Difference between revisions of "Burial" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
({{Contracted}})
m
 
(38 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
+
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]{{Copyedited}}
 
[[Category:Anthropology]]
 
[[Category:Anthropology]]
−
{{Claimed}}{{Started}}{{Contracted}}
+
{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}
 +
[[Image:20000 graveyard.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Underwater [[funeral]] in ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'' from an edition with drawings by [[Alphonse de Neuville]] and [[Edouard Riou]].]]
 +
'''Burial''', or the ritual disposal of human remains, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by digging a pit or trench, placing the person or object inside, and replacing the [[soil]] on top of the site. The most common use of the term burial refers to [[human being|human]] burial, or the placement of a body into a [[tomb]] or grave within the ground. Human burial prevents the emission of unpleasant odors due to gases released by bacterial [[decomposition]] after a body has begun to decay. The first use of human burial can be traced back to the [[Paleolithic]] period and is believed to have originated in European [[cave]]s.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
While there are practical reasons and constraints on the methods of burial of dead bodies, the diversity of methods, ceremonies, and so forth found in different cultures and locations around the world primarily reflect [[religion|religious]] beliefs concerning [[death]] and the [[afterlife]]. As human societies have developed, their burial methods and grave markings often remain as evidence of their beliefs, available for study by [[archaeology|archaeologists]].
  
 +
==Reasons for Burial==
 +
Human '''burial''' practices are believed to be the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead." The practice may also be used to ensure the deceased’s entry into an [[afterlife]]. Among many [[culture]]s, respect for the physical remains is considered necessary. If a body is to be left lying above ground, scavenging animals may eat the corpse, an act considered highly disrespectful to the deceased in many cultures. Burial can also be seen as an attempt to bring [[closure (psychology)|closure]] to the deceased's [[family]] and friends. By interring a body away from plain view, the emotional pain of losing a loved one may often be lessened. While it is not necessarily a [[public health]] requirement, burial prevents the living from having to see and smell the decomposing corpse. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] advises that only corpses carrying an [[infectious disease]] strictly require burial.<ref>Oliver Morgan, [http://publications.paho.org/english/dead_bodies.pdf Infectious disease risks from dead bodies following natural disasters] "Infectious disease risks from dead bodies following natural disasters." ''Rev Panam Salud Publica.'' 15(5) (2004): 307–12. Abstract. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref> <ref>Claude de Ville de Goyet, [http://publications.paho.org/english/editorial_dead_bodies.pdf Epidemics caused by dead bodies: a disaster myth that does not want to die] Editorial ''Rev Panam Salud Publica/Pan Am J Public Health'' 15(5) (2004). Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref> Other cultures believed burial to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife, while other religious cultures may prescribe a "correct" way to live, which includes customs relating to the disposal of the dead.
  
 +
The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun during the [[Paleolithic]] period. Historically, [[tumulus|mounds of earth]], [[temple]]s, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of [[ancestor]]s. In modern times, the [[Norm (sociology)|custom]] of burying the dead below ground with a [[headstone|stone marker]] to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture. Some burial practices are heavily [[ritual]]ized; others are simply practical.
  
−
[[Image:20000 graveyard.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Underwater [[funeral]] in ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'' from an edition with drawings by [[Alphonse de Neuville]] and [[Edouard Riou]].]]
+
==Methods of Burial==
−
'''Burial''', also called '''interment''' and (when applied to human burial) '''inhumation''', is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by digging a pit or trench, placing the person or object in it, and replacing the [[soil]].
+
Most burials occur in [[grave]]s, structures designed to house the remains of the dead dug into a plot of earth. Graves are designed by an initial [[grave cut]] which removes a section of earthen topsoil in order for subsequent burial. A vault structure is then often built within the grave to receive the body; such structures are used to prevent the crushing of the remains or to allow for multiple burials, such as a [[family vault]]. After the remains have been laid, the soil is returned to the grave to complete the burial process. A monument or general marker, such as a headstone, may then be placed above the grave for identification or celebratory purposes.
  
−
Objects are sometimes buried in order to hide them against removal or tampering. For [[cable]]s and [[pipeline transport|pipeline]]s, burial provides protection.
+
===Personal effects===
 +
In many cultures, the body is dressed in nice or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of [[jewelry]] or [[photograph]], belonging to the deceased may be included with the body. The inclusion of such [[grave goods]] serves several purposes. Firstly, in many [[funeral]] services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest, and dress the body in such ways. In other cultures, the inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the [[afterlife]]. The inclusion of personal effects may also be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have in their possession.
  
−
The rest of this article discusses [[human]] burial.
+
===Positioning===
 +
Buried corpses may be placed in a number of different positions. [[Christianity|Christian]] burials are made extended, with the corpse lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest. The [[eye]]s and [[mouth]] of the deceased are kept closed. Extended burials may also be supine, lying on one’s back, or prone, lying on one’s front. Historically, Christian burials were made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian [[church]]es, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on [[Judgement day]] ([[Christian eschatology|Eschaton]]).
  
−
==Reasons for human burial==
+
Other [[ritual]] practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched. In some ancient societies, warriors were buried in an upright position. In [[Islam]], the face of the body is turned toward [[Mecca]], the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures believe the placement of the dead in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as [[mass burial]], bodies are often positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or due to considerations of time and space.
−
After death, a corpse will start to decay and emit unpleasant odors due to gases released by bacterial [[decomposition]]. Burial prevents the living from having to see and smell the decomposing corpse, but it is not necessarily a [[public health]] requirement. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] advises that only corpses carrying an [[infectious disease]] strictly require burial. [http://publications.paho.org/english/dead_bodies.pdf] [http://publications.paho.org/english/editorial_dead_bodies.pdf] {{seealso|Health risks from dead bodies}}
 
  
−
Human burial practices are the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead." Among the reasons for this are:
+
===Location===
−
*Respect for the physical remains is considered necessary. If left lying on top of the ground, scavengers may eat the corpse, which is considered highly disrespectful to the deceased in many (but not all) cultures.
+
[[image:Pere Lachaise looking down the hill.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Père-Lachaise cemetery, Paris.]]
−
*Burial can be seen as an attempt to bring [[closure (psychology)|closure]] to the deceased's family and friends. By interring a body away from plain view, the pain of losing a loved one can be lessened.
+
Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations. In some traditions, especially with an [[animism|animistic]] logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their [[spirit]]s would harm the living if too close; other cultures may keep the remains close for surviving generations.  
−
*Many cultures believe in an [[afterlife]]. Burial is often believed to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife.
 
−
*Many [[religion]]s prescribe a "correct" way to live, which includes customs relating to disposal of the dead.
 
  
−
==Burial Methods==
+
Religious rules may also prescribe a specific zone of burial. Within the [[Christian]] religion, the deceased must be buried in "[[consecration|consecrated ground]]," often a [[cemetery]]. An earlier Christian practice specifying burial to be in or very near the church, has been generally abandoned with individual exceptions such as a high posthumous honor. Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral.
−
In many [[culture]]s, human [[Dead body|corpse]]s were usually buried in soil. The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun around 200,000 years ago during the [[Paleolithic]] period by [[homo sapiens]], before spreading out from Africa. As a result, burial grounds are found throughout the world. [[tumulus|Mounds of earth]], [[temple]]s, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of [[ancestor]]s. In modern times, the [[Norm (sociology)|custom]] of burying dead people below ground with a [[headstone|stone marker]] to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture, although other means such as [[cremation]] are becoming more popular in the west (cremation is the norm in India and mandatory in Japan).
 
  
−
Some burial practices are heavily [[ritual]]ized; others are simply practical.
+
===Burial markings===
 +
[[Image:Japanese Cemetery - Broome.JPG|thumb|250 px|Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in [[Broome, Western Australia]]]]
 +
Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a [[headstone]]. This serves two purposes. First, the [[grave]] will not accidentally be [[exhumed]]. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of [[immortality]]. Such [[monumental inscription]]s may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians. In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a [[necropolis]], or a "city of the dead," paralleling the community of the living.
  
−
===Natural burial===  
+
===Embalming===
−
A growing trend in modern burial is the concept of [[natural burial]]. Popularised in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s, natural burial is being adopted in the United States as a method for protecting and restoring the natural environment.
+
[[Embalming]] is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. [[Mummy|Mummification]] is a more extensive method of embalming, further retarding the decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a [[shroud]] or placed in a [[coffin]]. A larger container may be used, such as a [[Ship burial|ship]]. Coffins are usually covered by a [[burial liner]] or a [[burial vault]], which protects the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.
 +
[[Image:The Thing 2.JPG|250px|left|thumb|A naturally [[mummified]] body in the [[British Museum]].]]
 +
These containers slow the decomposition process by physically blocking decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a natural process, the corpse will not be exposed to open air.  
  
−
With a natural burial, the body is returned to nature in a [[biodegradable]] [[coffin]] or [[shroud]]. Native vegetation (often a memorial tree) is planted over or near the grave in place of a conventional cemetery monument. The resulting green space establishes a living memorial and forms a protected wildlife preserve.
+
In some cultures the goal of burial is not to preserve the body but to allow it to decompose or return to the earth naturally. In [[Orthodox Judaism]] embalming is not permitted, and the coffins are constructed so that the body will be returned to the earth as soon as possible. Such coffins are made of [[wood]], and have no [[metal]] parts at all. Wooden pegs are used in the place of nails. Followers of the [[Islam]]ic faith also prefer to bury their deceased so as not to delay decomposition. Normally, instead of using coffins, the deceased are buried in a shroud and the bodies of the deceased are not normally embalmed.
  
−
Natural burial grounds are also known as woodland cemeteries, eco-cemeteries, memorial nature preserves, or green burial grounds.  
+
==Types of Burials==
 +
===Natural burial===
 +
A growing trend in modern burial is the concept of [[natural burial]]. Popularized in the [[United Kingdom]] in the late 1990s, natural burial is being adopted in the United States as a method for protecting and restoring the natural environment. With a natural burial, the body is returned to nature in a [[biodegradable]] [[coffin]] or [[shroud]]. Native [[vegetation]], often a memorial [[tree]], is planted over or near the grave in place of a conventional monument. The resulting green space establishes a living memorial and forms a protected wildlife preserve. Natural burial grounds are also known as woodland cemeteries, eco-cemeteries, memorial nature preserves, or green burial grounds.  
  
−
===Prevention of decay===
+
===Multiple burials===
−
[[Image:The Thing 2.JPG|300px|right|thumb|A naturally [[mummified]] body in the [[British Museum]].]]
+
Some couples or groups of people, such as married couples or [[family]] members, may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the [[coffin]]s, or [[urn]]s, may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first.  
−
[[Embalming]] is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. [[Mummy|Mummification]] is a more extensive method of embalming, further retarding the decay process.
 
  
−
Bodies are often buried wrapped in a [[shroud]] or placed in a [[coffin]] (also called a '''casket'''). A larger container may be used, such as a [[Ship burial|ship]]. Coffins are usually covered by a [[burial liner]] or a [[burial vault (enclosure)|burial vault]], which protects the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.
+
===Mass grave burials===
 +
[[Image:Soviet soldiers mass grave, German war prisoners concentration camp in Deblin, German-occupied Poland.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|Mass grave of Soviet soldiers, killed by German Nazis in Soviet war prisoners concentration camp in Deblin, German-occupied Poland]]
  
−
These containers slow the decomposition process by (partially) physically blocking decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a [[flood]] or some other natural process, the corpse will still not be exposed to open air.
+
Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting [[genocide]] often employ mass burial for such victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a [[natural disaster]], an act of [[terrorism]], an [[epidemic]], or an [[accident]]. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of [[genetic testing]].
  
−
In some cultures however the goal is not to preserve the body but to allow it to decompose&mdash;or return to the [[Earth]]&mdash;naturally. In [[Orthodox Judaism]] embalming is not permitted, and the coffins are constructed so that the body will be returned to the Earth as soon as possible.  Such coffins are made of wood, and have no metal parts at all.  Wooden pegs are used in the place of nails. Followers of the [[Islamic]] faith also prefer to bury their deceased so as not to delay decomposition.  Normally, instead of using coffins the deceased are buried in a shroud, and the bodies of the deceased are not normally embalmed.
+
Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, [[U.S. Navy]] policy declares such wrecks a mass grave and forbids the recovery of any remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony. Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves.  
  
−
===Inclusion of clothing and personal effects===
+
[[Catacomb]]s also comprise a form of mass grave. Some catacombs, such as the [[Roman Catacombs]], were designated as a communal burial place. Some, such as the [[catacombs of Paris]], only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.
−
The body may be dressed in fancy and/or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of jewelery or photograph, of the deceased may be included with the body. This practice, also known as the inclusion of [[grave goods]], serves several purposes:
 
−
*In [[funeral]] services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest.
 
−
*The inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the [[afterlife]].
 
−
*The inclusion of personal effects may be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have with them what was important to them on earth. Alternatively, in some cultures it is felt that when a person dies, their possessions (and sometimes people connected to them such as wives) should go with them out of loyalty or ownership. {{see|sati (practice)}}
 
−
*Though not generally a motivation for the inclusion of grave goods with a corpse, it is worth considering that future [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] may find the remains (compare [[time capsule]]). [[Artifact (archaeology)|Artifacts]] such as clothing and objects provide insight into how the individual lived. This provides a form of [[immortality]] for the deceased.
 
  
−
===Body positioning===
+
===Premature burial===
−
Burials may be placed in a number of different positions. [[Christianity|Christian]] burials are made '''extended''', i.e., lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest, and with the [[eye]]s and [[mouth]] closed. Extended burials may be '''supine''' (lying on the back) or '''prone''' (lying on the front). Other [[ritual]] practices place the body in a '''flexed''' position with the legs bent or '''crouched''' with the legs folded up to the chest. Warriors in some ancient societies were buried in an '''upright''' position. In [[Islam]], the head is pointed toward and the face is turned toward [[Mecca]], the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures treat placement of dead people in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible.
+
Live burial, in which individuals are buried while still alive, has been known to occur. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by [[asphyxia]]tion, [[dehydration]], [[starvation]], or [[exposure]]. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways. An individual may be ''intentionally'' buried alive as a method of [[execution]] or [[murder]]. A person or group of people in a [[cave]], [[mine]], or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an [[earthquake]] or other [[natural disaster]]. Live burial may also occur due to [[avalanche]]s on mountain slopes. In rare cases, people have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced [[dead]] by a [[coroner]] or other official, when they were in fact still alive.
  
−
In nonstandard burial practices, such as [[mass burial]], the body may be positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or at least nonchalance on the part of the inhumer, or due to considerations of time and space.
+
===Animal burials===
 +
[[File:Dog cemetery.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Soldiers' [[dog]] cemetery at [[Edinburgh Castle]]]]
 +
In addition to burying human remains, many cultures also regularly bury [[animal]] remains. [[Pet]]s and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with any type of container serving as a [[coffin]]. The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians are known to have [[Mummy|mummified]] and buried [[cat]]s, which they considered [[deity|deities]], called [[Bast]] or Bastet. Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. [[Chimpanzee]]s and [[elephant]]s are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups.
  
−
====Orientation====
+
==Cultural Differences and Burial==
−
Historically, Christian burials were made supine '''east-west''', with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian [[church]]es, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on [[Judgement day]] ([[Christian eschatology|Eschaton]]).
+
[[Image:WoburnAbbey MonksBurialGround.JPG|250px|left|thumb| Monks Burial Ground, Woburn Abbey, England.]]
 +
Various religions and cultures employ distinct burial rituals and ceremonies in the disposal of human remains. For some, the body is carefully preserved and buried with great respect, regarding the physical remains as still important and significant to the individual who has passed into the [[afterlife]]. For others, a ritual burning frees the spirit to ascend to its new home in the afterlife. Among the [[Viking]]s, water burials or ship burials were prevalent, later including the [[cremation]] of bodies and the subsequent scattering of the ashes over water. Variation of this practice were used among many early [[Asia]]n societies; in [[India]], open air funeral pyres were common along the banks of rivers and the cremated remains were often thrown into the sacred [[Ganges River]].
  
−
====Inverted burial====
+
===African American slave tradition===
−
For humans, maintaining an '''upside down''' position, with the head vertically below the feet, is highly uncomfortable for any extended period of time, and consequently burial in that attitude (as opposed to attitudes of rest or watchfulness, as above) is highly unusual and generally symbolic.  Occasionally [[suicide]]s were buried upside down, as a post mortem punishment and (as with [[#Burial at cross-roads|burial at cross-roads]]) to inhibit the activities of the resulting [[undead]].
+
In the [[African-American]] [[slavery|slave]] community, specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build [[coffin]]s, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance. 
  
−
In [[Gulliver's Travels]], the [[Lilliputian]]s buried their dead upside down:
+
At [[death]], a slave’s body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any [[spirit]]s in the [[coffin]]. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried east to west, with the head facing east and their feet to the west. This positioning represented the ability to rise without having to turn around at the call of [[Gabriel]]’s trumpet. Gabriel’s trumpet would be blown in the eastern sunrise. East-west positioning also marked the direction of home, [[Africa]].
−
{{Quote|They bury their dead with their heads directly downward, because they hold an opinion, that in eleven thousand moons they are all to rise again; in which period the earth (which they conceive to be flat) will turn upside down, and by this means they shall, at their resurrection, be found ready standing on their feet. The learned among them confess the absurdity of this doctrine; but the practice still continues, in compliance to the vulgar.|Jonathan Swift|Jonathan Swift|[[wikisource:Gulliver's Travels/Part I/Chapter VI|Gulliver's Travels, Part I, Chapter VI]]}}
 
  
−
Swift's notion of inverted burial might seem the highest flight of fancy, but it appears that among English [[millenarian]]s the idea that the world would be "turned upside down" at the Apocalypse enjoyed some currency, and there is at least one attested case of a person being buried upside down by instruction; a Major Peter Labelliere of [[Dorking]] (d. June 4, 1800) lies thus upon the summit of [[Box Hill, Surrey|Box Hill]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Jacqueline|title=The Miller's tomb: facts, gossip, and legend|journal=Folklore|date=August 2005| url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2386/is_2_116/ai_n15727507/pg_1}}</ref> Similar stories have attached themselves to other noted eccentrics, particularly in southern England, but not always with a foundation in truth.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simpson|first=Jacqueline|title=The World Upside down Shall Be: A Note on the Folklore of Doomsday|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=91|issue=359|pages=559-567|date=Jan.—Mar 1978|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8715(197801%2F03)91%3A359%3C559%3ATWUDSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y}}</ref>
+
===Bahá'í tradition===
 +
[[Bahá'í]] burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes [[cremation]] of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a [[shroud]] of [[silk]] or [[cotton]], and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription ''I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate.'' The [[coffin]] should be of [[crystal]], [[stone]], or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead is ordained.<ref>[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/ka-14.html Prayer for the Dead] ''Baha'i Reference Library''. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref> The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.<ref>[http://bahai-library.com/?file=compilation_bahai_burial Baha'i Burial] ''Baha'i Library online''. Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref>
  
−
===Burial among African-American slaves===
+
===Christian tradition===
−
In the [[History of slavery in the United States|African-American slave]] community, slaves quickly familiarized themselves with funeral procedures and the location of gravesites of family and friends. Specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from the nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.
+
According to the [[Christian]] tradition, the church seeks to provide spiritual support for the deceased and honor their bodies, as well as provide a measure of hope for the family and friends of the deceased. Typically the body of the deceased is waked for a period of two to three days, either at home, or in a church, chapel or funeral home, during which time family and friends pay respect to the dead, pray and keep vigil. Christian burials may make use of a closed or open [[casket]], and the body of the deceased is nicely groomed. Following the final hours of the wake, the body is transported to a cemetery where a ceremony is held in which prayers and scriptures are read. The casket is then placed into the ground; a tombstone or marker is erected above the grave to remember the deceased in life. In some cultures there is no wake, and the body is buried within 24 hours.
  
−
At death, a slave’s body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried east to west, with the head facing east and their feet to the west. This positioning represented the ability to rise without having to turn around at the call of [[Gabriel]]’s trumpet. Gabriel’s trumpet would be blown in the eastern sunrise. East-west positioning also was the direction of home, [[Africa]].
+
===Islamic tradition===
 +
[[Image:Burial Grave.jpg|thumb|200 px|right|Muslim men finishing a grave after a recent burial]]
 +
According to [[Islam]]ic tradition, disposing of human remains follows a set of very specific rituals and rights. First, the body of the deceased is bathed in order to physically cleanse the corpse before other rituals may begin. The corpse is then enshrouded in coffin cloth, or simple plain cloth known as [[kafan]]. This process is known as [[takfeen]] and is done to respectfully wrap the corpse so that its private parts are not visible to others. The Muslims of the community then gather to offer their collective [[prayer]]s for the [[forgiveness]] of the dead; this prayer has been generally termed as the [[Salat al-Janazah|Janazah prayer]]. The grave itself is aligned on a northeast to southwest axis, facing [[Mecca]]. The wrapped body is placed directly into the ground, without any kind of [[casket]]. The body is laid on its right side, with the head facing Mecca, and the shroud is removed from the face. Only men are allowed to attend the actual graveside service.
  
−
===Burial in the Bahá'í Faith===
+
===Jewish tradition===
−
[[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and  precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription "''I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate''." The coffin should be of crystal, stone or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/ka-14.html] is ordained. The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[http://bahai-library.com/?file=compilation_bahai_burial]
+
Under the [[Judaism|Jewish]] religion, bodies of the deceased are never left alone until burial as a sign of respect for the dead; the unburied body is watched over by people known as [[Shomerin]]. While watching over the dead, Shomerin are forbade to eat, drink, or perform a commandment in the presence of the dead as to do so would be disrespectful. Under Jewish law, open casket ceremonies are forbidden and the body is never put on display to be viewed after death. The Jewish religion does not practice any form of [[cremation]] and all bodies are buried in the earth. Though [[coffin]]s are not required, if used, they must have holes drilled into them. A prayer known as the [[Kaddish]] is often recited at the gravesite of the deceased and a burial marker is erected one year later. <ref>"Judaism 101" [http://www.jewfaq.org/prayer/kaddish.htm Mourner's Kaddish] ''Jew FAQ.org''. Retrieved September 10, 2007</ref>
  
−
==Locations==
+
===Korean tradition===
−
===Where to bury===
+
Within [[Korea]]n culture, bodies of the deceased are treated with the utmost care. If possible, the deceased man or woman passes in the [[afterlife]] in one’s home surrounded by [[family]] and friends. If the deceased is a man, no woman is permitted to view the body; if the deceased is a woman, no man is permitted to view the body. A wake may last anywhere from three to nine days in which both breakfast and dinner are prepared for visitors and the deceased. During this period the coffin is heavily decorated and the body finely groomed; the remaining particles such as cut fingernails, toenails, or hair are buried with the deceased.<ref>[http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/cel/funeral_rites.htm Funeral Rites] ''Korean Society Celebrations'', AsianInfo.org. Retrieved May 13, 2015.</ref>
−
Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations.
 
  
−
Thus in some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; others keep remains close to help surviving generations.  
+
===Nuer tradition===
 +
Under the [[Nuer]] tradition of [[Eastern Africa]], the bodies of the deceased are buried as soon as possible. Only [[family]] members are allowed to attend the burial ceremony in which a particularly religious member of the family makes a sacrifice to prevent the [[spirit]] of the deceased from haunting living family members thereafter; this sacrifice is made to prevent further misfortune from plaguing the family of the deceased. No rituals occur at the grave and no ornaments are buried with the body. The [[mourning]] process must be completed within five to six days for the death of a man, and two to three for the death of any woman or child.<ref>E. E. Evans-Pritchard, [http://afraf.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/citation/48/190/56 Nuer Burial Rites] ''African Affairs''. Retrieved September 10, 2007</ref>
  
−
Religious rules may prescribe a specific zone, e.g. a Christian must be buried in "[[consecration|consecrated ground]]," usually a [[cemetery]]; an earlier practice, burial in or very near the church (hence the word churchyard), was generally abandoned with individual exceptions as a high posthumous honour; also many existing funeral monuments and crypts remain in use.  
+
===Toraja tradition===
 +
[[Image:Toraja tumbs.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Torajan tomb in a high rocky cliff.]]
 +
In [[Toraja]] society, the [[funeral]] ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. One component of the memorial ritual is the slaughter of [[water buffalo]]; the more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundred of [[pig]]s using a [[machete]] is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with [[dancing]] and [[music]] and young boys who catch the spurting blood in long [[bamboo]] tubes.
  
−
Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral; see [http://www.heraldica.org/faqs/landmark.html examples on Heraldica.org].
+
Upon burial the [[coffin]] may be laid in a [[cave]] or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff. It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the [[afterlife]]. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff. The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree. This hanging grave usually lasts for years, until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground.
  
−
===Marking the location of the burial===
+
==Exhumation==
−
[[Image:Japanese Cemetery - Broome.JPG|thumb|Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in [[Broome, Western Australia]]]]
+
The digging up of a buried body is called [[exhumation]], and is considered [[sacrilege]] by most cultures that bury their dead. However, there do exist a number of circumstances in which exhumation is tolerated. If an individual is believed to have died under suspicious circumstances, a legitimate investigating agency, such as the coroner's office or a [[police]] agency, may exhume the body to determine the cause of death. Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may also be exhumed if survivors so wish.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/5153864.stm Accident victim's body is exhumed] Retrieved September 10, 2007.</ref> Certain remains may also be exhumed in order to be re-interred at a more appropriate location. For example, the remains of [[Nicholas II of Russia]] and his family were exhumed from their resting place near [[Yekaterinburg]] so that they could be re-interred in the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[St. Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]].  
−
Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a [[headstone]]. This serves two purposes. First, the [[grave (burial)|grave]] will not accidentally be '''exhumed'''. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of [[immortality]], especially in cases of famous people's graves. Such [[monumental inscription]]s may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians.
 
−
 
 
−
In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a [[necropolis]], a "city of the dead" parallelling the community of the living.
 
−
 
 
−
====Unmarked grave====
 
−
In many cultures graves are [[Burial#Marking the location of the burial|marked]] with durable markers, or [[monuments]], intended to help remind people of the buried person. An [[unmarked grave]] is a [[Grave (burial)|grave]] with no such memorial marker.
 
−
 
 
−
The corpse of [[Pope Formosus]] was actually disinterred, placed on trial (see [[Cadaver Synod]]), found guilty, and ultimately thrown into the [[River Tiber]].
 
−
 
 
−
====Anonymous burial====
 
−
Another sort of unmarked grave is a burial site with an anonymous marker, such as a simple [[crucifix]]; boots, rifle and helmet; a sword and shield; a cairn of stones; or even a monument.  This may occur when identification of the deceased is impossible. Although many unidentified deceased are buried in [[potter's field]]s, some are memorialized, especially in smaller communities or in the case of deaths publicized by local media.
 
−
 
 
−
Many countries have buried an unidentified soldier (or other member of the military) in a prominent location as a form of respect for all unidentified war dead. The [[United Kingdom]]'s Tomb of the Unknown Warrior is in [[Westminster Abbey]], [[France]]'s is buried underneath the [[Arc de Triomphe]], [[Italy]]'s is buried in the [[Monumento al Milite Ignoto]] in [[Rome]], [[Canada]]'s is buried at the [[National War Memorial (Canada)|National War Memorial]] in Ottawa, [[Australia]]'s [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is located at the [[Australian War Memorial]] in [[Canberra]] and the United States' [[Tomb of the unknowns|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] is located at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].
 
−
 
 
−
Many cultures practise anonymous burial as a norm, not an exception. For instance, in parts of eastern Germany, up to 43% of burials are anonymous.[http://www.stonereport.com/ihtm/detail-e.htm?aclnews=10:0:294:::0:242:] According to ''[[Christian Century]]'' magazine, the perspective of the Roman Catholic Church is that anonymous burials reflect a dwindling belief in God, but others claim that the practice relates more to the exorbitant cost of grave markers and the solitary nature of German life. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n17_v113/ai_18311722]
 
−
 
 
−
====Secret burial====
 
−
In rare cases, a known person may be buried without identification, perhaps to avoid [[desecration]] of the corpse, [[grave robbing]], or vandalism of the burial site. This may be particularly the case with infamous or notorious figures. In other cases, it may be to prevent the grave from becoming a [[tourism|tourist]] attractions or a destination of [[pilgrimage]]. Survivors may cause the deceased to be buried in a secret location or other unpublished place, or in a grave with a false name (or no name at all) on the marker.
 
−
 
 
−
When [[Walt Disney]] was [[cremation|cremated]] his ashes were buried in a secret location in [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]], California. Some burial sites at Forest Lawn, such as those of [[Humphrey Bogart]] and [[Mary Pickford]], are secluded in private gated gardens with no public access. A number of tombs are also kept from the public eye. Forest Lawn's Court of Honour indicates that some of its crypts have plots which are reserved for individuals who may be "voted in" as "Immortals"; no amount of money can purchase a place. Photographs taken at Forest Lawn are not permitted to be published, and their information office usually refuses to reveal exactly where the remains of famous people are buried. Although the cemetery's owners state that this is meant to deter gravesite tourism, some critics say that the cemetery wishes visitors to purchase memorabilia at the funeral home's numerous gift shops instead of taking photographs for free, especially in the case of grave markers notable for their beauty.[http://beneathlosangeles.com/]
 
−
 
 
−
====Multiple bodies per grave====
 
−
Some couples or groups of people (such as a [[Marriage|married couple]] or other family members) may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins (or urns) may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first. In many states in Australia all graves are designated two or three depth (depending of the water table) for multiple burials, at the discretion of the burial rights holder, with each new interment atop the previous coffin separated by a thin layer of earth. As such all graves are dug to greater depth for the initial burial than the traditional six feet to facilitate this practice.
 
−
 
 
−
Judaism does not generally allow multiple bodies in a grave.  An exception to this is a grave in the military cemetery in Jerusalem where there is a "kever ah-chim" (Heb. "grave of brothers") where two soldiers were killed together in a tank and are buried in one grave.  As the bodies fused together with the metal of the tank to a point that they could not be separately identified, they were buried in one grave (along with parts of the tank).
 
−
 
 
−
====Mass graves====
 
−
Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting [[genocide]] often employ mass burial for victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a [[natural disaster]], an act of [[terrorism]], an [[epidemic]], or an [[accident]]. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of [[genetic testing]], but even in the 21st century remains which are unidentifiable by current methods may be buried in a mass grave.
 
−
 
 
−
Individuals who are buried at the expense of the local authorities and buried in [[potter's field]]s may be buried in mass graves. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] is believed to have been buried in such a manner. In some cases, the remains of unidentified individuals may be buried in mass graves in potter's fields, making exhumation and future identification troublesome for law enforcement.
 
−
 
 
−
Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, [[U.S. Navy]] policy declares such wrecks a mass grave and forbids the recovery of remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony.
 
  
−
Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves. [[Douaumont ossuary]] is one such mass grave, and it contains the remains of 130,000 soldiers from both sides of the [[battle of Verdun]].
+
Remains may also be exhumed and reburied en masse when a [[cemetery]] is relocated.<ref>[http://www.chicora.org/cemetery-relocation.html Cemetery Relocation] Chicora Foundation, Inc. Retrieved May 13, 2015.</ref> In rare cases, such as that of [[Oliver Cromwell]], a body may be exhumed for [[posthumous execution]] or dissection. The remains of various historical figures of note may also be exhumed in order to ascertain the answers to certain historical questions. Egyptian Pharaoh [[Tutankhamen]]'s remains were exhumed in 2005 in order to determine his cause of death.
  
−
[[Catacombs]] also comprise a form of mass grave. Some catacombs, for example [[Catacombs of Rome|those in Rome]], were designated as a communal burial place. Some, such as the [[catacombs of Paris]], only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.
+
Once human remains reach a certain age many cultures consider the remains to have no communal [[provenance]], making exhumation acceptable. This serves several purposes including the reallocation of land within overcrowded cemeteries. Once all plots are full, older remains are typically moved to an [[ossuary]] to accommodate more bodies. This type of exhumation may also occur to enable [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] to search for human remains in order to better understand human culture.
  
−
[[Image:Mass_Grave_Bergen_Belsen_May_1945.jpg|thumb|right|Mass grave at [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]] in May 1945]]
+
==Alternatives to Burial==
 +
[[Image:AdashinoNembutsuji.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Adashino Nembutsuji]] in [[Kyoto]], [[Japan]] stands on a site where [[Japanese person|Japanese]] people once abandoned the bodies of the dead without burial.]]
 +
Human bodies are not always buried, and many cultures may not bury their dead in every case. Most alternatives to burial are still intended to maintain respect for the dead, but some are intended to prolong the display of remains. Within an alternative ceremony known as an [[Ash jump]], [[Parachuting|skydivers]] often elect to have their cremated remains released by their loved ones during freefall.
  
−
A '''mass grave''' is a grave containing multiple unidentified human corpses. There is no strict definition of the minimum number of bodies required to constitute a mass grave.
+
Funerary [[cannibalism]], another alternative to burial, is the practice of eating the bodily remains. This may be for many reasons, for example to partake of the departed's strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The [[Yanomami]] have the habit of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with [[banana]] paste.
  
−
Mass or communal burial was a common practice before the development of a dependable crematory chamber by an Italian named [[Brunetti]] in 1873.
+
[[Cremation]], one of the more popular alternatives to burial, is the incineration of the remains at high temperatures. Most of the body is [[combustion|burnt]] during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of [[bone]] fragments. Often these fragments are processed into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called "ashes." The ashes can also be buried either underground or in a [[columbarium]] niche.  
  
−
In Paris, the practice of mass burial, and in particular, the condition of the infamous cemetary [[Les Innocents]], led [[Louis XVI]] to eliminate Parisian cemetaries. The remains were removed and dumped into the Paris underground forming the early [[Catacombs]]. Les Innocents alone had 6,000,000 dead to remove. Burial commenced outside of the city limits in what is now [[Pere Lachaise]] cemetary.  
+
[[Excarnation]] is the practice of removing the flesh from the corpse without interment. The [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] have traditionally left their dead on [[Towers of Silence]], where the flesh of the corpses is let to be devoured by [[vulture]]s and other carrion-eating [[bird]]s. Alternatively, it can also mean [[butcher]]ing the corpse by hand to remove the flesh, a practice sometimes referred to as "defleshing." The ancient practice of [[Gibbet]]ing, the practice of publicly displaying the remains of criminals, was also used as an alternative to burial. Other forms include Hanging coffins which are [[coffin]]s placed on cliffs. They can be found in various locations, including [[China]] and the [[Philippines]]. Similarly, the practice of [[Sky burial]] involves placing the body on a mountaintop.  
 +
[[Image:Burial at sea Feb2004.jpg|thumb|250 px|Burial at sea]]
 +
[[Burials at sea]] involve the practice of depositing a body into an [[ocean]] or other large body of water instead of soil. In such circumstances, the body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one.  
  
−
Mass graves are usually created after a large number of people die or are killed, and there is a desire to bury the corpses quickly. In [[disaster]]s, mass graves are used for [[infection]] and [[disease]] control.
+
[[Space burial]] is the practice of firing the coffin into [[outer space|space]]; the coffin may be placed into orbit, sent off into space, or incinerated in the sun. Space burial is still largely in the realm of [[science fiction]] as the cost of getting a body into space is prohibitively large, although several prominent figures have had a sample of their ashes launched into space after cremation.
  
−
The debate surrounding mass graves amongst [[epidemiologist]]s includes whether or not, in a natural disaster, to leave corpses for individual traditional burials, or to bury corpses in mass graves: for example, if an epidemic occurs during [[winter]], flies are less likely to infest corpses, reducing the risk of outbreaks of [[dysentery]], [[diarrhea]], [[diphtheria]], or [[tetanus]], so the use of mass graves is less important. Recent research indicates that the [[health risks from dead bodies]] in mass casualty events are very limited and that mass graves might cause more harm than good.
+
==Notes==
−
 
 
−
Although mass graves can be used during major conflicts, they are more usually seen after natural disasters such as a major [[famine]], [[epidemic]], or [[natural disaster]].  In such cases, there is a breakdown of the social infrastructure that would enable disposal of bodies.
 
−
 
 
−
Mass grave mapping teams have located 125 [[Khmer Rouge]] prison facilities and corresponding gravesites to date in [[Cambodia]] while researching the [[Killing Fields]].  During the [[Stalin]] era 65,000,000 people were exterminated in [[Russia]].  In 2002, [[St.Petersburg]] law enforcement officers were still discovering mass graves such as the one at the Rzhevsky artillery range that holds about 30,000 people. 
 
−
 
 
−
[[Mozart]] was buried in a mass grave in [[Austria]] in 1791.
 
−
 
 
−
===Cremation===
 
−
[[Image:crematorium.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The crematorium at Haycombe Cemetery, Bath, [[England]]. A cremation service has just finished.]]
 
−
 
 
−
In [[cremation]] the body of the deceased is burned in a special [[oven]].  Most of the body is [[combustion|burnt]] during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of [[bone]] fragments. Bodies of small [[children]] and [[infants]] often produce very little in the way of "ashes," as ashes are composed of bone, and young people have softer bones, largely [[cartilage]]. Often these fragments are processed (ground) into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called ''ashes''.  In recent times, cremation has become a popular option in the western world.
 
−
 
 
−
There is far greater flexibility in dealing with the remains in cremation as opposed to the traditional burial.  Some of the options include scattering the ashes at a place close to the heart of the deceased or keeping the ashes at home.  Ashes can also be buried either underground or in a [[columbarium]] niche.
 
−
 
 
−
===Live burial===
 
−
{{Main|Premature burial}}
 
−
 
 
−
Live burial sometimes occurs, in which individuals are buried while still alive. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by [[asphyxia]]tion, [[dehydration]], [[starvation]], or (in cold climates) [[exposure]]. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways:
 
−
*An individual may be ''intentionally'' buried alive as a method of [[Execution (legal)|execution]] or [[murder]].
 
−
*A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an [[earthquake]] or other [[natural disaster]]. Live burial may also occur due to [[avalanche]]s on mountain slopes.
 
−
*People have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced [[dead]] by a [[coroner]] or other official, when they were in fact still alive.
 
−
 
 
−
===Burial at cross-roads===
 
−
Historically, '''burial at [[Crossroads (culture)|cross-roads]]''' was the method of disposing of executed [[Crime|criminal]]s and [[suicide]]s. At the cross-roads a rude cross usually stood, and this gave rise to the belief that these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. The real explanation is that the ancient [[Teutonic]] peoples often built their altars at the cross-roads, and as human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of [[Christianity]], criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the [[paganism|pagans]]. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous [[Tyburn, London|Tyburn]] in [[London]], which stood on the spot where the [[Roman road]] to [[Edgware]] and beyond met the Roman road heading west out of London.
 
−
 
 
−
Superstition also played a part in the selection of cross-roads in the burial of suicides. Folk belief often held such individuals could rise as some form of [[undead]] (such as a [[vampire]]) and burying them at cross-roads would inhibit their ability to find and wreak havoc on their living relations and former associates.
 
−
 
 
−
===Burial of animals===
 
−
====By humans====
 
−
[[Image:Dog cemetary.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Soldiers' [[dog]] cemetery at [[Edinburgh Castle]]]]
 
−
In addition to burying human remains, many human cultures also regularly bury [[animal]] remains. 
 
−
 
 
−
[[Pet]]s and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with a [[shoe box]] or any other type of container served as a [[coffin]]. The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians are known to have [[Mummy|mummified]] and buried [[cat]]s, which they considered [[deity|deities]].
 
−
 
 
−
====By other animals====
 
−
Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. [[Chimpanzee]]s and [[elephant]]s are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
−
{{sectstub}}
 
−
 
 
−
==Exhumation==
 
−
The digging up of a buried body is called '''exhumation''' or '''disinterration''', and is considered [[sacrilege]] by most cultures that bury their dead. However, there is often a number of circumstances in which exhumation is tolerated:
 
−
*One case is during the Holocaust. At the Plaszow concentration camp, the workers were ordered to dig up all of the bodies buried there. They were then burned, this was done so that the Nazis could hide all of the Jews that had been killed.
 
−
*If an individual died under suspicious circumstances, a legitimate investigating agency (such as a [[police]] agency) may exhume the body to determine the cause of death.
 
−
*Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may be reburied if survivors so wish.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/5153864.stm]
 
−
*Remains may be exhumed in order to be reinterred at a more appropriate location. For example, the remains of [[Nicholas II of Russia]] and his family were exhumed from their resting place near [[Yekaterinburg]] so that they could be reinterred in the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[St. Petersburg, Russia|St. Petersburg]].
 
−
*Remains may be exhumed and reburied en masse when a cemetery is relocated. [http://www.chicora.org/cemtery_relocation.htm]
 
−
*In rare cases (such as that of [[Oliver Cromwell]]), a body may be exhumed for [[posthumous execution]], dissection, or [[gibbet]]ing.
 
−
*The remains of notable historical individuals may be exhumed in order to ascertain the answers to certain historical questions. [[Tutankhamen]]'s remains were exhumed in 2005 in order to determine his cause of death.
 
−
*Once human remains reach a certain age, many cultures consider the remains to have no communal [[provenance]], making exhumation acceptable. This serves several purposes:
 
−
**Many [[cemetery|cemeteries]] have a limited number of plots in which to bury the dead. Once all plots are full, older remains are typically moved to an [[ossuary]] to accommodate more bodies.
 
−
**It enables [[Archaeology|archaeologists]] to search for human remains in order to better understand human culture.
 
−
**It enables [[construction]] agencies to clear the way for new infrastructure.
 
−
 
 
−
Frequently, cultures have different sets of exhumation [[taboo]]s. Occasionally these differences result in conflict, especially in cases where a culture with more lenient exhumation rules wishes to operate on the territory of a stricter culture. For example, [[United States]] [[construction]] companies have run into conflict with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] groups that wanted to preserve their ancient burial grounds from any form of modern construction.
 
−
 
 
−
In folklore and mythology, exhumation has also been frequently associated with the performance of rites to banish [[undead]] manifestations. An example is the [[Mercy Brown Vampire Incident]] of [[Rhode Island]], which occurred in 1892.
 
−
 
 
−
==Alternatives to burial==
 
−
[[Image:AdashinoNembutsuji.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Adashino Nembutsuji]] in [[Kyoto]], [[Japan]] stands on a site where [[Japanese person|Japanese]] people once abandoned the bodies of the dead without burial.]]
 
−
Human bodies are not always buried, and many cultures may not bury their dead in every case. Alternatives to burial include the following. In most cases these alternatives are still intended to maintain respect for the dead, but some are intended to prolong the display of remains.
 
−
 
 
−
*Ash jump:  [[Parachuting|skydivers]] often elect to have their cremated remains released by their loved ones during freefall.
 
−
*
 
−
*[[Burial at sea]] is the practice of depositing the body in an [[ocean]] or other large body of water instead of soil. It may be disposed in a coffin, or without one.
 
−
*Funerary [[cannibalism]] is the practice of eating the remains. This may be for many reasons: for example to partake of their strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life into the family or clan, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The [[Yanomami]] have the habit of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with [[banana]] paste.
 
−
 
 
−
*[[Cremation]] is the incineration of the remains. This practice is common amongst [[Hindus]].
 
−
*[[Ecological funeral]] is a method of increasing the rate of [[decomposition]] in order to help fertilize the soil.
 
−
*[[Excarnation]] is the practice of removing the flesh from the corpse without interment. The [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] have traditionally left their dead on [[Towers of Silence]], where the flesh of the corpses is let to be devoured by vultures and other carrion-eating birds. Alteratively, it can also mean [[butcher]]ing the corpse by hand to remove the flesh (sometimes referred to by the neologism "defleshing").
 
−
*[[Gibbet]]ing was the ancient practice of publicly displaying remains of criminals.
 
−
*[[Hanging coffins]] are coffins which have been placed on cliffs. They can be found in various locations, including [[China]] and the [[Philippines]].
 
−
*[[Sky burial]] involves placing the body on a mountaintop.
 
−
*[[Space burial]] is the practice of firing the coffin into [[outer space|space]]. The coffin may be placed into orbit, sent off into interstellar space, or incinerated in the sun. Space burial is still largely in the realm of [[science fiction]] as the cost of getting a body into space is prohibitively large, although several prominent figures have had a sample of their ashes launched into space after cremation.
 
−
*Note that [[cryonics]] is often mistakenly assumed to be an alternative interment method but is in fact a medical procedure carried out immediately prior to death. See also [[information theoretical death]]; [[clinical death]]
 
−
 
 
−
==Notes==  
 
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Encyclopedia Britannica. [http://www.answers.com/burial#copyright Burial]. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved 4 June 2007.
+
* Berenbaum, Michael. ''Witness to the Holocaust.'' New York: HarperCollins, 1997. ISBN 0062701088
−
*Berenbaum, Michael. ''Witness to the Holocaust''. New York: HarperCollins. 1997.
+
* Krupa, Frederique. [http://www.simple-is-beautiful.org/fredek/parisproject/ ''Paris: Urban Sanitation Before the 20th Century'']. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
−
*Krupa, Frederique. ''Paris: Urban Sanitation Before the 20th Century.''
+
* Pearson, Michael Parker. ''The Archaeology of Death and Burial.'' Texas A & M University Press, 2001. ISBN 158544099X
−
 
+
{{Death}}
−
==External Links==
+
{{Credits|Burial|134607434|Mass_grave|132957695|Grave_(burial)|141057376}}
−
*[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/041203.html Can a person be buried in the backyard rather than a cemetery?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
 
−
*[http://www.funeralmuseum.org/index.html Museum of Funeral Customs]
 
−
*[http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/cat_waking_the_dead.htm 'Waking the dead' series on Blather.net]
 
−
*[http://www.forestofmemories.org Green Burial] Resources and Information supporting Green Burial in North America at Forest of Memories
 
−
*[http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/0/0fb1a0c8c4ca2bac49256e0d0006659c? OpenDocument Article about the effects of mass graves after the 2003 Iran earthquake.]
 
−
*[http://www.antiwar.com/orig/drolette.php?articleid=4174 General article about mass graves]
 
−
 
 
−
{{Credits|Burial|134607434|Mass_grave|132957695|}}
 

Latest revision as of 23:37, 13 May 2015


Underwater funeral in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea from an edition with drawings by Alphonse de Neuville and Edouard Riou.

Burial, or the ritual disposal of human remains, is the act of placing a person or object into the ground. This is accomplished by digging a pit or trench, placing the person or object inside, and replacing the soil on top of the site. The most common use of the term burial refers to human burial, or the placement of a body into a tomb or grave within the ground. Human burial prevents the emission of unpleasant odors due to gases released by bacterial decomposition after a body has begun to decay. The first use of human burial can be traced back to the Paleolithic period and is believed to have originated in European caves.

While there are practical reasons and constraints on the methods of burial of dead bodies, the diversity of methods, ceremonies, and so forth found in different cultures and locations around the world primarily reflect religious beliefs concerning death and the afterlife. As human societies have developed, their burial methods and grave markings often remain as evidence of their beliefs, available for study by archaeologists.

Reasons for Burial

Human burial practices are believed to be the manifestation of the human desire to demonstrate "respect for the dead." The practice may also be used to ensure the deceased’s entry into an afterlife. Among many cultures, respect for the physical remains is considered necessary. If a body is to be left lying above ground, scavenging animals may eat the corpse, an act considered highly disrespectful to the deceased in many cultures. Burial can also be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceased's family and friends. By interring a body away from plain view, the emotional pain of losing a loved one may often be lessened. While it is not necessarily a public health requirement, burial prevents the living from having to see and smell the decomposing corpse. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the WHO advises that only corpses carrying an infectious disease strictly require burial.[1] [2] Other cultures believed burial to be a necessary step for an individual to reach the afterlife, while other religious cultures may prescribe a "correct" way to live, which includes customs relating to the disposal of the dead.

The act of burying corpses is thought to have begun during the Paleolithic period. Historically, mounds of earth, temples, and underground caverns were used to store the dead bodies of ancestors. In modern times, the custom of burying the dead below ground with a stone marker to mark the place is used in almost every modern culture. Some burial practices are heavily ritualized; others are simply practical.

Methods of Burial

Most burials occur in graves, structures designed to house the remains of the dead dug into a plot of earth. Graves are designed by an initial grave cut which removes a section of earthen topsoil in order for subsequent burial. A vault structure is then often built within the grave to receive the body; such structures are used to prevent the crushing of the remains or to allow for multiple burials, such as a family vault. After the remains have been laid, the soil is returned to the grave to complete the burial process. A monument or general marker, such as a headstone, may then be placed above the grave for identification or celebratory purposes.

Personal effects

In many cultures, the body is dressed in nice or ceremonial clothes. Personal objects, such as a favorite piece of jewelry or photograph, belonging to the deceased may be included with the body. The inclusion of such grave goods serves several purposes. Firstly, in many funeral services, the body is often put on display. Many cultures feel that the deceased should be presented looking his/her finest, and dress the body in such ways. In other cultures, the inclusion of ceremonial garb and sacred objects is sometimes viewed as necessary for reaching the afterlife. The inclusion of personal effects may also be motivated by the beliefs that in the afterlife a person will wish to have in their possession.

Positioning

Buried corpses may be placed in a number of different positions. Christian burials are made extended, with the corpse lying flat with arms and legs straight, or with the arms folded upon the chest. The eyes and mouth of the deceased are kept closed. Extended burials may also be supine, lying on one’s back, or prone, lying on one’s front. Historically, Christian burials were made supine east-west, with the head at the western end of the grave. This mirrors the layout of Christian churches, and for much the same reason; to view the coming of Christ on Judgement day (Eschaton).

Other ritual practices place the body in a flexed position with the legs bent or crouched. In some ancient societies, warriors were buried in an upright position. In Islam, the face of the body is turned toward Mecca, the holiest city in Islam. Many cultures believe the placement of the dead in an appropriate position to be a sign of respect even when burial is impossible. In nonstandard burial practices, such as mass burial, bodies are often positioned arbitrarily. This can be a sign of disrespect to the deceased, or due to considerations of time and space.

Location

Père-Lachaise cemetery, Paris.

Apart from sanitary and other practical considerations, the site of burial can be determined by religious and socio-cultural considerations. In some traditions, especially with an animistic logic, the remains of the dead are "banished" for fear their spirits would harm the living if too close; other cultures may keep the remains close for surviving generations.

Religious rules may also prescribe a specific zone of burial. Within the Christian religion, the deceased must be buried in "consecrated ground," often a cemetery. An earlier Christian practice specifying burial to be in or very near the church, has been generally abandoned with individual exceptions such as a high posthumous honor. Royalty and high nobility often have one or more "traditional" sites of burial, generally monumental, often in a palatial chapel or cathedral.

Burial markings

Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in Broome, Western Australia

Most modern cultures mark the location of the body with a headstone. This serves two purposes. First, the grave will not accidentally be exhumed. Second, headstones often contain information or tributes to deceased. This is a form of remembrance for loved ones; it can also be viewed as a form of immortality. Such monumental inscriptions may subsequently be useful to genealogists and family historians. In many cultures graves will be grouped, so the monuments make up a necropolis, or a "city of the dead," paralleling the community of the living.

Embalming

Embalming is the practice of preserving a body against decay, and is used in many cultures. Mummification is a more extensive method of embalming, further retarding the decay process. Bodies are often buried wrapped in a shroud or placed in a coffin. A larger container may be used, such as a ship. Coffins are usually covered by a burial liner or a burial vault, which protects the coffin from collapsing under the weight of the earth or floating away during a flood.

A naturally mummified body in the British Museum.

These containers slow the decomposition process by physically blocking decomposing bacteria and other organisms from accessing the corpse. An additional benefit of using containers to hold the body is that if the soil covering the corpse is washed away by a natural process, the corpse will not be exposed to open air.

In some cultures the goal of burial is not to preserve the body but to allow it to decompose or return to the earth naturally. In Orthodox Judaism embalming is not permitted, and the coffins are constructed so that the body will be returned to the earth as soon as possible. Such coffins are made of wood, and have no metal parts at all. Wooden pegs are used in the place of nails. Followers of the Islamic faith also prefer to bury their deceased so as not to delay decomposition. Normally, instead of using coffins, the deceased are buried in a shroud and the bodies of the deceased are not normally embalmed.

Types of Burials

Natural burial

A growing trend in modern burial is the concept of natural burial. Popularized in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s, natural burial is being adopted in the United States as a method for protecting and restoring the natural environment. With a natural burial, the body is returned to nature in a biodegradable coffin or shroud. Native vegetation, often a memorial tree, is planted over or near the grave in place of a conventional monument. The resulting green space establishes a living memorial and forms a protected wildlife preserve. Natural burial grounds are also known as woodland cemeteries, eco-cemeteries, memorial nature preserves, or green burial grounds.

Multiple burials

Some couples or groups of people, such as married couples or family members, may wish to be buried in the same plot. In some cases, the coffins, or urns, may simply be buried side by side. In others, one casket may be interred above another. If this is planned for in advance, the first casket may be buried more deeply than is the usual practice so that the second casket may be placed over it without disturbing the first.

Mass grave burials

Mass grave of Soviet soldiers, killed by German Nazis in Soviet war prisoners concentration camp in Deblin, German-occupied Poland

Mass burial is the practice of burying multiple bodies in one location. Civilizations attempting genocide often employ mass burial for such victims. However, mass burial may in many cases be the only practical means of dealing with an overwhelming number of human remains, such as those resulting from a natural disaster, an act of terrorism, an epidemic, or an accident. This practice has become less common in the developed world with the advent of genetic testing.

Naval ships sunk in combat are also considered mass graves by many countries. For example, U.S. Navy policy declares such wrecks a mass grave and forbids the recovery of any remains. In lieu of recovery, divers or submersibles leave a plaque dedicated to the memory of the ship or boat and its crew, and family members are invited to attend the ceremony. Sites of large former battlefields may also contain one or more mass graves.

Catacombs also comprise a form of mass grave. Some catacombs, such as the Roman Catacombs, were designated as a communal burial place. Some, such as the catacombs of Paris, only became a mass grave when individual burials were relocated from cemeteries marked for demolition.

Premature burial

Live burial, in which individuals are buried while still alive, has been known to occur. Having no way of escaping interment, they die in place, typically by asphyxiation, dehydration, starvation, or exposure. People may come to be buried alive in a number of different ways. An individual may be intentionally buried alive as a method of execution or murder. A person or group of people in a cave, mine, or other underground area may be sealed underground due to an earthquake or other natural disaster. Live burial may also occur due to avalanches on mountain slopes. In rare cases, people have been unintentionally buried alive because they were pronounced dead by a coroner or other official, when they were in fact still alive.

Animal burials

Soldiers' dog cemetery at Edinburgh Castle

In addition to burying human remains, many cultures also regularly bury animal remains. Pets and other animals of emotional significance are often ceremonially buried. Most families bury deceased pets on their own properties, mainly in a yard, with any type of container serving as a coffin. The Ancient Egyptians are known to have mummified and buried cats, which they considered deities, called Bast or Bastet. Humans are not always the only species to bury their dead. Chimpanzees and elephants are known to throw leaves and branches over fallen members of their family groups.

Cultural Differences and Burial

Monks Burial Ground, Woburn Abbey, England.

Various religions and cultures employ distinct burial rituals and ceremonies in the disposal of human remains. For some, the body is carefully preserved and buried with great respect, regarding the physical remains as still important and significant to the individual who has passed into the afterlife. For others, a ritual burning frees the spirit to ascend to its new home in the afterlife. Among the Vikings, water burials or ship burials were prevalent, later including the cremation of bodies and the subsequent scattering of the ashes over water. Variation of this practice were used among many early Asian societies; in India, open air funeral pyres were common along the banks of rivers and the cremated remains were often thrown into the sacred Ganges River.

African American slave tradition

In the African-American slave community, specific slaves were assigned to prepare dead bodies, build coffins, dig graves, and construct headstones. Slave funerals were typically at night when the workday was over, with the master present to view all the ceremonial procedures. Slaves from nearby plantations were regularly in attendance.

At death, a slave’s body was wrapped in cloth. The hands were placed across the chest, and a metal plate was placed on top of their hands. The reasoning for the plate was to hinder their return home by suppressing any spirits in the coffin. Often, personal property was buried with slaves to appease spirits. The coffins were nailed shut once the body was inside, and carried by hand or wagon, depending on the property designated for slave burial site. Slaves were buried east to west, with the head facing east and their feet to the west. This positioning represented the ability to rise without having to turn around at the call of Gabriel’s trumpet. Gabriel’s trumpet would be blown in the eastern sunrise. East-west positioning also marked the direction of home, Africa.

Bahá'í tradition

Bahá'í burial law prescribes both the location of burial and burial practices and precludes cremation of the dead. It is forbidden to carry the body for more than one hour's journey from the place of death. Before interment the body should be wrapped in a shroud of silk or cotton, and a ring should be placed on its finger bearing the inscription I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassionate. The coffin should be of crystal, stone, or hard fine wood. Also, before interment, a specific Prayer for the Dead is ordained.[3] The formal prayer and the ring are meant to be used for those who have reached fifteen years of age.[4]

Christian tradition

According to the Christian tradition, the church seeks to provide spiritual support for the deceased and honor their bodies, as well as provide a measure of hope for the family and friends of the deceased. Typically the body of the deceased is waked for a period of two to three days, either at home, or in a church, chapel or funeral home, during which time family and friends pay respect to the dead, pray and keep vigil. Christian burials may make use of a closed or open casket, and the body of the deceased is nicely groomed. Following the final hours of the wake, the body is transported to a cemetery where a ceremony is held in which prayers and scriptures are read. The casket is then placed into the ground; a tombstone or marker is erected above the grave to remember the deceased in life. In some cultures there is no wake, and the body is buried within 24 hours.

Islamic tradition

Muslim men finishing a grave after a recent burial

According to Islamic tradition, disposing of human remains follows a set of very specific rituals and rights. First, the body of the deceased is bathed in order to physically cleanse the corpse before other rituals may begin. The corpse is then enshrouded in coffin cloth, or simple plain cloth known as kafan. This process is known as takfeen and is done to respectfully wrap the corpse so that its private parts are not visible to others. The Muslims of the community then gather to offer their collective prayers for the forgiveness of the dead; this prayer has been generally termed as the Janazah prayer. The grave itself is aligned on a northeast to southwest axis, facing Mecca. The wrapped body is placed directly into the ground, without any kind of casket. The body is laid on its right side, with the head facing Mecca, and the shroud is removed from the face. Only men are allowed to attend the actual graveside service.

Jewish tradition

Under the Jewish religion, bodies of the deceased are never left alone until burial as a sign of respect for the dead; the unburied body is watched over by people known as Shomerin. While watching over the dead, Shomerin are forbade to eat, drink, or perform a commandment in the presence of the dead as to do so would be disrespectful. Under Jewish law, open casket ceremonies are forbidden and the body is never put on display to be viewed after death. The Jewish religion does not practice any form of cremation and all bodies are buried in the earth. Though coffins are not required, if used, they must have holes drilled into them. A prayer known as the Kaddish is often recited at the gravesite of the deceased and a burial marker is erected one year later. [5]

Korean tradition

Within Korean culture, bodies of the deceased are treated with the utmost care. If possible, the deceased man or woman passes in the afterlife in one’s home surrounded by family and friends. If the deceased is a man, no woman is permitted to view the body; if the deceased is a woman, no man is permitted to view the body. A wake may last anywhere from three to nine days in which both breakfast and dinner are prepared for visitors and the deceased. During this period the coffin is heavily decorated and the body finely groomed; the remaining particles such as cut fingernails, toenails, or hair are buried with the deceased.[6]

Nuer tradition

Under the Nuer tradition of Eastern Africa, the bodies of the deceased are buried as soon as possible. Only family members are allowed to attend the burial ceremony in which a particularly religious member of the family makes a sacrifice to prevent the spirit of the deceased from haunting living family members thereafter; this sacrifice is made to prevent further misfortune from plaguing the family of the deceased. No rituals occur at the grave and no ornaments are buried with the body. The mourning process must be completed within five to six days for the death of a man, and two to three for the death of any woman or child.[7]

Toraja tradition

A Torajan tomb in a high rocky cliff.

In Toraja society, the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. One component of the memorial ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo; the more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundred of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with dancing and music and young boys who catch the spurting blood in long bamboo tubes.

Upon burial the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff. It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff. The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree. This hanging grave usually lasts for years, until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground.

Exhumation

The digging up of a buried body is called exhumation, and is considered sacrilege by most cultures that bury their dead. However, there do exist a number of circumstances in which exhumation is tolerated. If an individual is believed to have died under suspicious circumstances, a legitimate investigating agency, such as the coroner's office or a police agency, may exhume the body to determine the cause of death. Deceased individuals who were either not identified or misidentified at the time of burial may also be exhumed if survivors so wish.[8] Certain remains may also be exhumed in order to be re-interred at a more appropriate location. For example, the remains of Nicholas II of Russia and his family were exhumed from their resting place near Yekaterinburg so that they could be re-interred in the Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

Remains may also be exhumed and reburied en masse when a cemetery is relocated.[9] In rare cases, such as that of Oliver Cromwell, a body may be exhumed for posthumous execution or dissection. The remains of various historical figures of note may also be exhumed in order to ascertain the answers to certain historical questions. Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamen's remains were exhumed in 2005 in order to determine his cause of death.

Once human remains reach a certain age many cultures consider the remains to have no communal provenance, making exhumation acceptable. This serves several purposes including the reallocation of land within overcrowded cemeteries. Once all plots are full, older remains are typically moved to an ossuary to accommodate more bodies. This type of exhumation may also occur to enable archaeologists to search for human remains in order to better understand human culture.

Alternatives to Burial

Adashino Nembutsuji in Kyoto, Japan stands on a site where Japanese people once abandoned the bodies of the dead without burial.

Human bodies are not always buried, and many cultures may not bury their dead in every case. Most alternatives to burial are still intended to maintain respect for the dead, but some are intended to prolong the display of remains. Within an alternative ceremony known as an Ash jump, skydivers often elect to have their cremated remains released by their loved ones during freefall.

Funerary cannibalism, another alternative to burial, is the practice of eating the bodily remains. This may be for many reasons, for example to partake of the departed's strength, to spiritually "close the circle" by reabsorbing their life, to annihilate an enemy, or due to pathological mental conditions. The Yanomami have the habit of cremating the remains and then eating the ashes with banana paste.

Cremation, one of the more popular alternatives to burial, is the incineration of the remains at high temperatures. Most of the body is burnt during the cremation process, leaving only a few pounds of bone fragments. Often these fragments are processed into a fine powder, which has led to cremated remains being called "ashes." The ashes can also be buried either underground or in a columbarium niche.

Excarnation is the practice of removing the flesh from the corpse without interment. The Zoroastrians have traditionally left their dead on Towers of Silence, where the flesh of the corpses is let to be devoured by vultures and other carrion-eating birds. Alternatively, it can also mean butchering the corpse by hand to remove the flesh, a practice sometimes referred to as "defleshing." The ancient practice of Gibbeting, the practice of publicly displaying the remains of criminals, was also used as an alternative to burial. Other forms include Hanging coffins which are coffins placed on cliffs. They can be found in various locations, including China and the Philippines. Similarly, the practice of Sky burial involves placing the body on a mountaintop.

Burial at sea

Burials at sea involve the practice of depositing a body into an ocean or other large body of water instead of soil. In such circumstances, the body may be disposed in a coffin, or without one.

Space burial is the practice of firing the coffin into space; the coffin may be placed into orbit, sent off into space, or incinerated in the sun. Space burial is still largely in the realm of science fiction as the cost of getting a body into space is prohibitively large, although several prominent figures have had a sample of their ashes launched into space after cremation.

Notes

  1. ↑ Oliver Morgan, Infectious disease risks from dead bodies following natural disasters "Infectious disease risks from dead bodies following natural disasters." Rev Panam Salud Publica. 15(5) (2004): 307–12. Abstract. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  2. ↑ Claude de Ville de Goyet, Epidemics caused by dead bodies: a disaster myth that does not want to die Editorial Rev Panam Salud Publica/Pan Am J Public Health 15(5) (2004). Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  3. ↑ Prayer for the Dead Baha'i Reference Library. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  4. ↑ Baha'i Burial Baha'i Library online. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  5. ↑ "Judaism 101" Mourner's Kaddish Jew FAQ.org. Retrieved September 10, 2007
  6. ↑ Funeral Rites Korean Society Celebrations, AsianInfo.org. Retrieved May 13, 2015.
  7. ↑ E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Nuer Burial Rites African Affairs. Retrieved September 10, 2007
  8. ↑ Accident victim's body is exhumed Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  9. ↑ Cemetery Relocation Chicora Foundation, Inc. Retrieved May 13, 2015.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Death and related topics
In medicine
Autopsy · Brain death · Clinical death · Euthanasia · Persistent vegetative state · Terminal illness
Mortality
Immortality · Infant mortality · Legal death · Maternal death · Mortality rate
After death
Afterlife · Burial · Cremation · Decomposition · Funeral · Grief · Mourning · Promession · Resomation · Séance · Customs
Fields of research
Cryonics · Near-death experience · Near-death studies · Reincarnation research
Other
Martyrdom · Sacrifices (Human · Animal) · Suicide

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Burial&oldid=988142

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki