Difference between revisions of "Algonquin" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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Many Algonquins still speak the [[Algonquin language]], called generally as ''Anicinàpemowin'' or specifically as ''Omàmiwininìmowin''.  The language is considered one of several divergent dialects of the [[Anishinaabe language]]s.  Among younger speakers, the Algonquin language has experienced strong word borrowings from the [[Cree language]].<ref>Artuso, Christian. 1998.  ''noogom gaa-izhi-anishinaabemonaaniwag: Generational Difference in Algonquin''.  Winnipeg: The University of Manitoba Press.</ref>
 
Many Algonquins still speak the [[Algonquin language]], called generally as ''Anicinàpemowin'' or specifically as ''Omàmiwininìmowin''.  The language is considered one of several divergent dialects of the [[Anishinaabe language]]s.  Among younger speakers, the Algonquin language has experienced strong word borrowings from the [[Cree language]].<ref>Artuso, Christian. 1998.  ''noogom gaa-izhi-anishinaabemonaaniwag: Generational Difference in Algonquin''.  Winnipeg: The University of Manitoba Press.</ref>
 
Traditionally, the Algonquins lived in either a [[birch bark]] ''[[wigwam|wìkiwàm]]'' or in wooden ''mìkiwàm'',<ref>Cuoq, Jean André. 1886. ''Lexique de la Langue Algonquine''.  Montréal: J. Chapleau & Fils.</ref> though Algonquins today live in housing much like that of the general public.
 
Traditionally, the Algonquins lived in either a [[birch bark]] ''[[wigwam|wìkiwàm]]'' or in wooden ''mìkiwàm'',<ref>Cuoq, Jean André. 1886. ''Lexique de la Langue Algonquine''.  Montréal: J. Chapleau & Fils.</ref> though Algonquins today live in housing much like that of the general public.
−
Traditionally, the Algonquins were practitioners of [[Midewiwin]]; they believed they were surrounded by many [[manitou|manitò]]k.  With the arrival of the French, many Algonquins were proselytized to [[Christianity]], but many still practise Midewiwin or co-practise Christianity and Midewiwin.
+
Traditionally, the Algonquins were practitioners of [[Midewiwin]]; they believed they were surrounded by many [[manitou|manitò]]k.  With the arrival of the French, many Algonquins were proselytized to [[Christianity]], but many still practice Midewiwin or co-practice Christianity and Midewiwin.
 +
 
 +
Although the historical Algonquin society was largely hunting- and fishing-based, some Algonquins practiced agriculture and cultivated [[maize|corn]], [[bean]]s, and [[squash (fruit)|squash]], the famous "[[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]]" of indigenous horticulture. Bring primarily a hunting Nation, mobility was essential. Material used had to be light and easy to transport. Canoes were made of birch bark, sowed with spruce roots and render waterproof by the application of heated up spruce resin and grease. It was easy to move and the material readily available. During winter, toboggans were used to transport material and people used snowshoes to get around. For babies, ''tikinàgan'' (cradleboard) were used to carry them. It was built with wood and covered with an envelope made of leather or material. The baby was standing up with his feet resting on a small board. The mother would then put the ''tikinàgan'' on her back. This allowed the infant to look around and observe his surroundings, therefore start learning how everyday tasks were done.
 +
 
 +
Algonquian-speaking people also practiced large amounts of agriculture, particularly south of the Great Lakes where the climate allows for a larger growing season. Other notable indigenous crops historically farmed by Algonquins are the [[sunflower]] and [[tobacco]]. Even among groups who mainly hunted, agricultural products were an important source of food and were obtained by trading with or raiding societies that practiced larger amounts of agriculture.
 +
 
 +
Archeological sites on Morrison Island near [[Pembroke, Ontario|Pembroke]], within the territory of the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'', reveal a 1000-year-old culture that manufactured copper tools and weapons. Copper ore was extracted north of [[Lake Superior]] and distributed down to today's northern [[New York state]]. Local pottery artifacts from this period show widespread similarities that indicate the continuing use of the river for cultural exchange throughout the [[Canadian Shield]] and beyond. Some centuries later the Algonquin tribe moved in and inhabited the islands and shores along the Ottawa, and by the 1600s the first Europeans found them well-established as a hunter-gatherer society in control of the river. The ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' showed entrepreneurial spirit. On Morrison Island, at the location of where 5000-year-old copper artifacts were discovered, the ''Kitcisìpirini'' band levied a toll on canoe flotillas descending the river.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
 +
 +
===Pre-colonial period===
 +
Before European contact, most Algonquians lived by hunting and fishing, although quite a few supplemented their diet by cultivating [[maize|corn]], [[beans]], [[squash (fruit)|squash]], and (particularly among the [[Ojibwe]]) [[wild rice]].
 +
 +
The Algonquians of [[New England]] (who spoke eastern [[Algonquian]]) practiced a seasonal economy. The basic social unit was the village of a few hundred people related by a [[kinship]] structure. Villages were temporary and mobile. They moved to locations of greatest natural food supply, often breaking into smaller units or recombining as the circumstances required. This custom resulted in a certain degree of cross-tribal mobility, especially in troubled times.
 +
 +
In warm weather, villages were constructed of light [[wigwam]]s for portability. In the winter more solid [[Native American long house|long house]]s were used, in which more than one [[clan]] could reside. Food supplies were cached in more permanent, semi-subterranean buildings.
 +
 +
In the spring, when the fish were spawning, the natives left their winter camps to build light villages at coastal locations and waterfalls. In March they caught [[smelt]] in nets and weirs, moving about in birchbark [[canoe]]s. In April they netted [[alewife]], [[sturgeon]] and [[salmon]]. In May they caught [[cod]] with hook and line in the ocean, and [[trout]], smelt, [[striped bass]] and [[flounder]] in the estuaries and streams. They put out to sea and hunted [[whale]]s, [[porpoise]]s, [[walrus]]es and [[pinniped|seals]]. The women and children gathered [[scallop]]s, [[mussel]]s, [[clam]]s and [[crab]]s, all dishes in New England today.
 +
 +
In April through October, they hunted migratory birds and their eggs: [[Canada geese]], [[Brent Goose|brant]], [[mourning dove]]s and others. In July and August they gathered [[strawberry|strawberries]], [[raspberry|raspberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]] and nuts. In September they split into small groups and moved up the streams to the forest. There they hunted [[beaver]], [[caribou]], [[moose]] and [[white-tailed deer]].
 +
 +
In December when the snows began they recombined in winter camps in sheltered locations, where they built or reconstructed long houses. February and March were lean times. They relied on cached food, especially in southern New England. Northerners had a policy of going hungry for several days at a time. It is hypothesized that this policy kept the population down according to [[Liebig's law of the minimum|Liebig’s law]]. The northerners were food gatherers only.
 +
 +
The southern Algonquians of New England relied predominantly on [[Slash_and_burn|slash-and-burn agriculture]].  Fields were cleared by burning for one or two years of cultivation, after which the village moved to another location. This habit is the reason why the English found the region cleared and ready for planting. The native corn (maize), of which they planted various kinds, [[beans]] and [[Squash (fruit)|squash]] improved the diet to such a degree that the southerners reached a density of 287 persons per square hundred miles, as opposed to 41 in the north.
 +
 +
Even with this mobile form of crop rotation, southern villages were necessarily less mobile than northern. The natives continued their seasonal occupation but tended to move into fixed villages near their lands. Society made the adjustment partially by developing a gender-oriented [[division of labor]]. The women farmed and the men fished and hunted.
 +
 +
By the year 1600, a convenient terminus for the relatively unstressed native economy and society, the indigenous population of New England had reached, it is estimated, 70,000–100,000.
 +
 +
===Colonial period===
 +
At the time of the first European settlements in North America, Algonquin tribes occupied what is now [[New England]], [[New Jersey]], southeastern [[New York]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], all of [[Canada]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]], [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], and were occasionally present in [[Kentucky]].  They were most concentrated in the New England region.  The homeland of the Algonquian peoples is not known.  At the time of the European arrival, the hegemonic [[Iroquois]] federation was regularly at war with their Algonquian neighbors, forcing them to settle in regions unoccupied by Iroquois.
 +
 +
For about two centuries, Algonquins provided the main obstacles to the spread of Euro-American settlers, who concluded hundreds of peace treaties with them. [[Metacomet]], [[Cornstalk]], [[Tecumseh]] and [[Chief Pontiac|Pontiac]] were  all leaders who belonged to Algonquin nations.
  
 
In the earliest oral history, the Algonquins were from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast.  Together with other [[Anishinaabe|Anicinàpe]]k, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]].  While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the [[St. Lawrence River]], the Algonquins settled along the ''Kitcisìpi'' ([[Ottawa River]]), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation from time immemorial.  A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not fully-realized until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place," estimated at about 5,000 years ago near present day [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]].
 
In the earliest oral history, the Algonquins were from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast.  Together with other [[Anishinaabe|Anicinàpe]]k, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]].  While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the [[St. Lawrence River]], the Algonquins settled along the ''Kitcisìpi'' ([[Ottawa River]]), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation from time immemorial.  A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not fully-realized until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place," estimated at about 5,000 years ago near present day [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]].
  
−
After contact with the Europeans, the Algonkins became one of the key players in the [[Fur Trade]].  This lead them to fight against the [[Iroquois]] due to their rivalry in the fur trade; and formed an alliance with the [[Montagnais]] to the east in 1570.   
+
After contact with the Europeans, the Algonquins became one of the key players in the [[Fur Trade]].  This lead them to fight against the [[Iroquois]] due to their rivalry in the fur trade; and formed an alliance with the [[Montagnais]] to the east in 1570.   
  
 
The first group of Algonquian that the [[French people|French]] encountered were the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' ("Ottawa River Men"; singular: ''Kitcisìpirini'') whose village was located on an island in the Ottawa River; the French called this group "''La Nation de l'Isle''."  The first recorded meeting between Europeans and Algonquins occurred at [[Tadoussac, Quebec|Tadoussac]] in the summer of 1603, when [[Samuel de Champlain]] came upon a party of Algonquins, lead by the ''Kitcisìpirini'' Chief [[Tessouat]].  They were celebrating with the [[Montagnais]] and Etechemins ([[Malecite]]) a recent victory over the [[Iroquois|Five Nations Iroquois]].  Champlain did not understand the strong [[totem]]/clan system that socially united the Algonquins rather than the European-styled politically united concept of nationhood.  Consequently, there were several Algonquin bands, each with its own chief, needing political approval from each of the band's clan leaders.  So, from 1603 some of the Algonquins allied themselves with the French under Samuel de Champlain.   
 
The first group of Algonquian that the [[French people|French]] encountered were the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' ("Ottawa River Men"; singular: ''Kitcisìpirini'') whose village was located on an island in the Ottawa River; the French called this group "''La Nation de l'Isle''."  The first recorded meeting between Europeans and Algonquins occurred at [[Tadoussac, Quebec|Tadoussac]] in the summer of 1603, when [[Samuel de Champlain]] came upon a party of Algonquins, lead by the ''Kitcisìpirini'' Chief [[Tessouat]].  They were celebrating with the [[Montagnais]] and Etechemins ([[Malecite]]) a recent victory over the [[Iroquois|Five Nations Iroquois]].  Champlain did not understand the strong [[totem]]/clan system that socially united the Algonquins rather than the European-styled politically united concept of nationhood.  Consequently, there were several Algonquin bands, each with its own chief, needing political approval from each of the band's clan leaders.  So, from 1603 some of the Algonquins allied themselves with the French under Samuel de Champlain.   
 +
At the time of their first meeting with the French in 1603, the various Algonquin bands probably had a combined population somewhere in the neighborhood of 6,000.
  
 
Champlain made his first exploration of the Ottawa River during May, 1613 and reached the fortified ''Kitcisìpirini'' village at [[Morrison Island]]. Unlike the other Algonquin communities, ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' did not change location with the seasons. They had chosen a strategic point astride the trade route between the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence and had prospered through the collection of beaver pelts from native traders passing through their territory.  They pointed with great pride to their corn fields, a skill that they seemed to have acquired just before the arrival of the French. At first, the term "Algonquin" was used only for a second group, the ''Wàwàckeciriniwak''.  However, by 1615 the name was applied to all of the Algonquin bands living along the Ottawa River. Because of keen interest to gain control of the lower [[Ottawa River]] the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' and the ''Wàwàckeciriniwak'' came under fierce opposition.  These two large groups allied together, under the leadership of Sachem Charles Parcharini, maintaining the ''Omàmiwinini'' identity and territory.
 
Champlain made his first exploration of the Ottawa River during May, 1613 and reached the fortified ''Kitcisìpirini'' village at [[Morrison Island]]. Unlike the other Algonquin communities, ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' did not change location with the seasons. They had chosen a strategic point astride the trade route between the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence and had prospered through the collection of beaver pelts from native traders passing through their territory.  They pointed with great pride to their corn fields, a skill that they seemed to have acquired just before the arrival of the French. At first, the term "Algonquin" was used only for a second group, the ''Wàwàckeciriniwak''.  However, by 1615 the name was applied to all of the Algonquin bands living along the Ottawa River. Because of keen interest to gain control of the lower [[Ottawa River]] the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' and the ''Wàwàckeciriniwak'' came under fierce opposition.  These two large groups allied together, under the leadership of Sachem Charles Parcharini, maintaining the ''Omàmiwinini'' identity and territory.
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The Algonquin Indians were the victims of unfortunate European politics. The banding together of the Iroquois Confederacy had driven the Algonquins from lands that were once theirs, and when the French arrived trading firearms for furs, the Algonquins jumped at the deal. Though the French were good friends to the Algonquins, they did not make such good allies. The powerful Iroquois, aided first by the Dutch and later by the English, defeated the French and Algonquins alike. Though the Algonquins were defeated, they were never destroyed, and the Algonquin Indian culture lives on in pockets of their once-vast territory.
 
The Algonquin Indians were the victims of unfortunate European politics. The banding together of the Iroquois Confederacy had driven the Algonquins from lands that were once theirs, and when the French arrived trading firearms for furs, the Algonquins jumped at the deal. Though the French were good friends to the Algonquins, they did not make such good allies. The powerful Iroquois, aided first by the Dutch and later by the English, defeated the French and Algonquins alike. Though the Algonquins were defeated, they were never destroyed, and the Algonquin Indian culture lives on in pockets of their once-vast territory.
  
−
In 1632, after [[Sir David Kirke]]'s occupation of [[New France]] had demonstrated French colonial vulnerability, the French began to trade muskets to the Algonquins and their allies. French Jesuits began to actively seek Algonquin conversions to [[Roman Catholic]]ism, opening up a bitter divide between traditionalists and converts.
+
In 1632, after [[Sir David Kirke]]'s occupation of [[New France]] had demonstrated French colonial vulnerability, the French began to trade muskets to the Algonquins and their allies. French Jesuits began to actively seek Algonquin conversions to [[Roman Catholic]]ism, opening up a bitter divide between traditionalists and converts.
  
 
Through all of these years, the Iroquois had never dared to attack the ''Kitcisìpirinik'' fortress, but in 1642 a surprise winter raid hit the Algonkin while most of their warriors were absent and inflicted severe casualties. On March 6th ([[Ash Wednesday]]), 1647, a large Mohawk war party hit the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' living near [[Trois-Rivières, Quebec|Trois-Rivières]] and almost exterminated them. The ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' were still at Morrison Island in 1650 and inspired respect with their 400 warriors. When the French retreated from the Huron country that year, Tessouat is reported to have had the superior of the Jesuit mission suspended by his armpits because he refused to offer him the customary presents for being allowed to travel through Algonquin territory. Some joined the mission at Sillery and were mostly destroyed by an epidemic by 1676. Others, encouraged by the French, remained at Trois-Rivières and their settlement at nearby Pointe-du-Lac remained until about 1830, when the last 14 families, numbering about 50 moved to [[Oka, Quebec|Oka]]. The Sulpician Mission of the Mountain was founded at [[Montreal]] in 1677, and some Algonquins settled there together with Iroquois converts. However many did maintain attachment to the traditional territory and the trading traditions. While those that agreed to move to the established reserves or joined other historic bands and were then federally "recognized" many others did not re-locate and were later referred to as "stragglers" in the Ottawa and Pontiac Counties.
 
Through all of these years, the Iroquois had never dared to attack the ''Kitcisìpirinik'' fortress, but in 1642 a surprise winter raid hit the Algonkin while most of their warriors were absent and inflicted severe casualties. On March 6th ([[Ash Wednesday]]), 1647, a large Mohawk war party hit the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' living near [[Trois-Rivières, Quebec|Trois-Rivières]] and almost exterminated them. The ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' were still at Morrison Island in 1650 and inspired respect with their 400 warriors. When the French retreated from the Huron country that year, Tessouat is reported to have had the superior of the Jesuit mission suspended by his armpits because he refused to offer him the customary presents for being allowed to travel through Algonquin territory. Some joined the mission at Sillery and were mostly destroyed by an epidemic by 1676. Others, encouraged by the French, remained at Trois-Rivières and their settlement at nearby Pointe-du-Lac remained until about 1830, when the last 14 families, numbering about 50 moved to [[Oka, Quebec|Oka]]. The Sulpician Mission of the Mountain was founded at [[Montreal]] in 1677, and some Algonquins settled there together with Iroquois converts. However many did maintain attachment to the traditional territory and the trading traditions. While those that agreed to move to the established reserves or joined other historic bands and were then federally "recognized" many others did not re-locate and were later referred to as "stragglers" in the Ottawa and Pontiac Counties.
  
−
Starting in 1721, many Christian Algonquins began to summer at [[Oka, Quebec|Oka]], a [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] settlement near [[Montreal]] that was then considered one of the [[Seven Nations of Canada]]. Algonquin warriors continued to fight in alliance with France until the British conquest of Quebec in 1760. Fighting on behalf of the British Crown, the Algonquins took part in the [[Barry St. Leger|Barry St Leger]] campaign during the [[American Revolutionary War]].
+
Starting in 1721, many Christian Algonquins began to summer at [[Oka, Quebec|Oka]], a [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] settlement near [[Montreal]] that was then considered one of the [[Seven Nations of Canada]]. Algonquin warriors continued to fight in alliance with France until the British conquest of Quebec in 1760. Fighting on behalf of the British Crown, the Algonquins took part in the [[Barry St. Leger|Barry St Leger]] campaign during the [[American Revolutionary War]].  The British estimate in 1768 was 1,500. Currently, there are almost 8,000 Algonquins in Canada organized into ten separate First Nations: nine in Quebec and one in Ontario.
  
 
[[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] settlers began encroaching on Algonquin lands shortly after the Revolution. Later in the 19th century, the [[lumber|lumber industry]] began to move up the [[Ottawa River|Ottawa]] valley, and some Algonquins were relegated to a string of small reserves.
 
[[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] settlers began encroaching on Algonquin lands shortly after the Revolution. Later in the 19th century, the [[lumber|lumber industry]] began to move up the [[Ottawa River|Ottawa]] valley, and some Algonquins were relegated to a string of small reserves.
−
 
−
==Economy==
 
−
 
−
Although the historical Algonquin society was largely hunting- and fishing-based, some Algonquins practiced agriculture and cultivated [[maize|corn]], [[bean]]s, and [[squash (fruit)|squash]], the famous "[[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]]" of indigenous horticulture. Bring primarily a hunting Nation, mobility was essential. Material used had to be light and easy to transport. Canoes were made of birch bark, sowed with spruce roots and render waterproof by the application of heated up spruce resin and grease. It was easy to move and the material readily available. During winter, toboggans were used to transport material and people used snowshoes to get around. For babies, ''tikinàgan'' (cradleboard) were used to carry them. It was built with wood and covered with an envelope made of leather or material. The baby was standing up with his feet resting on a small board. The mother would then put the ''tikinàgan'' on her back. This allowed the infant to look around and observe his surroundings, therefore start learning how everyday tasks were done.
 
−
 
−
Algonquian-speaking people also practiced large amounts of agriculture, particularly south of the Great Lakes where the climate allows for a larger growing season. Other notable indigenous crops historically farmed by Algonquins are the [[sunflower]] and [[tobacco]]. Even among groups who mainly hunted, agricultural products were an important source of food and were obtained by trading with or raiding societies that practiced larger amounts of agriculture.
 
−
 
−
Archeological sites on Morrison Island near [[Pembroke, Ontario|Pembroke]], within the territory of the ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'', reveal a 1000-year-old culture that manufactured copper tools and weapons. Copper ore was extracted north of [[Lake Superior]] and distributed down to today's northern [[New York state]]. Local pottery artifacts from this period show widespread similarities that indicate the continuing use of the river for cultural exchange throughout the [[Canadian Shield]] and beyond. Some centuries later the Algonquin tribe moved in and inhabited the islands and shores along the Ottawa, and by the 1600s the first Europeans found them well-established as a hunter-gatherer society in control of the river. The ''Kitcisìpiriniwak'' showed entrepreneurial spirit. On Morrison Island, at the location of where 5000-year-old copper artifacts were discovered, the ''Kitcisìpirini'' band levied a toll on canoe flotillas descending the river.
 
  
 
==Modern events==
 
==Modern events==
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In 2007, a part of [[Liberty City]] in the game ''[[Grand Theft Auto IV]]'' will be named Algonquin.
 
In 2007, a part of [[Liberty City]] in the game ''[[Grand Theft Auto IV]]'' will be named Algonquin.
  
−
==Algonkin communities==
+
 
−
At the time of their first meeting with the French in 1603, the various Algonquin bands probably had a combined population somewhere in the neighborhood of 6,000. The British estimate in 1768 was 1,500. Currently, there are almost 8,000 Algonquins in Canada organized into ten separate First Nations: nine in Quebec and one in Ontario.
 
  
 
===Historical Algonquin Communities===
 
===Historical Algonquin Communities===
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==History==
 
==History==
−
===Pre-colonial period===
 
−
Before European contact, most Algonquians lived by hunting and fishing, although quite a few supplemented their diet by cultivating [[maize|corn]], [[beans]], [[squash (fruit)|squash]], and (particularly among the [[Ojibwe]]) [[wild rice]].
 
−
 
−
The Algonquians of [[New England]] (who spoke eastern [[Algonquian]]) practiced a seasonal economy. The basic social unit was the village of a few hundred people related by a [[kinship]] structure. Villages were temporary and mobile. They moved to locations of greatest natural food supply, often breaking into smaller units or recombining as the circumstances required. This custom resulted in a certain degree of cross-tribal mobility, especially in troubled times.
 
−
 
−
In warm weather, villages were constructed of light [[wigwam]]s for portability. In the winter more solid [[Native American long house|long house]]s were used, in which more than one [[clan]] could reside. Food supplies were cached in more permanent, semi-subterranean buildings.
 
−
 
−
In the spring, when the fish were spawning, the natives left their winter camps to build light villages at coastal locations and waterfalls. In March they caught [[smelt]] in nets and weirs, moving about in birchbark [[canoe]]s. In April they netted [[alewife]], [[sturgeon]] and [[salmon]]. In May they caught [[cod]] with hook and line in the ocean, and [[trout]], smelt, [[striped bass]] and [[flounder]] in the estuaries and streams. They put out to sea and hunted [[whale]]s, [[porpoise]]s, [[walrus]]es and [[pinniped|seals]]. The women and children gathered [[scallop]]s, [[mussel]]s, [[clam]]s and [[crab]]s, all dishes in New England today.
 
−
 
−
In April through October, they hunted migratory birds and their eggs: [[Canada geese]], [[Brent Goose|brant]], [[mourning dove]]s and others. In July and August they gathered [[strawberry|strawberries]], [[raspberry|raspberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]] and nuts. In September they split into small groups and moved up the streams to the forest. There they hunted [[beaver]], [[caribou]], [[moose]] and [[white-tailed deer]].
 
−
 
−
In December when the snows began they recombined in winter camps in sheltered locations, where they built or reconstructed long houses. February and March were lean times. They relied on cached food, especially in southern New England. Northerners had a policy of going hungry for several days at a time. It is hypothesized that this policy kept the population down according to [[Liebig's law of the minimum|Liebig’s law]]. The northerners were food gatherers only.
 
−
 
−
The southern Algonquians of New England relied predominantly on [[Slash_and_burn|slash-and-burn agriculture]].  Fields were cleared by burning for one or two years of cultivation, after which the village moved to another location. This habit is the reason why the English found the region cleared and ready for planting. The native corn (maize), of which they planted various kinds, [[beans]] and [[Squash (fruit)|squash]] improved the diet to such a degree that the southerners reached a density of 287 persons per square hundred miles, as opposed to 41 in the north.
 
−
 
−
Even with this mobile form of crop rotation, southern villages were necessarily less mobile than northern. The natives continued their seasonal occupation but tended to move into fixed villages near their lands. Society made the adjustment partially by developing a gender-oriented [[division of labor]]. The women farmed and the men fished and hunted.
 
−
 
−
By the year 1600, a convenient terminus for the relatively unstressed native economy and society, the indigenous population of New England had reached, it is estimated, 70,000–100,000.
 
−
 
−
===Colonial period===
 
−
At the time of the first European settlements in North America, Algonquian tribes occupied what is now [[New England]], [[New Jersey]], southeastern [[New York]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], all of [[Canada]] east of the [[Rocky Mountains]], [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], and were occasionally present in [[Kentucky]].  They were most concentrated in the New England region.  The homeland of the Algonquian peoples is not known.  At the time of the European arrival, the hegemonic [[Iroquois]] federation was regularly at war with their Algonquian neighbours, forcing them to settle in regions unoccupied by Iroquois.
 
  
−
For about two centuries, Algonquians provided the main obstacles to the spread of Euro-American settlers, who concluded hundreds of peace treaties with them. [[Metacomet]], [[Cornstalk]], [[Tecumseh]] and [[Chief Pontiac|Pontiac]] were  all leaders who belonged to Algonquian nations.
 
  
−
==Tribal identities==
 
−
Algonquian tribes of the New England area include [[Mohegan]], [[Pequot]], [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]], [[Wampanoag]], [[Massachusett]], [[Nipmuck]], [[Pennacook]], and [[Passamaquoddy]].  The [[Abenaki]] tribe is located in Maine and eastern Quebec. These tribes practiced some agriculture.  The [[Maliseet]] of [[Maine]], [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]], and the [[Micmac]] tribes of the Canadian [[Maritime provinces]] lived primarily on fishing.  Further north are the [[Betsiamites]], [[Atikamekw]], [[Algonkin]] and [[Montagnais]]/[[Naskapi]] ([[Innu]]).  The [[Beothuk]] people of Newfoundland are also believed to have been Algonquians, but they disappeared in the early [[19th century]] and few records of their language or culture remain.  In the west, [[Ojibwe]]/[[Chippewa]], [[Ottawa (tribe)|Ottawa]], [[Potawatomi]], and a variety of [[Cree]] groups lived in [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]],  [[Upper Michigan]], [[Western Ontario]] and the [[Canadian Prairies]]. The [[Arapaho]], [[Blackfoot]] and [[Cheyenne]] are also indigenous to the [[Great Plains]]. In the Midwest lived the [[Shawnee]], [[Illiniwek]], [[Kickapoo]], [[Menominee]], [[Miami (tribe)|Miami]], and [[Sac (people)|Sac]] and [[Fox (tribe)|Fox]], many of whom have since been displaced over great distances through [[Indian Removal]]. In the mid- and south-Atlantic are the traditional homes of the [[Powhatan]], [[Lumbee]], [[Nanticoke Indian Tribe|Nanticoke]], [[Lenape]], [[Munsee]] and [[Mahican]] peoples.
 
  
 
==Identity problems==
 
==Identity problems==

Revision as of 16:59, 3 November 2007


Algonquin
Total population
11,000
Regions with significant populations
Quebec, Ontario
Languages
French, English, Algonquin
Religions
Midewiwin
Related ethnic groups
Abnaki, Innu, Anicinàpek (Nipissing, Ojibwa, Mississaugas, Saulteaux, Odawa and Potawatomi)


The Algonquins (or Algonkins) are an aboriginal North American people speaking Algonquin, an Anishinaabe language. Culturally and linguistically, they are closely related to the Odawa and Ojibwe, with whom they form the larger Anicinàpe grouping. The Algonquin peoples call themselves either Omàmiwinini (plural: Omàmiwininiwak) or the more generalised name of Anicinàpe.

Name

File:Algonquian langs.png
Distribution of Algonquian languages

The term "Algonquin" derives from the Maliseet word elakómkwik (IPA: [ɛlæˈɡomoɡwik]), "they are our relatives/allies".[1][2]The tribe has also given its name to the much larger, heterogeneous group of Algonquian-speaking peoples who stretch from Virginia to the Rocky Mountains and north to Hudson Bay. Most Algonquins, however, live in Quebec; the nine Algonquin bands in that province and one in Ontario have a combined population of about 11,000. (Popular usage reflects some confusion on the point, in that the term "Algonquin" is sometimes used—for example in this entry in the Catholic Encyclopedia—to refer to all Algonquian-speaking societies).

Members of the Algonquin tribe have been peacefully blockading a uranium mining operation on their sacred lands north of Kingston, Ontario since June 29, 2007.[3] Oakville-based Frontenac Ventures, the prospecting company, is suing the Algonquins for $77 million and is seeking a court order that would force the protesters from the area. So far, however, they have been unsuccessful in doing so. If the order is granted, some protesters have voiced fears of a repeat of the standoffs in Ipperwash or Caledonia, where native land claims disputes have led to violence, and the killing of native protester Dudley George. However, many of the tribe are also hopeful; Algonquin protests have yielded successful results in the past (see below).

Culture

Many Algonquins still speak the Algonquin language, called generally as Anicinàpemowin or specifically as Omàmiwininìmowin. The language is considered one of several divergent dialects of the Anishinaabe languages. Among younger speakers, the Algonquin language has experienced strong word borrowings from the Cree language.[4] Traditionally, the Algonquins lived in either a birch bark wìkiwàm or in wooden mìkiwàm,[5] though Algonquins today live in housing much like that of the general public. Traditionally, the Algonquins were practitioners of Midewiwin; they believed they were surrounded by many manitòk. With the arrival of the French, many Algonquins were proselytized to Christianity, but many still practice Midewiwin or co-practice Christianity and Midewiwin.

Although the historical Algonquin society was largely hunting- and fishing-based, some Algonquins practiced agriculture and cultivated corn, beans, and squash, the famous "Three Sisters" of indigenous horticulture. Bring primarily a hunting Nation, mobility was essential. Material used had to be light and easy to transport. Canoes were made of birch bark, sowed with spruce roots and render waterproof by the application of heated up spruce resin and grease. It was easy to move and the material readily available. During winter, toboggans were used to transport material and people used snowshoes to get around. For babies, tikinàgan (cradleboard) were used to carry them. It was built with wood and covered with an envelope made of leather or material. The baby was standing up with his feet resting on a small board. The mother would then put the tikinàgan on her back. This allowed the infant to look around and observe his surroundings, therefore start learning how everyday tasks were done.

Algonquian-speaking people also practiced large amounts of agriculture, particularly south of the Great Lakes where the climate allows for a larger growing season. Other notable indigenous crops historically farmed by Algonquins are the sunflower and tobacco. Even among groups who mainly hunted, agricultural products were an important source of food and were obtained by trading with or raiding societies that practiced larger amounts of agriculture.

Archeological sites on Morrison Island near Pembroke, within the territory of the Kitcisìpiriniwak, reveal a 1000-year-old culture that manufactured copper tools and weapons. Copper ore was extracted north of Lake Superior and distributed down to today's northern New York state. Local pottery artifacts from this period show widespread similarities that indicate the continuing use of the river for cultural exchange throughout the Canadian Shield and beyond. Some centuries later the Algonquin tribe moved in and inhabited the islands and shores along the Ottawa, and by the 1600s the first Europeans found them well-established as a hunter-gatherer society in control of the river. The Kitcisìpiriniwak showed entrepreneurial spirit. On Morrison Island, at the location of where 5000-year-old copper artifacts were discovered, the Kitcisìpirini band levied a toll on canoe flotillas descending the river.

History

Pre-colonial period

Before European contact, most Algonquians lived by hunting and fishing, although quite a few supplemented their diet by cultivating corn, beans, squash, and (particularly among the Ojibwe) wild rice.

The Algonquians of New England (who spoke eastern Algonquian) practiced a seasonal economy. The basic social unit was the village of a few hundred people related by a kinship structure. Villages were temporary and mobile. They moved to locations of greatest natural food supply, often breaking into smaller units or recombining as the circumstances required. This custom resulted in a certain degree of cross-tribal mobility, especially in troubled times.

In warm weather, villages were constructed of light wigwams for portability. In the winter more solid long houses were used, in which more than one clan could reside. Food supplies were cached in more permanent, semi-subterranean buildings.

In the spring, when the fish were spawning, the natives left their winter camps to build light villages at coastal locations and waterfalls. In March they caught smelt in nets and weirs, moving about in birchbark canoes. In April they netted alewife, sturgeon and salmon. In May they caught cod with hook and line in the ocean, and trout, smelt, striped bass and flounder in the estuaries and streams. They put out to sea and hunted whales, porpoises, walruses and seals. The women and children gathered scallops, mussels, clams and crabs, all dishes in New England today.

In April through October, they hunted migratory birds and their eggs: Canada geese, brant, mourning doves and others. In July and August they gathered strawberries, raspberries, blueberries and nuts. In September they split into small groups and moved up the streams to the forest. There they hunted beaver, caribou, moose and white-tailed deer.

In December when the snows began they recombined in winter camps in sheltered locations, where they built or reconstructed long houses. February and March were lean times. They relied on cached food, especially in southern New England. Northerners had a policy of going hungry for several days at a time. It is hypothesized that this policy kept the population down according to Liebig’s law. The northerners were food gatherers only.

The southern Algonquians of New England relied predominantly on slash-and-burn agriculture. Fields were cleared by burning for one or two years of cultivation, after which the village moved to another location. This habit is the reason why the English found the region cleared and ready for planting. The native corn (maize), of which they planted various kinds, beans and squash improved the diet to such a degree that the southerners reached a density of 287 persons per square hundred miles, as opposed to 41 in the north.

Even with this mobile form of crop rotation, southern villages were necessarily less mobile than northern. The natives continued their seasonal occupation but tended to move into fixed villages near their lands. Society made the adjustment partially by developing a gender-oriented division of labor. The women farmed and the men fished and hunted.

By the year 1600, a convenient terminus for the relatively unstressed native economy and society, the indigenous population of New England had reached, it is estimated, 70,000–100,000.

Colonial period

At the time of the first European settlements in North America, Algonquin tribes occupied what is now New England, New Jersey, southeastern New York, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, all of Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, and were occasionally present in Kentucky. They were most concentrated in the New England region. The homeland of the Algonquian peoples is not known. At the time of the European arrival, the hegemonic Iroquois federation was regularly at war with their Algonquian neighbors, forcing them to settle in regions unoccupied by Iroquois.

For about two centuries, Algonquins provided the main obstacles to the spread of Euro-American settlers, who concluded hundreds of peace treaties with them. Metacomet, Cornstalk, Tecumseh and Pontiac were all leaders who belonged to Algonquin nations.

In the earliest oral history, the Algonquins were from the Atlantic coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal. While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the St. Lawrence River, the Algonquins settled along the Kitcisìpi (Ottawa River), an important highway for commerce, cultural exchange, and transportation from time immemorial. A distinct Algonquin identity, though, was not fully-realized until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place," estimated at about 5,000 years ago near present day Detroit.

After contact with the Europeans, the Algonquins became one of the key players in the Fur Trade. This lead them to fight against the Iroquois due to their rivalry in the fur trade; and formed an alliance with the Montagnais to the east in 1570.

The first group of Algonquian that the French encountered were the Kitcisìpiriniwak ("Ottawa River Men"; singular: Kitcisìpirini) whose village was located on an island in the Ottawa River; the French called this group "La Nation de l'Isle." The first recorded meeting between Europeans and Algonquins occurred at Tadoussac in the summer of 1603, when Samuel de Champlain came upon a party of Algonquins, lead by the Kitcisìpirini Chief Tessouat. They were celebrating with the Montagnais and Etechemins (Malecite) a recent victory over the Five Nations Iroquois. Champlain did not understand the strong totem/clan system that socially united the Algonquins rather than the European-styled politically united concept of nationhood. Consequently, there were several Algonquin bands, each with its own chief, needing political approval from each of the band's clan leaders. So, from 1603 some of the Algonquins allied themselves with the French under Samuel de Champlain. At the time of their first meeting with the French in 1603, the various Algonquin bands probably had a combined population somewhere in the neighborhood of 6,000.

Champlain made his first exploration of the Ottawa River during May, 1613 and reached the fortified Kitcisìpirini village at Morrison Island. Unlike the other Algonquin communities, Kitcisìpiriniwak did not change location with the seasons. They had chosen a strategic point astride the trade route between the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence and had prospered through the collection of beaver pelts from native traders passing through their territory. They pointed with great pride to their corn fields, a skill that they seemed to have acquired just before the arrival of the French. At first, the term "Algonquin" was used only for a second group, the Wàwàckeciriniwak. However, by 1615 the name was applied to all of the Algonquin bands living along the Ottawa River. Because of keen interest to gain control of the lower Ottawa River the Kitcisìpiriniwak and the Wàwàckeciriniwak came under fierce opposition. These two large groups allied together, under the leadership of Sachem Charles Parcharini, maintaining the Omàmiwinini identity and territory.

The Algonquin Indians were the victims of unfortunate European politics. The banding together of the Iroquois Confederacy had driven the Algonquins from lands that were once theirs, and when the French arrived trading firearms for furs, the Algonquins jumped at the deal. Though the French were good friends to the Algonquins, they did not make such good allies. The powerful Iroquois, aided first by the Dutch and later by the English, defeated the French and Algonquins alike. Though the Algonquins were defeated, they were never destroyed, and the Algonquin Indian culture lives on in pockets of their once-vast territory.

In 1632, after Sir David Kirke's occupation of New France had demonstrated French colonial vulnerability, the French began to trade muskets to the Algonquins and their allies. French Jesuits began to actively seek Algonquin conversions to Roman Catholicism, opening up a bitter divide between traditionalists and converts.

Through all of these years, the Iroquois had never dared to attack the Kitcisìpirinik fortress, but in 1642 a surprise winter raid hit the Algonkin while most of their warriors were absent and inflicted severe casualties. On March 6th (Ash Wednesday), 1647, a large Mohawk war party hit the Kitcisìpiriniwak living near Trois-Rivières and almost exterminated them. The Kitcisìpiriniwak were still at Morrison Island in 1650 and inspired respect with their 400 warriors. When the French retreated from the Huron country that year, Tessouat is reported to have had the superior of the Jesuit mission suspended by his armpits because he refused to offer him the customary presents for being allowed to travel through Algonquin territory. Some joined the mission at Sillery and were mostly destroyed by an epidemic by 1676. Others, encouraged by the French, remained at Trois-Rivières and their settlement at nearby Pointe-du-Lac remained until about 1830, when the last 14 families, numbering about 50 moved to Oka. The Sulpician Mission of the Mountain was founded at Montreal in 1677, and some Algonquins settled there together with Iroquois converts. However many did maintain attachment to the traditional territory and the trading traditions. While those that agreed to move to the established reserves or joined other historic bands and were then federally "recognized" many others did not re-locate and were later referred to as "stragglers" in the Ottawa and Pontiac Counties.

Starting in 1721, many Christian Algonquins began to summer at Oka, a Mohawk settlement near Montreal that was then considered one of the Seven Nations of Canada. Algonquin warriors continued to fight in alliance with France until the British conquest of Quebec in 1760. Fighting on behalf of the British Crown, the Algonquins took part in the Barry St Leger campaign during the American Revolutionary War. The British estimate in 1768 was 1,500. Currently, there are almost 8,000 Algonquins in Canada organized into ten separate First Nations: nine in Quebec and one in Ontario.

Loyalist settlers began encroaching on Algonquin lands shortly after the Revolution. Later in the 19th century, the lumber industry began to move up the Ottawa valley, and some Algonquins were relegated to a string of small reserves.

Modern events

In 1982, members of the Algonquin tribe successfully blockaded a commercial rice-harvesting venture that was given federal governmental permission to harvest the wild rice that the tribe has traditionally gathered by hand for centuries[6]. Hundreds of people blockaded roads, and despite police helicopters, paddywagons, and "a lot of hostility and pushing and shoving," according to Harold Perry, honorary chief of the Ardoch Algonquins, the tribe and its supporters held their ground for 27 days—long enough for the federal government to reverse its decision and revoke the commercial permit.

In recent years, tensions with the lumber industry have flared up again among Algonkin communities, in response to the practice of clear-cutting. In Ontario, an ongoing Algonkin land claim has, since 1983, called into dispute much of the southeastern part of the province, stretching from near North Bay to near Hawkesbury and including Ottawa, Pembroke, and most of Algonquin Provincial Park.

In 2000, Algonkins from Timiskaming First Nation played a significant part in the local popular opposition to the plan to convert Adams Mine into a garbage dump.

In 2007, a part of Liberty City in the game Grand Theft Auto IV will be named Algonquin.


Historical Algonquin Communities

Algonquian Nations documented as early as 1630:

  • "Iroquet"—They were known as Hiroquet, Hirocay, Iroquay, Yroquetto, and to the Huron as the Atonontrataronon or Ononchataronon; they lived along Ontario's South Nation River.
  • Kitcisìpiriniwak ("people of the great river")—They were the largest and most powerful group of Algonquins. Known variously as: Algoumequins de l'Isle, Allumette, Big River People, Gens d l'Isle, Honkeronon (Wyandot language), Island Algonquian, Island Indians, Island Nation, People from the Island, Kichesippiriniwek, Nation de l'Isle, Nation of the Isle, and Savages de l'Isle. Their main village was on Morrison Island.
  • Kinònjepìriniwak ("people of the Pickerel-waters")—Also known as Keinouche, Kinonche, Pickerel, Pike and Quenongebin. Sometimes they were listed as an Algonquian band, but after 1650 associated with the Ottawa. Originally found along the lower Ottawa River below Allumette Island.
  • Matàwackariniwak "people of the bulrushed-shore"—Also known as Madawaska, Madwaska, Matouchkarine, Matouashita, Mataouchkarini, Matouechkariniwek and Matouescarini; the Madawaska River in the Upper Ottawa Valley is named after this Band.
  • "Nibachis"—Located at Muskrat Lake near present-day Cobden, Ontario.
  • "Otaguottaouemin"—Also known as Kotakoutouemi or Outaoukotwemiwek. They were located along the Upper Ottawa River above Allumette Island.
  • Sàgaiganininiwak ("people of the lake")—Also known as Saghiganirini.
  • "Saginitaouigama"—Also known as Sagachiganiriniwek.
  • Wàwàckeciriniwak ("people of the deer[-clan]")—Also known as the Algonquian Proper, Weskarini, La Petite Nation, Little Nation, Ouaouechkairini, Ouassouarini, Ouescharini, Ouionontateronon (Wyandot language), or Petite Nation. They were located on the north side of the Ottawa River along the Lievre and the Rouge Rivers in Quebec.


Contemporary Algonquin Communities

Algonquin communities since 1800s. Status Nations are listed from greatest to least in population.

  • Kitigan Zibi Anishinabeg, Kitigan Zibi QC (population 2,600
  • Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn First Nation, Golden Lake ON (population 1,871)
  • Timiskaming First Nation, Notre-Dame-du-Nord QC (population 1,553)
  • Nation Anishinabe du Lac Simon, Lac Simon QC (population 1,459)
  • Abitibiwinni First Nation, Pikogan QC (population 814)
  • Eagle Village First Nation, Témiscaming QC (population 676)
  • Long Point First Nation, Winneway River QC (population 652)
  • Algonquins of Barrière Lake, Lac Rapide QC (population 616)
  • Anicinape Community of Kitcisakik, Val d'Or QC (population 384)
  • Wolf Lake First Nation, Témiscaming QC (population 262)
  • Wahgoshig First Nation, Matheson ON (population 250)
  • Ardoch Algonguin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Big Rideau Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Bob’s Lake Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Calabogie Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Eagle Lake Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Eel Lake Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Fall River Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Golden Lake Algonquin First Nation, (historical)
      • Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn First Nation, (status - see above)
      • Bonnechere Algonquin Community, (non-status)
    • Mattawachen Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Ottawa Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
    • Sharbot Lake Algonquin First Nation, (von-status)
    • Tay River Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
  • Kichesipirini Algonquin First Nation, (non-status)
  • Dumoine Lake Band of Algonquin, (historical)
  • Grassy Lake Band of Algonquin, (historical)
  • Lac des Quinze Band of Algonquin, (historical)
  • Temagami Lake Band of Algonquin, (historical)
  • Washagami Lake Band of Algonquin, (historical)

These population figures are from Canada's Department of Indian and Northern Affairs.

The Nipissing First Nation of North Bay, Ontario is also sometimes considered to belong to the Algonkin group of Anishinaabeg.


The Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American Native groups, with tribes originally numbering in the hundreds, and hundreds of thousands who still identify with various Algonquian peoples. This grouping consists of peoples that speak Algonquian languages.

History

Identity problems

The tribal names used to identify individual groups of Algonquian peoples and their languages are often misleading. Even today, intermarriage and tight intercommunity alliances are common across the Algonquian peoples. Their languages are also quite similar. Across Canada, Cree speaking people may be able to understand each other with little difficulty, and the Ojibwe language is close enough to the Western Cree languages to remain partially understandable. These divisions have often been imposed by European efforts to manage native peoples, and to give them a European-style political identity better suited to the colonisers' ends. Within these communities, identities were often more fungible.

Notes

  1. ↑ Campbell (1997:401 n. 133, 136)
  2. ↑ Bright, William (2004). Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, pg. 32
  3. ↑ http://www.aafna.ca/protest_update.html
  4. ↑ Artuso, Christian. 1998. noogom gaa-izhi-anishinaabemonaaniwag: Generational Difference in Algonquin. Winnipeg: The University of Manitoba Press.
  5. ↑ Cuoq, Jean André. 1886. Lexique de la Langue Algonquine. Montréal: J. Chapleau & Fils.
  6. ↑ http://www.aafna.ca/history.html

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Cronon, William, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, Hill and Wang, copyright 1983, ISBN 0-8090-0158-6
  • Moondancer and Strong Woman, A Cultural History of the Native Peoples of Southern New England: Voices from Past and Present, Bauu Press, copyright 2007, ISBN 0-9721-3493-X


External links


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