Sin

The Sin, 1893 painting by Franz von Stuck.

Sin is a term used to describe either an action that is prohibited in religious ethics or law, or a fallen state of being. The religious concept of sin is tied to a cluster of interrelated issues including atonement, redemption, theodicy (the nature of evil and suffering), absolution, free-will, ethics, guilt, and law. Although many religions contain concepts of sin (or a parallel ideas such as alineation, estrangement, or karma), it is also true that the notion of sin has evolved over time and has been interpreted in many ways. Consequently, sin is a complex issue that works on different levels and presupposes certain theological, metaphysical and epistolomigical ways of viewing the world, creation, law, and humanity's connection to all of the above.

Different theories for the origins of sin have been proposed by the world religions. Some of these theories suggest that sin entered the world with the fall of Adam and Eve, or, alternatively, with the fall of the Archangel Lucifer. Others suggest that sexual sin among these figures led to the fall of humanity. In the post-modern context, sin can have multiple meanings, including but not limited to interpersonal sins (harming one's neighbors, friends, or families with negative actions), environmental sins (pollution, overconsumption), structural sins (homophobia or heterosexism, misogyny, racism, etc.), or even personal sins (actions which are harmful to oneself). Today, colloquially, any thought, word, or act deemed to be immoral, harmful, or alienating might be termed "sinful".

Etymology

The Greek word in the New Testament that is translated in English as "sin" is hamartia, which literally means missing the target. The word sin derives from Old English synn, recorded in use as early as the 9th century. The same root appears in several other Germanic languages, e.g. Old Norse synd, or German Sünde. There is presumably a Germanic root *sun(d)jō (literally "it is true"). The word may derive, ultimately, from *es-, one of the Proto-Indo-European roots that meant "to be," and is a present participle, "being." Latin, also has an old present participle of esse in the word sons, sont-, which came to mean "guilty" in Latin. The root meaning would appear to be, "it is true;" that is, "the charge has been proven."

The Greek word hamartia (ἁμαρτία) is usually translated as sin in the New Testament. In Classical Greek, it means "to miss the mark" or "to miss the target," which was also used in Old English archery. In Koine Greek, which was spoken in the time of the New Testament, however, this translation is not adequate. In other research, this word has been associated with the "hem" of a garment.

"Sin" was also the name of the Babylonian/Akkadian moon god, which is derived from the Sumerian moon god Nanna - Suen. In the Sumerian myth "Enlil and Ninlil." [1] Suen is trapped in the underworld. Sons of Enlil and Ninlil are given as substitutes to allow for the ascent of Suen.

Origins

Within the Abrahamic religions, different theories exist concerning the origins of sin. The Book of Ezekiel (Ch. 28) suggests that sin originated when Satan coveted the position that rightfully belongs to God. Most denominations of Christianity interpret the Garden of Eden account in the biblical Book of Genesis, describing the fall of humanity, as the beginning of Original Sin. Adam and Eve's disobedience is often considered the first sin humanity ever committed, and its alienating effects were allegedly passed down to all subsequent generations.

In ancient Judaism, the concept of sin was tied to Jewish views of atonement, which were not identical to those in later times (see below). Thus, the idea of sin has evolved from its original Jewish usage. In the New Testament, the origin of individual sins is defined in James 1:14&15 - "(14)but each one is tempted when, by his own evil desire, he is dragged away and enticed. (15) Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin, when it is full-grown, gives birth to death."(NIV)

Jewish Views of Sin

Judaism regards the violation of divine commandments to be a sin. According to the Jewish encyclopedia, "Man is responsible for sin because he is endowed with free will ("behirah"); yet he is by nature frail, and the tendency of the mind is to evil: "For the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth" (Gen. viii. 21; Yoma 20a; Sanh. 105a). Therefore God in His mercy allowed people to repent and be forgiven." Judaism holds that all people sin at various points in their lives, and hold that God tempers justice with mercy.

The generic Hebrew word for any kind of sin is avera (literally: transgression). Based on verses in the Hebrew Bible, Judaism describes three levels of sin:

The first one is someone who does a sin intentionally, or "B'mezid." This is the most serious category.*Pesha (deliberate sin; in modern Hebrew: crime) or Mered (lit.: rebellion) - An intentional sin; an action committed in deliberate defiance of God; (Strong's Concordance :H6588 (פשע pesha', peh'shah). According to Strong it comes from the root (:H6586); rebellion, transgression, trespass.

The second is one who did a sin by accident. This is called "B'shogeg," and while the person is still responsible for their action it is considered less serious.

• Avon (lit.: iniquity) - This is a sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion. It is a sin done knowingly, but not done to defy God; (Strong's Concordance :H5771 (avon, aw-vone). According to Strong it comes from the root (:H5753); meaning perversity, moral evil:—fault, iniquity, mischief.

The third category is someone who is a "Tinok Shenishba", who is a person raised in an environment that was assimilated or non-Jewish, and is not aware of the proper Jewish laws, or Halakha. This last type of person is not held accountable for their actions.*Cheit - This is an unintentional sin, crime or fault. (Strong's Concordance :H2399 (חַטָּא chate). According to Strong it comes from the root khaw-taw (:H2398, H2403) meaning "to miss, to err from the mark (speaking of an archer), to sin, to stumble."

Additionally, Jewish law prescribes seven precepts for non-Jews (gentiles) called the Noahide Laws, which must be followed for righteous gentiles to have a share in the world to come.

Judaism holds that no human being is perfect, and all people have sinned many times. However, certain states of sin (i.e. avon or cheit) do not condemn a person to damnation; only one or two truly grievous sins lead to damnation. The scriptural and rabbinic conception of God is that of a creator who tempers justice with mercy.

Based on the views of Rabbeinu Tam in the Babylonian Talmud (tractate Rosh HaShanah 17b),

Jewish conceptions of atonement for sin

Atonement for sins is discussed in the Hebrew Bible, known to Christians as the Old Testament. Rituals for atonement occurred in the Temple in Jerusalem, and were performed by the Kohanim, the Israelite priests. These services included song, prayer, offerings and animal sacrifices known as the korbanot. The traditional liturgy of the Days of Awe (the High Holy Days; i.e. Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur) states that prayer, repentance and tzedakah (charitable actions) are ways to repent for sin. In Judaism, sins committed against people (rather than against God or in the heart) must first be corrected and put right to the best of a person's ability; a sin which has not also been put right as best as possible cannot truly be said to be repented.The rites for Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, are prescribed in the book of Leviticus chapter 15. The ritual of the scapegoat, sent into the wilderness to be claimed by Azazel, was one of these observances (Lev. 16:20-22).

A number of animal sacrifices were prescribed in the Torah (five books of Moses) to make atonement: a sin-offering for sins, and a guilt offering for religious trespasses. The significance of animal sacrifice is not expanded on at length in the Torah, though Genesis 9:4 and Leviticus 17 suggest that blood and vitality were linked. It should be noted that modern conservative Jews and Christians argue that the Jews never believed that the aim of all sacrifice is to pay the debt for sins - only the sin-offering and the guilt offering had this purpose; modern scholars of early Jewish history, however, often disagree and argue that this division came later. Later Biblical prophets occasionally make statements to the effect that the hearts of the people were more important than their sacrifices - "Does the Lord delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as much as in obeying the voice of the Lord? To obey is better than sacrifice, and to heed is better than the fat of rams" (I Samuel 15:22); "For I desire mercy, not sacrifice, and acknowledgement of God rather than burnt offerings" (Hosea 6:6); "The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit, a broken and contrite heart" (Psalm 51:17) (see also Isaiah 1:11, Psalm 40:6-8).

A classical rabbinic work, Midrash Avot de Rabbi Natan, states:

"One time, when Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai was walking in Jerusalem with Rabbi Yehoshua, they arrived at where the Temple of Jerusalem now stood in ruins. "Woe to us" cried Rabbi Yehoshua, "for this house where atonement was made for Israel's sins now lies in ruins!" Answered Rabban Yochanan, "We have another, equally important source of atonement, the practice of gemilut hasadim (loving kindness), as it is stated 'I desire loving kindness and not sacrifice'."

Although the animal sacrifices were prescribed for atonement, there is no place where the Hebrew Bible says that animal sacrifice is the only means of atonement. Hebrew Bible teaches that it is possible to return to God through repentance and prayer alone. For example, in the books of Jonah and Esther, both Jews and gentiles repented, prayed to God and were forgiven for their sins, without having offered any sacrifices. In modern times, on the High Holidays of Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur - also known as the Day of Atonement, and the ten-day period between these holidays, repentance of sins committed is based on specialized prayers and hymns, while some Jews continue the ancient methods of sacrifice. An example of a common method of "sacrificing" for the sake of repentance is simply to drop bread into a body of water, to signify the passing of sins and the hope for one to be written into the Book of Life by God once again. This is especially emphasized on what is arguably the holiest Jewish holiday, Yom Kippur.

Repentance in itself is also a means of atonement (See Ezekiel 33:11, 33:19, Jeremiah 36:3, etc.) The Hebrew word for repentance is teshuvah which literally means to "return (to God)." The prophet Hosea (14:3) said, "Take with you words, and return to God." Judaism teaches that our personal relationship with God allows us to turn directly to Him at any time, as Malachi 3:7 says, "Return to Me and I shall return to you," and Ezekiel 18:27, "When the wicked man turns away from his wickedness that he has committed, and does that which is lawful and right, he shall save his soul alive." Additionally, God is extremely compassionate and forgiving as is indicated in Daniel 9:18, "We do not present our supplications before You because of our righteousness, but because of Your abundant mercy."

Note that modern Judaism's views on sin and atonement are not identical to those in the Hebrew Bible alone, but rather are based on the laws of the Bible as seen through the Jewish oral law.

Christian Views of Sin

The Greek word in the New Testament that is translated in English as "sin" is hamartia, which literally means missing the target. 1 John 3:4 states: "Everyone who makes a practice of sinning also practices lawlessness; sin is lawlessness." (English Standard Version) According to the Bible, sin is therefore disobeying God's law (especially the Ten Commandments) (Exodus 20:1-17). The benchmark for sin is the biblical account of Adam and Eve who disobeyed God by eating the fruit of "the tree of knowledge of good and evil." At this moment, sinful death was born; it was the disobeying act that was the sin. Thus, in a sense, sin is often viewed in Western Christianity as a legal infraction or contract violation, while in Eastern Christianity, sin is more often viewed in terms of its effects on relationships, both among people and between people and God.

The Epistle to the Romans 6:23 states that the wages of sin is death, but the gift of God is eternal life. Both Eastern and Western Christians agree, on the basis God's Word, that sin serves as a barrier in one having a complete relationship with God. Christians trust that every one of us falls short of the perfect glory of God because of our sins (imperfections), but the sacrifice of Jesus for our sins was the perfect and ultimate sacrifice; therefore, one can obtain salvation through seeking faith in Jesus Christ who was crucified and resurrected for all of humankind (Romans 3:23-24).

Roman Catholic views

Roman Catholic doctrine distinguishes between personal sin and Original Sin. Personal sins are either mortal or venial.

Mortal sins are sins of grave (serious) matter, where the sinner is fully aware that the act (or omission) is both a sin and a grave matter, and performs the act (or omission) with fully deliberate consent. The act of committing a mortal sin cuts off the sinner from God's grace; it is in itself a rejection of God. If left un-reconciled, mortal sins result in eternal punishment in Hell.

Venial sins are sins which do not meet the conditions for mortal sins. The act of committing a venial sin does not cut off the sinner from God's grace, as the sinner has not rejected God. However, venial sins do injure the relationship between the sinner and God, and as such, must be reconciled to God, either through the sacrament of reconciliation or receiving the Eucharist.

The term sin is only applicable to competent individuals past the age of reason. If a person does not know something is contrary to the Will of God they cannot be held accountable for sin until such time comes that the individual understands that particular sin is wrong.

Both mortal and venial sins have a dual nature of punishment. They incur both guilt for the sin, yielding eternal punishment, and temporal punishment for the sin. Reconciliation is an act of God's mercy, and addresses the guilt and eternal punishment for sin. Purgatory and indulgences address the temporal punishment for sin, and exercise of God's justice.

Roman Catholic doctrine also sees sin as being twofold: Sin is, at once, any evil or immoral action which infracts God's law and the inevitable consequences, the state of being that comes about by committing the sinful action. Sin can and does alienate a person both from God and the community. Hence, the Catholic Church's insistence on reconciliation with both God and the Church itself.

According to Roman Catholicism, in addition to Jesus, the Virgin Mary also lived her entire life without sin. Catholicism teaches as infallible dogma that Jesus assumed her directly into heaven after the end of her life on Earth; see Assumption of Mary. The belief in Mary's sinlessness is shared by many Eastern Orthodox theologians, but is not universally held and is not generally considered to be a point of dogma. In addition, the Orthodox view of the sinlessness of the Theotokos is not quite of the same nature as that held by Roman Catholics, since the Catholic teaching of the Immaculate Conception is not an Orthodox doctrine.

Roman Catholic doctrine has also developed a list of what are called the Seven Deadly Sins, which are acts to be avoided by all virtuous Christians.

Protestant views

Many Protestants teach that, due to original sin, humanity has lost any and all capacity to move towards reconciliation with God (Romans 3:23;6:23; Ephesians 2:1-3); in fact, this inborn sin turns humans away from God and towards themselves and their own desires (Isaiah 53:6a). Thus, humans may be brought back into a relationship with God only by way of God's rescuing the sinner from his/her hopeless condition (Galatians 5:17-21; Ephesians 2:4-10) through Jesus' ransom sacrifice (Romans 5:6-8; Colossians 2:13-15). Salvation is sola fide (by faith alone); sola gratia (by grace alone); and is begun and completed by God alone through Jesus (Ephesians 2:8,9). This understanding of original sin (Romans 5:12-19), is most closely associated with Calvinism (see total depravity) and Lutheranism. Methodist theology adapts the concept by stating that humans, entirely sinful and totally depraved, can only "do good" through God's prevenient grace.

This is in contrast to the Catholic teaching that while sin has tarnished the original goodness of humanity prior to the Fall, it has not entirely extinguished that goodness, or at least the potential for goodness, allowing humans to reach towards God to share in the Redemption which Jesus Christ won for them. Some non-Catholic or Orthodox groups hold similar views.

A scheme for determining the seriousness of sin sometimes involves the question of whether or not an act must be intentional to be sinful, or that one's conscience should produce guilt for a conscious act of sin. Repentance from (expressing regret for and determining not to commit) sin, and atonement (repayment) for past deeds. The possibility of forgiveness of sins, often through communication with a deity or intermediary.

Christian teachings on atonement, or the remedy for sin

In Christianity, atonement can refer to the redemption achieved by Jesus Christ by his virgin birth, sinless life, crucifixion, and resurrection. Thereby fulfilling more than 300 Old Testament prophecies. Generally it is understood that the death of Jesus Christ was a sacrifice that relieves believers of the burden of their sins. However, the actual meaning of this precept is very widely debated. The traditional teaching of some churches traces this idea of atonement to blood sacrifices in the ancient Hebraic faith.

Various Christian theologians have presented various interpretations of atonement:

• Origen taught that the death of Christ was a ransom paid to Satan in satisfaction of his just claim on the souls of humanity as a result of sin. This was opposed by theologians like St. Gregory Nazianzen, who maintained that this would have made Satan equal to God.
• Irenaeus of Lyons taught that Christ recapitulated in Himself all the stages of life of sinful man, and that His perfect obedience substituted for Adam's disobedience.
• Athanasius of Alexandria taught that Christ came to overcome death and corruption, and to remake humanity in God's image again. See On the Incarnation by St. Athanasius.
• Augustine of Hippo said that sin was not a created thing at all, but that it was "privatio boni", a "taking away of good", and uncreation.
• Anselm of Canterbury taught that Christ's death satisfied God's offended sense of justice over the sins of humanity. In addition, God rewarded Christ's obedience, which built up a storehouse of merit and a treasury of grace that believers could share by their faith in Christ. This view is known as the satisfaction theory, the merit theory, or sometimes the commercial theory. Anselm's teaching is contained in his treatise Cur Deus Homo, which means Why God Became Human. Anselm's ideas were later expanded utilizing Aristotelian philosophy into a grand theological system by Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, particularly in his masterpiece, the Summa Theologica, which eventually became official Roman Catholic doctrine.
• Pierre Abélard held that Christ's Passion was God suffering with His creatures in order to show the greatness of His love for them. This is often known as the moral influence view, and has dominated Christian liberalism.
• Martin Luther and John Calvin, leaders of the Protestant Reformation, owed much to Anselm's theory and taught that Christ, the only sinless person, was obedient to take upon Himself the penalty for the sins that should have been visited on men and women. This view is a version of substitutionary atonement and is sometimes called substitutionary punishment or a satisfaction theory, though it is not identical to that of Anselm. Calvin additionally advocated the doctrine of limited atonement, which teaches that the atonement applies only to the sins of the elect rather than to all of humanity.
• Arminianism has traditionally taught what is known as "Moral Government" theology or the Governmental theory. Drawing primarily from the works of Jacobus Arminius and Hugo Grotius, the Governmental theory teaches that Christ suffered for humankind so that God could forgive humans while still maintaining divine justice. Unlike the perspectives of Anselm of Canterbury or Calvinism, this view states that Christ was not punished for humanity, for true forgiveness would not be possible if humankind's offenses were already punished. Christ's suffering was a real and meaningful substitutionary atonement for the punishment humans deserve, but Christ was not punished on behalf of the human race. This view has prospered in traditional Methodism and all who follow the teachings of John Wesley, and has been detailed by, among others, 19th century Methodist theologian John Miley in his classic Atonement in Christ and 20th century Church of the Nazarene theologian J. Kenneth Grider in his Wesleyan-Holiness Theology. Variations of this view have also been espoused by 18th century Puritan Jonathan Edwards and 19th century revival leader Charles Grandison Finney.
• Karl Barth taught that Christ's death manifested God's love and His hatred for sin.
• Barbara Reid (theologian), a feminist Dominican theologian argues that atonement is a harmful theology, especially to women and other oppressed groups. Other liberal or progressive theologians have also challenged the traditional view of atonement. In this view, atonement theology—as central as it is to traditional Christian faith—needs to be re-interpreted or perhaps even disposed of as it focuses on death, sin, and suffering as opposed to liberation, life, and resurrection.

The several ideas of these and many more Christian theologians can perhaps be summed up under these rubrics:

• Victory: the idea that Jesus defeated Death through his death, and gave life to those in the grave. Both following models may be understood as variations of the Victory idea:
• Participation: the idea that God's death on the cross completed his identification with humanity - God's participation in our sin and sorrow allowing our participation in his love and triumph;
• Ransom: the idea that Jesus released humanity from a legal obligation to the Devil, incurred by sin. (Theories involving ransom owed to divine justice are generally classified under Punishment, below.)
• Punishment: the idea that God assumed the penalty for human sins on the Cross, and volunteered punishment as the price paid to release humanity from so that the faithful might escape it;
• Government: the idea that God forgives the penalty due humans for their sins, provisioned on their acceptance of that forgiveness, but that Christ suffered on the Cross in order to demonstrate the seriousness of sin;
• Example: the idea that Jesus' death was meant as a lesson in ideal submission to the will of God, and to show the path to eternal life;
• Revelation: the idea that Jesus' death was meant to reveal God's nature and to help humans know God better.
• Liberation: the concept that both the life and death of Jesus are somehow responsible for social and personal liberation from the effects of sin.

See also: Salvation; Penance; Repentance; Reconciliation; Sacraments (Catholic Church)

Islamic views of sin

Islam sees sin (dhanb, thanb ذنب) as anything that goes against the will of Allah (God). However, Islam teaches that sin is an act and not a state of being. The Qur'an teaches that "the (human) soul is certainly prone to evil, unless the Lord does bestow His Mercy," and that even the prophets do not absolve themselves of the blame (12:53).

In Islam, there are several gradations of sin:

• sayyia, khatia: mistakes (Suras 7:168; 17:31; 40:45; 47:19; 48:2)
• itada, junah, dhanb: immorality (Suras 2:190,229; 17:17; 33:55)
• haram: transgressions (Suras 5:4; 6:146)
• ithm, dhulam, fujur, su, fasad, fisk, kufr: wickedness and depravity (Suras 2:99, 205; 4:50, 112, 123, 136; 12:79; 38:62; 82:14)
• shirk: ascribing a partner to God (Sura 4:48)

There is considerable difference among scholars as to which sins are Al-Kaba'r (major sins). According to Sahih Bukhari, there are seven major sins:

"Avoid the seven noxious things"- and after having said this, the prophet (saw) mentioned them: "associating anything with Allah; magic (Equivalent to Witchcraft and Sorcery in English); killing one whom Allah has declared inviolate without a just case, consuming the property of an orphan, devouring usury, turning back when the army advances, and slandering chaste women who are believers but indiscreet."

However, 'Abdullah ibn 'Abbas said, "Seventy is closer to their number than seven."

It is believed that Iblis (Satan) has a significant role in tempting humankind towards sin. Thus, Islamic theology identifies and warns of an external enemy of humankind who leads humankind towards sin (^{[Quran 7:27]}, ^{[Quran 4:199]}, ^{[Quran 3:55]} etc.) The Qur'an in several verses (^{[Quran 2:30]}, ^{[Quran 7:11]}, ^{[Quran 20:116]}) states the details of the Iblis’s temptation of Adam and argues that the Iblis’s pattern of temptation of man is the same as that of Adam (Qur'an 7 27). Muslims believe that Allah is angered by sin and punishes some sinners with the fires of جهنم‎ jahannam (Hell), but that He is also ar-rahman (the Merciful) and al-ghaffar (the Oft-Forgiving). It is believed that the جهنم‎ jahannam fire has purification functionality and that after purification, an individual who has been condemned to enter جهنم‎ jahannam is eligible to go to جنّة jannah (the Garden), if he "had an atom's worth of faith". Some Qur'anic commentaries such as Allameh Tabatabaei ^{[Quran 4:10]}, ^{[Quran 2:174]} state that the fire is nothing but a transformed form of the human’s sin itself.

Qur'an teaches that the main way back to Allah is through genuine tawbah (repentance) which literally means 'to return').

"Say: "O my Servants who have transgressed against their souls! Despair not of the Mercy of Allah: for Allah forgives all sins: for He is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Turn ye to our Lord (in repentance) and bow to His (will), before the Penalty comes on you: after that ye shall not be helped."

Islam does not accept any blood sacrifice for sin. The Islamic understanding of forgiveness is that it is made on the basis of divine grace and repentance. According to Islam, no sacrifice can add to divine grace nor replace the necessity of repentance. In the Islamic theology, the animal sacrifices or blood are not directly linked to atonement (Qur'an ^{[Quran 22:37]}: "It is not their meat nor their blood that reaches Allah. It is your piety that reaches Him...". On the other hand, the sacrifice is done to help the poor, and in remembrance of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son at God's command. (The son is not named in the Qur'an and in early Islam, there was a fierce controversy over the identity of the son. However, the belief that it was Ishmael prevailed later.)

In many verses of the Qur'an, Allah promises to forgive the sins of Muslims (those who believe and do good works) (^{[Quran 47:2]}, ^{[Quran 29:7]}, ^{[Quran 14:23]} etc.) Prayer and good deeds can also be atonements for sins (Qur'an ^{[Quran 11:114]}). The Islamic Law, Sharia specifies the atonement of any particular sin. Depending on the sin, the atonement can range from repentance and compensation of the sin if possible, feeding the poor, freeing slaves to even stoning to death or cutting hands.

Some of the major sins are held to be legally punishable in an Islamic state (for example, murder, theft, adultery, and in some views apostasy). Most are left to Allah to punish (for example, backbiting, hypocrisy arrogance, filial disrespect, lying). It is said that for every good deed that is done, 10 bad ones (sins) will be taken off.

Views of Sin in Other Religions

Hinduism

In Hinduism, the term sin or pāpa is often used to describe actions that create negative karma, or violate moral and ethical codes (adharma). Thus, pāpa is the closest Hindu idea to sin, although it operates within a different constellation of assumptions. As a result, pāpa "is not 'viewed in Hinduism' as a crime against God 'as in Judaeo-Christian religions', but 'rather' as 1) an act against dharma, or moral order and 2) one's own self." Furthermore, it is thought natural, if unfortunate, that young souls act wrongly, for they are living in nescience, avidya, the darkness of ignorance. Thus, sin in Hinduism is an adharmic course of action which automatically brings negative consequences. Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami explains that the residue of sin is called papa, sometimes conceived of as a sticky, astral substance which can be dissolved through penance (prayashchitta), austerity (tapas) and good deeds (sukritya). Note that papa is also accrued through unknowing or unintentional transgressions of dharma, as in the term aparadha (offense, fault, mistake). He further notes that in Hinduism, except for the Dvaita school of Shri Madhvacharya, there are no such concepts of inherent or mortal sin, according to some theologies, which he defined as sins so grave that they can never be expiated and which cause the soul to be condemned to suffer eternally in hell.

Buddhism

There is no Buddhist concept of sin per se although there are analogous ideas such as karma (action and its consequence) and demerit. In general, Buddhism does not recognize the idea behind sin because of its "Cause-Effect Theory," known as karma, which postulates that intentions are the cause of either good or bad actions. Thus, Aryadasa Ratnasinghe writes, "There is nothing called 'sin' in Buddhism in which actions are merely termed as meritorious ('kusala') and demeritorious 'akusala')." Vipaka, the result of one's karma, may create low quality living, hardships, destruction and all means of disharmony in life and it may also create healthy living, easiness, and harmony in life. Good deeds produce good results while bad deeds produce bad results. Karma and vipaka are your own action and result.

Nevertheless, Buddhism does speak of three root causes of suffering and states that they must be rooted out in one's mind in order for one to live at peace. They are three kinds of kilesa in Pali (Sanskrit: mula klesha; "root obscurations"), in which kilesha is used to mean "defilements," "corruptions" or "poisons":

1. lobha: greed, lust (rāga), attachment.
2. dosa: hatred, aversion.
3. moha: delusion, sloth, ignorance (avijjā).

(These three kinds of kilesha are known as The Three Poisons in Mahayana Buddhism.)

These three kilesas specifically refer to the subtle movement of mind (citta) when it initially encounters a mental object. (In Buddhist conceptions of the mind, 'mental object' refers to any object which the mind perceives, be it a thought, emotion or object perceived by the physical senses.) If the mind initially reacts by moving towards the mental object, seeking it out, or attaching to it, the experience and results will be tinged by the lobha kilesa. Unpleasant objects or experiences are often met by aversion, or the mind moving away from the object, which is the root for hatred and anger to arise in relation to the object.

Bahá'í Faith

In the Bahá'í Faith, humans are considered to be naturally good, and intrinsically spiritual beings, created because of God's immeasurable love for us. However, the Bahá'í teachings compare the human heart to a mirror, which, if turned away from the light of the sun (i.e., God), is incapable of receiving God's love. It is only by turning unto God that the spiritual advancement can be made. In this sense, "sinning" is to follow the inclinations of one's own lower nature, to turn the mirror of one's heart away from God.

One of the main hindrances to spiritual development is the Bahá'í concept of the "insistent self" which is a self-serving inclination within all people. Bahá'ís interpret this to be the true meaning of Satan, often referred to in the Bahá'í writings as "the Evil One."

Watch over yourselves, for the Evil One is lying in wait, ready to entrap you. Gird yourselves against his wicked devices, and, led by the light of the name of the All-Seeing God, make your escape from the darkness that surroundeth you.

This lower nature in humans is symbolized as Satan — the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside.

The Bahá'í concept of God is both just and merciful. God even forgives the most grievous of sins." Bahá'ís are meant to refrain from focussing on the sins of others, and are meant to have a "sin-covering eye." Bahá'ís are also forbidden to confess their sins to others in order to have their sins removed. Forgiveness is between a person and God alone, and is thus a very personal affair. Bahá'u'lláh taught that one should bring one's self to account each day, and be constantly concerned with self-improvement. Sin is an inevitable stumbling block, but it should not be allowing to halt one's spiritual progress. One should ask for forgiveness from God alone and then try to develop oneself through acquisition of virtues and communion with God (through prayer, fasting, meditation and other spiritual practices).

There are many Bahá'í prayers for forgiveness of oneself, one's parents, and even the deceased. The Bahá'í Faith teaches that pardon can be obtained even in the afterlife, and that deeds done in the name of the departed or wealth left by the departed for charity can benefit and advance their souls in the afterlife.

Bibliography

• Fussell, R. Curtis. Deadly Sins and Living Virtues: Living Beyond the Seven Deadly Sins CSS Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0788011382
• Hein, David. "Regrets Only: A Theology of Remorse." The Anglican 33, no. 4 (Oct. 2004): 5-6.
• Schimme, Solomon. The Seven Deadly Sins: Jewish, Christian, and Classical Reflections on Human Psychology Oxford University Press, USA, 1997. ISBN 978-0195119459
• Stalker, James. The Seven Deadly Sins and the Seven Cardinal Virtues: And, the Seven Cardinal Virtues Navpress Publishing Group, 1998. ISBN 978-1576830925

External links

All links retrieved November 25, 2007.

• Al Kaba'r - The Major Sins
• Sin in the Catholic Encyclopedia

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