated by [[Italians]]. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal [[Karol Wojtyla]] as Pope [[John Paul II]] in 1978, the last non-Italian was [[Pope Adrian VI]] of the [[Netherlands]], elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born [[Benedict XVI]], leading some to believe the age of Italian domination of the papacy to be over.
  
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The pope was originally chosen by those senior [[clergy]]men resident in and near Rome. In 1059, the electorate was restricted to the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] of the Holy Roman Church, and the individual votes of all Cardinal Electors were made equal in 1179. The pope is usually a member of the Sacred College of Cardinals, but theoretically any male Catholic (including a layman) may be elected; [[Pope Urban VI]], elected 1378, was the last pope who was not already a cardinal at the time of his election. Canon law requires that if a layman or non-bishop is elected, he receives episcopal consecration from the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] before assuming the Pontificate. Under present canon law, the pope is elected by the cardinal electors, comprising those cardinals who are under the age of 80.  
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===Abdication and death===
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[[Image:Gregory XII.jpg|thumb|125px|Gregory XII was the last pope to abdicate.]]
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The pope's term of office is for life. The [[Code of Canon Law]] states, "If it happens that the [[Papal abdication|Roman Pontiff resigns]] his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." The canonical right to abdicate has been exercised by [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 and [[Pope Gregory XII]] in 1409, who was the last pope to do so. The first pope to abdicate was [[Pontian]] in 235, although he did not do so freely, but under the duress of a sentence of exile.
  
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The [[Second Council of Lyons]] was convened on May 7, 1274, to regulate the election of the pope. This Council decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death, and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected; this was prompted by the three-year ''Sede Vacante'' following the death of [[Pope Clement IV]] in 1268. By the mid-[[Sixteenth century]], the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form, allowing for alteration in the time between the death of the pope and the meeting of the cardinal electors.
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The current regulations regarding a papal [[interregnum]] were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document ''[[Universi Dominici Gregis]].'' During the vacancy caused by a pope's death the [[College of Cardinals]] is collectively responsible for the government of the Catholic Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Chamberlain]]. Canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the [[Holy See]].
  
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Traditionally the vote was conducted by acclamation, by selection (by committee), or by plenary vote. Acclamation was the simplest procedure, consisting entirely of a voice vote, and was last used in 1621. [[Pope John Paul II]] abolished vote by acclamation and by selection by committee, and henceforth all popes will be elected by full vote of the [[College of Cardinals|Sacred College of Cardinals]] by [[ballot]].  
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A dead pope's body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the [[crypt]] of a leading church or cathedral. The popes of the twentieth century were all interred in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]. A nine-day period of mourning ''(novem dialis)'' follows after the interment of the late pope. Vatican tradition holds that no [[autopsy]] is to be performed on the body of a dead pope.
  
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The election of the pope almost always takes place in the [[Sistine Chapel]], in a meeting called a "[[papal election|conclave]]" (so called because the cardinal electors are theoretically locked in, ''cum clavi'', until they elect a new pope). Three cardinals are chosen by lot to collect the votes of absent cardinal electors (by reason of illness), three are chosen by lot to count the votes, and three are chosen by lot to review the count of the votes. The ballots are distributed and each cardinal elector writes the name of his choice on it and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected" before folding and depositing his vote on a plate atop a large chalice placed on the altar. The plate is then used to drop the ballot into the chalice, making it difficult for any elector to insert multiple ballots. Before being read, the number of ballots are counted while still folded; if the total number of ballots does not match the number of electors, the ballots are burned unopened and a new vote is held. Assuming the number of ballots matches the number of electors, each ballot is then read aloud by the presiding Cardinal, who pierces the ballot with a needle and thread, stringing all the ballots together and tying the ends of the thread to ensure accuracy and honesty. Balloting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority (since the promulgation of ''Universi Dominici Gregis'' the rules allow for a simple majority after a deadlock of twelve days).
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===Titles===
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[[Image:John23leo.jpg|left|thumb|216px|[[Pope John XXIII]] wearing the [[Papal Tiara]] following his [[coronation]], a tradition which has now been discontinued.]]
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[[Image:BentoXVI-30-10052007.jpg|150px|thumb|Pope [[Benedict XVI]]]]
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The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:
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:*[[Bishop of Rome]]
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:*[[Vicar of Christ]]
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:*Successor of the [[Prince of the Apostles]]
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:*[[Pontifex Maximus|Supreme Pontiff]] of the [[Universal church|Universal Church]]
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:*[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of [[Italy]]
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:*[[Metropolitan bishop|Archbishop and Metropolitan]] of the Roman [[Ecclesiastical province|Province]]
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:*Sovereign of the State of the [[Vatican City]]
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:*[[Servus Servorum Dei|Servant of the Servants of God]]
  
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One of the most famous aspects of the papal election process is the means by which the results of a ballot are announced to the world. Once the ballots are counted and bound together, they are burned in a special oven erected in the Sistine Chapel, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from [[St Peter's Square]]. The ballots from an unsuccessful vote are burned along with a chemical compound in order to produce black smoke, or ''fumata nera''. (Traditionally wet straw was used to help create the black smoke, but a number of "false alarms" in past conclaves have brought about this concession to modern chemistry.) When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke ''(fumata bianca)'' through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope. At the end of the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]], church bells were also rung to signal that a new pope had been chosen.
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The ancient title ''[[Pontifex Maximus]],'' which was formerly associated with the pagan [[Roman emperor]]s, was used until [[Gratian]] (359-383), who formally renounced the title. The title "Servant of the Servants of God," although used by other church leaders including [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Saint Benedict]], was first used by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope St. Gregory the Great]] in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "[[Ecumenical Patriarch]]." It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The pope is addressed as "Your Holiness" or "Holy Father."
  
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The Dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the successfully elected Cardinal two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word "Accepto," his reign as pope begins at that instant, <I>not</I> at the coronation ceremony several days afterward. The Dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the [[regnal name]] he has chosen for himself.
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Since, in the Eastern churches, the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the bishop of Rome, these churches often use the expression "pope of Rome" to refer to Roman pontiff.
  
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The new pope is led through the "Door of Tears" to a dressing room in which three sets of white Papal vestments ("immantatio") await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and re-emerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "[[Ring of the Fisherman|Fisherman's Ring]]" by the Cardinal Camerlengo, whom he either reconfirms or reappoints. The pope then assumes a place of honor as the rest of the Cardinals wait in turn to offer their first "obedience" ("adoratio"), and to receive his blessing.
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===Regalia and insignia===
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[[Image:Holysee-arms.svg|thumb|[[Coat of arms]] of the Holy See.]]
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[[Image:433px-Pope Pius VII.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Pius VII]], seated, wearing the [[pallium]]]]
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*"[[Papal Tiara|Triregnum]]," also called the papal [[tiara]] or triple crown, represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor," "supreme teacher," and "supreme priest." Recent popes have not worn the ''triregnum'', although it remains the official symbol of the papacy. In liturgical ceremonies, today's popes wear an episcopal [[mitre]] (an erect cloth hat).
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*[[Pastoral Staff]] topped by a [[crucifix]], a custom established before the thirteenth century.
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*The ''[[pallium]]'', a circular band or stole worn around the neck, breast and shoulders, with two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Until recently, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the [[primate (religion)|primates]], but in 2005 Pope [[Benedict XVI]] began to use a larger papal pallium adorned with red crosses instead of black.
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*"Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven," the image of two keys, one gold and one silver, symbolizing the power to "bind and loose" on earth and in heaven.
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*[[Ring of the Fisherman]], a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.
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*''[[Umbraculum]]'', a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
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*''[[Sedia gestatoria]]'' (now discontinued), a mobile throne carried by 12 [[footmen]]  in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing fans made of white ostrich feathers, and sometimes a large [[canopy]] carried by eight attendants. The use of the ''flabella'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul I]], and the use of the ''sedia gestatoria'' was discontinued by [[Pope John Paul II]], being replaced by the so-called [[Popemobile]].
  
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The senior [[Cardinal Deacon]] then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square the following [[Habemus Papam|proclamation]]: ''Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!'' ("I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!"). He then announces the new pope's Christian name along with the new name he has adopted as his regnal name.
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In [[heraldry]], each pope has his own coat of arms, which includes the aforementioned two keys behind the [[Escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] (shield), and above them a silver ''triregnum'' with three gold crowns.
  
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Until 1978, the pope's election was followed in a few days by a procession in great pomp and circumstance from the Sistine Chapel to [[St. Peter's Basilica]], with the newly-elected pope borne in the ''sedia gestatoria''. There the pope was crowned with the ''[[Papal Tiara|triregnum]]'' and he gave his first blessing as pope, the famous ''[[Urbi et Orbi]]'' ("to the City [Rome] and to the World"). Another famed part of the coronation was the lighting of a torch which would flare brightly and promptly extinguish, with the admonition ''Sic transit gloria mundi'' ("Thus fades worldly glory"). Traditionally, the new pope takes the [[Papal oath]] (the so-called "Oath against modernism") at his coronation, but Popes [[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]], [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], and [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]] have all refused to do so.  
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The [[flag]] most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white [[flag of Vatican City]], with the arms of the Holy See on the right-hand side. Although Pope [[Benedict XVI]] replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, the triregnum has been retained on the flag.
  
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The [[Latin]] term ''sede vacante'' ("vacant seat") refers to a papal interregnum, the period between the death of the pope and the election of his successor. From this term is derived the name [[sedevacantism|Sedevacantist]], which designates a category of dissident, schismatic Catholics who maintain that there is no canonically and legitimately elected pope, and that there is therefore a ''Sede Vacante''; one of the most common reasons for holding this belief is the idea that the reforms of the [[Second Vatican Council]] and especially the replacement of the [[Tridentine Mass]] with the ''[[Novus Ordo Missae]]'' are heretical, and that, per the dogma of Papal infallibility (see above), it is impossible for a valid pope to have done these things.
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===Offices and residences===
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The pope's [[cathedra|official seat]] or [[cathedral]] is the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran]], and his official residence is the [[Palace of the Vatican]]. He also possesses a summer residence at [[Castel Gandolfo]]. Until the time of the [[Avignon Papacy]], the residence of the pope was the [[Lateran Palace]], donated by the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]]. The pope's specific ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the [[Holy See]], is distinct from his secular jurisdiction of Vatican City.
  
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==Objections to the Papacy==
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===Infallible authority===
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The pope's position as Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church is [[dogma]]tic and therefore not open to debate or dispute within the Catholic Church; the First Vatican Council [[anathema]]tised all who dispute the pope's primacy of honour and of jurisdiction (it is lawful to discuss the precise nature of that primacy, provided that such discussion does not violate the terms of the Council's Dogmatic Constitution). However, the pope's authority is not undisputed outside the Catholic Church; these objections differ from denomination to denomination, but can roughly be outlined as (1.) objections to the extent of the primacy of the pope; and (2.) objections to the institution of the Papacy itself.
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The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was [[dogma]]tically [[dogmatic definition|defined]] by the [[First Vatican Council]] on July 18, 1870. In its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ,'' the council established that:
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[[Image:J23paceminterris.jpg|frame|Blessed John XXIII signed his [[encyclical]] ''Pacem in Terris''.]]
 
  
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Some non-Catholic Christian communities, such as the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and the [[Anglican Communion]], accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], and therefore accept (to varying extents) the papal claims to primacy of honour. However, these churches generally deny that the pope is the successor to St. Peter in any unique sense not true of any other bishop, or that St. Peter was ever bishop of Rome at all. The primacy is therefore regarded as a consequence of the pope's position as bishop of the original capital city of the [[Roman Empire]], a definition explicitly spelled out in the 28th [[canon law|canon]] of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. In any event, these churches see no foundation at all to papal claims of universal jurisdiction. Because none of them recognise the First Vatican Council as ecumenical, they regard its definitions concerning jurisdiction and infallibility (and [[anathema]]tisation of those who do not accept them) as invalid.
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*Peter was established by Christ as the chief of the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church.
  
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Other non-Catholic Christian denominations do not accept the doctrine of [[Apostolic Succession]], or do not understand it in hierarchical terms, and therefore do not accept the claim that the pope is heir either to Petrine primacy of honour or to Petrine primacy of jurisdiction or they reject both claims of honor or jurisdiction as unscriptural. The Papacy's complex relationship with the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]s, and other secular states, and the Papacy's territorial claims in Italy, are another focal point of these objections; as is the [[monarch]]ical character of the office of pope. In [[Western Christianity]], these objections &mdash; and the vehement rhetoric they have at times been cast in &mdash; both contributed to, and are products of, the [[Protestant Reformation]]. These denominations vary from simply not accepting the pope's authority as legitimate and valid, to believing that the pope is the [[Antichrist]] or one of the beasts spoken of in the [[Book of Revelation]]. These denominations tend to be more heterogeneous amongst themselves than the aforementioned hierarchical churches, and their views regarding the Papacy and its institutional legitimacy (or lack thereof) vary considerably.
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*It is [[heresy]] to deny that the Roman Pontiff is the successor of Peter holding the same primacy as him.
  
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Some objectors to the papacy use empirical arguments, pointing to the corrupt characters of some of the holders of that office. For instance, some argue that claimed successors to  [[St. Peter]], like [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] and [[Callixtus III]] from the [[Borgia]] family, were so corrupt as to be unfit to wield power to bind and loose on Earth or in Heaven. An omniscient and omnibenevolent God, some argue, would not have given those people the powers claimed for them by the [[Catholic Church]]. Defenders of the papacy argue that the Bible shows God as willingly giving privileges even to corrupt men (citing examples like some of the kings of Israel, the apostle [[Judas Iscariot]], and even St. Peter after he denied Jesus). They also argue that not even the worst of the corrupt popes used the office to try to rip the doctrine of the Church from its apostolic roots, and that this is evidence that the office is divinely protected. <!-- This is a circular argument of course, since most who object to the Papacy **don't** believe the Roman church has adhered to its Apostolic roots. Proof that it has refers only to the Roman Catholic magisterium, which is also where Papal claims are advanced. I wonder if there's an external reference pointing this out so that it can be included in the article. It would clearly be inappropriate for me to do so on my own account. —>
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*It is also heresy to deny that pope's authority pertains not only to matters of faith and morals, but also to the discipline and government of the Church throughout the whole world.
  
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Some objectors to the papacy occasionally refer to the Catholic Church and its members by the [[pejorative]] term ''[[papist]]'' to point up what they believe to be an inappropriate focus of attention on the office and an improper attribution of certain divine favors ''ex officio''.
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*The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ''[[ex cathedra]]'', operates with infallibility, and his decisions are unalterable.
  
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==Other Popes==
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The [[Second Vatican Council]], while not repeating the anathemas directed by its predecessor against "heretics" who deny papal infallibility, nevertheless reaffirmed the doctrine. In 1964, this council declared:
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An '''[[antipope]]''' is a person who claims the Pontificate without being canonically and properly elected to it. The existence of an antipope is usually due either to doctrinal controversy within the Church, or to confusion as to who is the legitimate pope at the time (see [[Western Schism|Papal Schism]]).
 
  
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The [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] is called the [[Black Pope]] due to the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits']] practice of wearing black cassocks (compared to the pope's always wearing white robes), and to the order's specific allegiance to the Roman pontiff.  
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<blockquote>"…In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of [[Christ]] and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ''ex cathedra''… His definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the [[Holy Spirit]], promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment.</blockquote>
  
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The heads of the [[Coptic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] are also called "popes" for historical reasons, the former being called "'''Coptic Pope'''" or "'''Pope of Alexandria'''" and the latter called "'''Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa'''"; the parallel construction "'''Pope of Rome'''" is frequently used in the Eastern churches.  
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==The Papacy today==
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[[Image:Bush greets Pope Benedict XVI 2008.jpg|thumb|300px|Pope [[Benedict XVI]] greets former US President Bush.]]
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While the papacy has lost considerable political power in recent centuries, its prestige as a moral and spiritual authority has grown considerable. The pope remains the sole ruler of the [[Catholic Church]], which is not only the largest Christian denomination, but the largest organized body of any world [[religion]], with over one billion members, accounting for approximately one in six of the world's population. No longer a primarily [[Europe]]an faith, the majority the pope's flock hail from [[Latin America]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]]. The papacy also controls or supervises a vast network of Catholic financial institutions, [[religious order]]s, [[real estate]] holdings, [[school]]s, [[monastery|monasteries]] and [[convent]]s, charitable organizations, [[museum]]s, [[hospital]]s, retirement homes, youth organizations, and social groups.  
  
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In [[Islam]], the former office of [[Caliph]] held similar meaning, as the leader of all Muslims, subordinate only to the prophet [[Muhammad]].
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The pope commands huge audiences of up to and over a million people when he travels, notably including many young people. His moral teachings remain highly influential, probably more so than any single individual in the world today. Politically, the papacy of [[John Paul II]] is considered to have been a major factor in the fall of the [[Soviet Union]].
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The pope is a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. He frequently meets with the presidents of the greatest nations of the world. It is no exaggeration to say that the papacy remains one of the world's most important world institutions today.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
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*[[List of popes|Chronological list of popes]]
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*[[Roman Catholicism]]
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*[[Pope Benedict XVI]]
 
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*[[List of 10 longest-reigning Popes]]
 
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*[[List of 10 shortest-reigning Popes]]
 
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*[[List of ages of popes]]
 
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*[[Vestment]]
 
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*[[Immaculate Conception]]
 
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*[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
 
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*[[Ecumenical Council]]
 
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*[[College of Bishops]]
 
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*[[Pontifical University]]
 
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*[[Caesaropapism]]
 
 
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
 
*[[Investiture Controversy]]
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*[[African popes]]
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*[[List of French popes]]
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==References==
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*[[Myths and legends surrounding the Papacy]]
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* Chapman, John. ''Studies on the Early Papacy.'' Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1971. ISBN 9780804611398
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*[[Pope Joan]]
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* Duffy, Eamon. ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0300091656
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*[[Prophecy of the popes]]
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* Fortescue, Adrian, and Scott M. P. Reid. ''The Early Papacy: To the Synod of Chalcedon in 451.'' Southampton: Saint Austin Press, 1997. ISBN 9781901157604
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*[[Regnal name]]
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* Kelly, John N. D., and Michael J. Walsh. ''The Oxford Dictionary of Popes.'' Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. ISBN 9780198614333
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*[[Papal Slippers]]
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* Loomis, Louise Ropes. ''The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis).'' Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1889758868
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*[[Papal Coronation]]
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* Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. ''Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present.'' New York, NY: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500017980.
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*[[Papal Inauguration]]
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* Walsh, Michael J. ''An Illustrated History of the Popes: Saint Peter to John Paul II.'' Bonanza Books, 1980. ISBN 9780312408176
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*[[List of sexually active popes]]
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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*[http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See]
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All links retrieved November 18, 2022.
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*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM Code of Canon Law] &ndash; Vatican site
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*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/index.htm Vatican website: The Holy See - The Holy Father]
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*[http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/20ecume3.htm The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ], Fourth Session of the First Vatican Council
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*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]
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*[http://web.globalserve.net/~bumblebee/ecclesia/patriarchs.htm Eastern Church Defends Petrine Primacy and the Papacy]
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*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_Magisterium_Paparum.html Database of more than 23,000 documents of the popes in Latin and modern languages]
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*[http://thepopeblog.blogspot.com/ The Pope Blog] &ndash; Unofficial weblog about the pope
 
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*[http://popetribute.com/ Pope Tribute] &ndash; A tribute to the pope, present and past
 
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*[http://www.papst-benedikt.be Pope Benedict XVI and other Popes] (germ.)
 
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*[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/papalinfo.htm Papal information] News about ongoing Papal Events
 
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*[http://www.punditguy.com/2005/04/german_pope.html Pope Election News Roundup]
 
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*[http://www.angelfire.com/tv2/benedictxvi/ Cardinal Jorge Arturo Medina Estevez announcing Habemus Papam (We have a Pope!)] ([[Windows Media Player]] Video).
 
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*[http://www.americancatholic.org/news/BenedictXVI/ American Catholic - Pope Benedict XVI Starts His Papacy]
 
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*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/pope/story/0,12272,1452750,00.html ''Swiss Watchers'' - article about the Papal Guards in THE GUARDIAN]
 
  
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===Objections===
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{{Popes}}
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*[http://www.biblicalperspectives.com/endtimeissues Endtime Issues Newsletters by Dr. Samuele Bacchiocchi] The Papacy: Retrospect and Prospect: Part I Revelation 17 and the Papacy, The Future of the Papacy, The Legacy of Pope John Paul II
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[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
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*[http://www.biblelight.net/satan.htm The Last Pope] and Satan's Impersonation of Christ Predicted? Revelation 17 Expounded
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[[Category:religion]]
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*[http://www.biblelight.net/pontifex.htm The High Priest in Hebrews]
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[[Category:Christianity]]
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[[Category:history]]
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[[Category:Popes]]
  
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[[Category:The Papacy|*]]
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{{credit|261602021}}
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[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
 
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Latest revision as of 06:38, 18 November 2022

Saint Peter's Square in Vatican City, the seat of the papacy
Seal of the papacy

The papacy is the office of the pope (from Latin: "papa" or "father"), the bishop of Rome, who is the leader of the Roman Catholic Church and head of state of Vatican City. The pope's ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" or "Apostolic See."

The importance of the Roman bishop is largely derived from his role as the traditional successor to Saint Peter, to whom Jesus gave the keys of heaven and the powers of "binding and loosing," naming him as the "rock" upon which the church would be built.

After Christianity became the favored religion of the Roman emperors in the fourth century, the papacy was involved in a period of close interaction with the rulers of the West, while often struggling for supremacy with the eastern emperors and the patriarch of Constantinople. In medieval times, popes played powerful political roles in Western Europe, crowning emperors, ruling the papal states, and regulating disputes among secular rulers. After the Protestant Reformation and the rise of powerful nation-states successfully challenged the authority of the papacy in the West, the popes gradually gave up secular power. In the modern period the papacy has come to focus almost exclusively on spiritual matters.

Over the centuries, the papacy's claim of spiritual authority has been ever more clearly expressed, culminating in the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra when issuing a statement of faith or morals.

Today, the pope is the leader of the largest organized body of religious believers of the world, and arguably the single most powerful voice in moral and spiritual affairs. He has become a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. The papacy remains one of the most influential institutions of any kind in today's world.

History

Earliest church

Saint Peter, by Rubens

In Catholic tradition, Peter is recognized as the first pope, who was martyred in Rome. Yet the early bishops of Rome were not yet "popes" as the word is understood today. Rather, the Roman church seems to have had a collective leadership involving a council of elders or bishops until the mid-second century.

In the earliest Christianity, however, it was Jerusalem, not Rome, that served as the Christian movement's central city, from which missionaries were dispatched and to which delegates came to resolve disputes. James the Just, known as "the brother of the Lord," served as head of the Jerusalem church, which is still honored as the "mother church" in Orthodox tradition. Antioch and Alexandria also had important Christian congregations. Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire, was one of the first Gentile cities to develop a substantial church early in the apostolic period, and it was at Rome that the Apostle Paul was martyred, soon followed by Peter, according to tradition.

Until around 130 C.E., there are few if any references to Rome's primacy among the churches, and even the idea of Peter's acting as "bishop of Rome" is heavily disputed. However, after the Jerusalem church was disbanded in the wake of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E., Rome gradually came to the fore. In the last years of the first century, Clement of Rome, probably one of a collective group of Roman church leaders but traditionally recognized as the fourth pope, wrote on behalf of Rome's congregation to the church in Corinth to intervene in an internal dispute there.

The papacy emerges

In the second century, Roman bishops received visits and letters from other churches, indicating that Rome held a position of increasing centrality and respect. By the second half of the century, it is probable that the tradition of collective leadership at Rome had given way to a single ruling bishop, as was the case in several other major cities. Because of the relative wealth of the Roman church, the early popes were in a position to assist other churches financially and help spread Christianity abroad. They were also instrumental in resolving doctrinal disputes, both because of Rome's position as capital of the empire and on the basis of Rome's connection with Saint Peter. In the late second century, Bishop Irenaeus of Lyons wrote: "Because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree [with Rome]... and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition." (Against Heresies 3:3:2) However, in 195, when Pope Victor I excommunicated several Eastern churches for observing Easter on the Jewish Passover, Irenaeus himself disagreed with this action, which was later rescinded.

In the third century, several writers appealed to the authority of the Rome's tradition to justify their theological views and ecclesiastical practices. At the same time, the pope's office was sometimes the victim of factional strife, with popes and antipopes vying for recognition. The first antipope, Hippolytus (d. 250), was later recognized as a saint. Pope Marcellinus (d. 304) was the first bishop of Rome whom sources show actually used the title of "pope."

Pope Leo I meets with Attila the Hun.

When Emperor Constantine I legalized Christianity and showed special favor to the Christian churches, the office of the papacy became a major political and financial prize. Though the progressive Christianization of the Roman Empire in the fourth century did not confer upon bishops any direct civil authority within the state, the gradual withdrawal of imperial authority during the fifth century left the pope in the de facto position of the senior imperial civilian official in Rome. During the Arian controversy of the fourth century and other theological controversies, Rome's relatively steady position further developed its reputation as a bastion of orthodoxy.

Meanwhile, after Constantine established his hew capital at Byzantium with the new name of Constantinople, the churches of the Greek East and a Latin West became increasingly divided. The popes, with some notable exceptions, achieved a growing independence from the emperor and became a major force in politics in the West. Meanwhile, the See of Constantinople emerged as the center of ecclesiastical authority in the East, often at odds with Rome over questions of jurisdiction, honor, authority, and even theology. During this period there were five metropolitan archbishops who held the title of "patriarch": Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. While the papacy was universally afforded the primacy of honor, the other patriarchal sees did not recognize the right of the pope to determine policy, which was often decided at church councils, the most widely attended being recognized as "ecumenical," or universal, and thus more binding.

At the ecumenical Council of Chalcedon in 451, Pope Leo I (through his emissaries) stated that he was "speaking with the voice of Peter." At this same council, the patriarch of Constantinople was given a primacy of honor equal to that of the bishop of Rome, and Constantinople was declared the "New Rome." In practice, however, Rome and Constantinople continued to struggle for supremacy, and several schisms followed. Nor did the other major centers of Christianity always follow the pope's lead, either in administrative or theological matters.

In terms of the title of pope, the bishops of several cities in the West had been known by this title, which simply means "father." In the East, however, this title was generally reserved for the bishop of Alexandria. From the early sixth century the term began to be confined in the West to the bishop of Rome, a practice that was firmly in place by the eleventh century. However, the Alexandrian churches, both Coptic and Orthodox, still refer to their bishops as popes.

Medieval developments

Gregory the Great (c. 540-604)

After the fall of Rome to the "barbarians," the Roman church served as a source of knowledge, authority, and continuity in the West. Pope Gregory the Great (c. 540-604) administered the church with a stern, reforming spirit. However, his successors were sometimes dominated by the Eastern emperor. Pope Stephen II, seeking protection from the Lombards, appealed to the Franks to protect papal territory. In 754, Pepin the Short subdued the Lombards, giving the pope the conquered lands, which formed the core of the Papal States. In 800 C.E., Leo III crowned Charlemagne as holy Roman emperor, establishing the precedent in the West that no man would be emperor without anointment by a pope. The East, however, continued its imperial Christian tradition without papal authority, upon which it had never depended.

Around 850, a collection of church legislation was promulgated, known today as the False Decretals. Containing both forgeries and genuine documents, its principal aim was to free the church and its bishops from interference by the imperial state. The author, a French cleric calling himself Isidore Mercator, presented various documents purportedly by early popes, demonstrating that supremacy of the papacy dated back to the church's oldest traditions. The decretals also included the forged Donation of Constantine, in which Constantine supposedly granted Pope Sylvester I secular authority over all Western Europe. The "Pseudo-Isidorian" decretals provided support for papal authority for centuries.

Nevertheless, during the last two centuries of the first millennium, the popes came under the control of vying political factions, and the papacy's prestige was badly tarnished. Conflict between the emperor and the papacy continued, and eventually dukes, in league with the emperor, were buying bishops and popes almost openly. In 1049, Leo IX became pope and attempted serious reforms. He traveled to the major cities of Europe to deal with the church's moral problems firsthand, notably the sale of church offices or services and clerical marriage and concubinage.

Leo IX was pope during the Great Schism of 1054

The churches of the East and West split definitively in 1054. This "Great Schism" was caused more by political events than by diversities of creed, although the famous filioque clause inserted into the Nicene Creed by the popes played no small role in it. Shortly afterward, the papacy launched the Crusades, the ebbs and flows of which contributed to both the church's glory and its great shame. Increasing corruption of the clergy—including some of the popes themselves, as well as their administrative bureaucracy—also became a major challenge for the papacy. Several popes attempted to reform the situation, while others pursued wealth and power in a spirit much at odds with the poverty and humility of their apostolic forbears.

From 1309 to 1377, the pope resided not in Rome but in Avignon. The Avignon papacy was notorious for greed and corruption. During this period, the pope was effectively an ally of France, alienating France's enemies, such as England. Various antipopes also challenged papal authority, especially during the Western Schism (1378 - 1417). During this schism, one pope reigned in Avignon while another (or even two) popes reigned in Rome. While the papacy soon reunited, it continued to develop a reputation for wealth and corruption, even while supporting some of the great artistic and architectural projects of the Renaissance.

During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the conciliar movement attempted to reform corruption within the papacy by affirming the ancient tradition of church councils as the supreme ecclesiastical authority. However, the councils condemned more fundamental reforms promoted by such leaders as John Wycliffe (1330-1384) and Jan Hus (1373-1415), who was burned at the stake at the Council of Constance. In the end, the papacy was able to reassert its authority but did not succeed in reforming the culture of the Church.

Reformation to the present

Spiritually, the pope was understood to have the power to draw on the "treasury" of merit built up by the saints and by Christ, so that he could grant indulgences, to reduce one's time in purgatory. The concept of indulgences involving a monetary donation accompanied by contrition, confession, and prayer eventually gave way to the common understanding that indulgences depended on a simple monetary payment. Popes condemned such misunderstandings and abuses of the practice, but were too pressed for income to reign in their most effective fundraisers, thus providing the basis for Martin Luther's famous 95 Theses against indulgences, sparking the Protestant Reformation.

As part of the Counter Reformation, Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563).

The Reformation criticized the papacy as corrupt and challenged to idea of papal authority both administratively and theologically. The movement succeeded in establishing several national churches in Europe independent of the papacy and led to Protestantism emerging as a major force in the western world.

The papacy instituted the Counter Reformation (1560-1648) to address this challenge and institute internal reforms. Pope Paul III (1534-1549) initiated the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which succeeded in the papacy's retaining control over southern and much of central Europe. Gradually, however, the papacy was forced to give up secular power, focusing increasingly on spiritual issues. Meanwhile, missionary efforts succeeded in winning millions of new converts to the Catholic Church outside of Europe.

In 1870, the First Vatican Council proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility for those rare occasions the pope speaks ex cathedra (literally "from the chair (of Peter)") when issuing a solemn definition of faith or morals.

Later in 1870, King Victor Emmanuel II seized Rome from the pope's control and substantially completed the unification of Italy. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty between Italy and Pope Pius XI established the Vatican state and guaranteed papal independence from secular rule.

In Roman Catholic ecclesiology

The Giving of the Keys to Saint Peter painted by Pietro Perugino (1492)

According to Roman Catholic tradition, the institution of the papacy was first mandated by Jesus through his words to Peter, who would later become the first pope:

"And I also say to you that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of the netherworld will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." (Matt.16:18-19)

John 21:15-17 further shows Jesus as appointing Peter as the primary "shepherd" of Christ's flock. Peter is thus the rock upon which Christ's church was built, and his successors at Rome stand in his position as the "vicar of Christ," acting on Jesus' behalf. The reference to the "keys of the kingdom of heaven" here is the basis for keys often found in Catholic papal symbolism, such as in the Vatican Coat of Arms.

Election

The conclave in Konstanz where Pope Martin V was elected
The formal declaration of "Habemus Papam" after the election of Pope Martin V

In the early church, the popes were chosen by those senior clergymen resident in and near Rome. The elections were often contentious, resulting in schisms between factions, and sometimes involved imperial intervention. In 1059 the electors were restricted to the cardinals. The Second Council of Lyons (1274) decreed that the cardinal electors must meet within ten days of the pope's death and that they must remain in seclusion until a pope has been elected. By the mid-sixteenth century, the electoral process had more or less evolved into its present form.

Under present canon law, the pope is elected by those cardinals who are under the age of 80. The election normally takes place in the Sistine Chapel, in a sequestered meeting called a "conclave." Each elector writes the name of his choice on his ballot and pledges aloud that he is voting for "one whom under God I think ought to be elected." Each ballot is read aloud by the presiding cardinal, and voting continues until a pope is elected by a two-thirds majority.

Once the ballots are counted, they are burned in a special stove, with the smoke escaping through a small chimney visible from St. Peter's Square. If no pope is elected yet, a chemical compound is added to the fire to produce black smoke. When a vote is successful, the ballots are burned alone, sending white smoke through the chimney and announcing to the world the election of a new pope.

The dean of the College of Cardinals then asks the one who was elected two solemn questions. First he asks, "Do you freely accept your election?" If he replies with the word Accepto, his reign as pope begins at that instant. The dean then asks, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope then announces the regnal name he has chosen for himself. The pope is then led to a dressing room in which three sets of white papal vestments await: small, medium, and large. Donning the appropriate vestments and reemerging into the Sistine Chapel, the new pope is given the "Fisherman's Ring" and receives the obeisance of his former colleagues.

The senior cardinal then announces from a balcony over St. Peter's Square: Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum! Habemus Papam!—"I announce to you a great joy! We have a pope!" Until 1978 the pope's election was followed in a few days by the papal coronation, which has since been suspended.

For centuries, the papacy was dominated by Italians. Prior to the election of the Polish cardinal Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in 1978, the last non-Italian was Pope Adrian VI of the Netherlands, elected in 1522. John Paul II was followed by the German-born Benedict XVI, leading some to believe the age of Italian domination of the papacy to be over.

Abdication and death

Gregory XII was the last pope to abdicate.

The pope's term of office is for life. The Code of Canon Law states, "If it happens that the Roman Pontiff resigns his office, it is required for validity that the resignation is made freely and properly manifested but not that it is accepted by anyone." The canonical right to abdicate has been exercised by Pope Celestine V in 1294 and Pope Gregory XII in 1409, who was the last pope to do so. The first pope to abdicate was Pontian in 235, although he did not do so freely, but under the duress of a sentence of exile.

The current regulations regarding a papal interregnum were promulgated by John Paul II in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis. During the vacancy caused by a pope's death the College of Cardinals is collectively responsible for the government of the Catholic Church and of the Vatican itself, under the direction of the Cardinal Chamberlain. Canon law specifically forbids the cardinals from introducing any innovation in the government of the Church during the vacancy of the Holy See.

A dead pope's body then lies in state for a number of days before being interred in the crypt of a leading church or cathedral. The popes of the twentieth century were all interred in St. Peter's Basilica. A nine-day period of mourning (novem dialis) follows after the interment of the late pope. Vatican tradition holds that no autopsy is to be performed on the body of a dead pope.

Titles

Pope Benedict XVI

The titles of the Pope, in the order they are used in the Annuario Pontificio:

  • Bishop of Rome
  • Vicar of Christ
  • Successor of the Prince of the Apostles
  • Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church
  • Primate of Italy
  • Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province
  • Sovereign of the State of the Vatican City
  • Servant of the Servants of God

The ancient title Pontifex Maximus, which was formerly associated with the pagan Roman emperors, was used until Gratian (359-383), who formally renounced the title. The title "Servant of the Servants of God," although used by other church leaders including Augustine of Hippo and Saint Benedict, was first used by Pope St. Gregory the Great in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople after the latter assumed the title "Ecumenical Patriarch." It was not reserved for the pope until the thirteenth century. The pope is addressed as "Your Holiness" or "Holy Father."

Since, in the Eastern churches, the title "pope" does not unambiguously refer to the bishop of Rome, these churches often use the expression "pope of Rome" to refer to Roman pontiff.

Regalia and insignia

Coat of arms of the Holy See.
Pope Pius VII, seated, wearing the pallium
  • "Triregnum," also called the papal tiara or triple crown, represents the pope's three functions as "supreme pastor," "supreme teacher," and "supreme priest." Recent popes have not worn the triregnum, although it remains the official symbol of the papacy. In liturgical ceremonies, today's popes wear an episcopal mitre (an erect cloth hat).
  • Pastoral Staff topped by a crucifix, a custom established before the thirteenth century.
  • The pallium, a circular band or stole worn around the neck, breast and shoulders, with two pendants hanging down in front and behind, and is ornamented with six crosses. Until recently, the pallium worn by the pope was identical to those he granted to the primates, but in 2005 Pope Benedict XVI began to use a larger papal pallium adorned with red crosses instead of black.
  • "Keys to the Kingdom of Heaven," the image of two keys, one gold and one silver, symbolizing the power to "bind and loose" on earth and in heaven.
  • Ring of the Fisherman, a gold ring decorated with a depiction of St. Peter in a boat casting his net, with the name of the reigning pope around it.
  • Umbraculum, a canopy or umbrella consisting of alternating red and gold stripes, which used to be carried above the pope in processions.
  • Sedia gestatoria (now discontinued), a mobile throne carried by 12 footmen in red uniforms, accompanied by two attendants bearing fans made of white ostrich feathers, and sometimes a large canopy carried by eight attendants. The use of the flabella was discontinued by Pope John Paul I, and the use of the sedia gestatoria was discontinued by Pope John Paul II, being replaced by the so-called Popemobile.

In heraldry, each pope has his own coat of arms, which includes the aforementioned two keys behind the escutcheon (shield), and above them a silver triregnum with three gold crowns.

The flag most frequently associated with the pope is the yellow and white flag of Vatican City, with the arms of the Holy See on the right-hand side. Although Pope Benedict XVI replaced the triregnum with a mitre on his personal coat of arms, the triregnum has been retained on the flag.

Offices and residences

The pope's official seat or cathedral is the Basilica of St. John Lateran, and his official residence is the Palace of the Vatican. He also possesses a summer residence at Castel Gandolfo. Until the time of the Avignon Papacy, the residence of the pope was the Lateran Palace, donated by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great. The pope's specific ecclesiastical jurisdiction, the Holy See, is distinct from his secular jurisdiction of Vatican City.

Infallible authority

The status and authority of the pope in the Catholic Church was dogmatically defined by the First Vatican Council on July 18, 1870. In its Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ, the council established that:

  • Peter was established by Christ as the chief of the apostles, and the visible head of the whole church.
  • It is heresy to deny that the Roman Pontiff is the successor of Peter holding the same primacy as him.
  • It is also heresy to deny that pope's authority pertains not only to matters of faith and morals, but also to the discipline and government of the Church throughout the whole world.
  • The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, operates with infallibility, and his decisions are unalterable.

The Second Vatican Council, while not repeating the anathemas directed by its predecessor against "heretics" who deny papal infallibility, nevertheless reaffirmed the doctrine. In 1964, this council declared:

"…In matters of faith and morals, the bishops speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent. This religious submission of mind and will must be shown in a special way to the authentic magisterium of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra… His definitions, of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, are justly styled irreformable, since they are pronounced with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, promised to him in blessed Peter, and therefore they need no approval of others, nor do they allow an appeal to any other judgment.

The Papacy today

Pope Benedict XVI greets former US President Bush.

While the papacy has lost considerable political power in recent centuries, its prestige as a moral and spiritual authority has grown considerable. The pope remains the sole ruler of the Catholic Church, which is not only the largest Christian denomination, but the largest organized body of any world religion, with over one billion members, accounting for approximately one in six of the world's population. No longer a primarily European faith, the majority the pope's flock hail from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. The papacy also controls or supervises a vast network of Catholic financial institutions, religious orders, real estate holdings, schools, monasteries and convents, charitable organizations, museums, hospitals, retirement homes, youth organizations, and social groups.

The pope commands huge audiences of up to and over a million people when he travels, notably including many young people. His moral teachings remain highly influential, probably more so than any single individual in the world today. Politically, the papacy of John Paul II is considered to have been a major factor in the fall of the Soviet Union.

The pope is a major figure in the ecumenical movement, whose voice commands the attention of leaders of virtually every faith. He frequently meets with the presidents of the greatest nations of the world. It is no exaggeration to say that the papacy remains one of the world's most important world institutions today.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Chapman, John. Studies on the Early Papacy. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1971. ISBN 9780804611398
  • Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. ISBN 0300091656
  • Fortescue, Adrian, and Scott M. P. Reid. The Early Papacy: To the Synod of Chalcedon in 451. Southampton: Saint Austin Press, 1997. ISBN 9781901157604
  • Kelly, John N. D., and Michael J. Walsh. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. ISBN 9780198614333
  • Loomis, Louise Ropes. The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1889758868
  • Maxwell-Stuart, P. G. Chronicle of the Popes: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St. Peter to the Present. New York, NY: Thames and Hudson, 1997. ISBN 0500017980.
  • Walsh, Michael J. An Illustrated History of the Popes: Saint Peter to John Paul II. Bonanza Books, 1980. ISBN 9780312408176

External links

All links retrieved November 18, 2022.

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