Goguryeo

Template:Totally-disputed

Goguryeo
Korean name
Hangul:	고구려
Hanja:	高句麗
McCune-Reischauer:	Koguryŏ
Revised Romanization:	Goguryeo
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese:	高句麗
Simplified Chinese:	高句丽
Hanyu Pinyin:	Gāogōulì
Wade-Giles:	Kao-kou-li
Russian name
Cyrillic:	Когурё
IPA:	kogurʲo

History of Korea

Jeulmun Period Mumun Period Gojoseon, Jin Proto-Three Kingdoms:  Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye  Samhan   Ma, Byeon, Jin Three Kingdoms:  Goguryeo   Sui wars  Baekje  Silla, Gaya North-South States:  Unified Silla  Balhae  Later Three Kingdoms Goryeo  Khitan wars  Mongol invasions Joseon  Japanese invasions  Manchu invasions Korean Empire Japanese occupation  Provisional Gov't Division of Korea  Korean War  North Korea  South Korea List of monarchs

History of Manchuria
Not based on timeline
Early tribes
Gojoseon
Yan (state) | Gija Joseon
Han Dynasty | Xiongnu
Donghu | Wiman Joseon
Wuhuan | Sushen | Buyeo
Xianbei | Goguryeo
Cao Wei
Jin Dynasty (265-420)
Yuwen
Former Yan
Former Qin
Later Yan
Northern Yan
Mohe | Shiwei
Khitan | Kumo Xi
Northern Wei
Tang Dynasty
Balhae
Liao Dynasty
Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)
Yuan Dynasty
Ming Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
Far Eastern Republic (USSR)
Republic of China
Manchukuo
Northeast China (PRC)
Russian Far East (RUS)

Goguryeo rulers Dongmyeongseong 37-19 B.C.E. Yurimyeong 19 B.C.E.-18 C.E. Daemusin 18-44 Minjung 44-48 Mobon 48-53 Taejo 53-146 Chadae 146-165 Sindae 165-179 Gogukcheon 179-197 Sansang 197-227 Dongcheon 227-248 Jungcheon 248-270 Seocheon 270-292 Bongsang 292-300 Micheon 300-331 Gogugwon 331-371 Sosurim 371-384 Gogugyang 384-391 Gwanggaeto the Great 391-413 Jangsu 413-490 Munjamyeong 491-519 Anjang 519-531 Anwon 531-545 Yangwon 545-559 Pyeongwon 559-590 Yeongyang 590-618 Yeongnyu 618-642 Bojang 642-668

Goguryeo was an ancient kingdom located in southern Manchuria (which today consists of southern Northeast China), southern Russian Marintime province, and the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla, and it is also considered an important regional kingdom in Manchuria by the People's Republic of China. It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula as well as the foreign affairs of associated polities in China and Japan.

The Samguk Sagi, a 12th century CE Goryeo text, indicate that Goguryeo was founded in 37 B.C.E. by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo, although there is archaeological evidence that suggests Goguryeo culture was in existence since the 2nd century B.C.E. around the fall of Gojoseon, an earlier kingdom that also occupied southern Manchuria and northern Korea. It was a major regional power of East Asia until it was defeated by a Silla-Tang alliance in 668 C.E. After its defeat, it was later divided between the Tang Dynasty, Unified Silla and Balhae; some of the territory might have also been taken by the Khitan, still in tribal form at this point.

History

Founding

According to the Samguk Sagi, a prince from the kingdom of Eastern Buyeo, named Jumong, fled after a power struggle with other princes of the Buyeo court and founded the Goguryeo state in 37 B.C.E. in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Yalu and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border. Some scholars believe that Goguryeo may have been founded in the 2nd century B.C.E. In the geographic monographs of the Han Shu, the word Goguryeo or "高句麗" was first mentioned in 113 B.C.E. as a region under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu commandary. In the Old Book of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. In 75 B.C.E., a group of Yemaek tribes, which may have included Goguryeo, made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the Amnok River valley.

However, the weight of textual evidence from the Old and New Histories of Tang, the Samguk Sagi, the Nihon Shoki as well as other ancient sources would support a 37 B.C.E. or "middle" 1st century B.C.E. foundation date for Goguryeo. Archeological evidence would support centralized groups of Yemaek tribes in the 2nd century B.C.E., but there is no direct evidence that would suggest these Yemaek groups were known as or would identify themselves as Goguryeo. The first mention of Goguryeo as a group type associated with Yemaek tribes would be a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryo revolt in 12 C.E., where they break away from Xuantu influence .

At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of Buyeo and Yemaek people, as Buyeo leadership may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms (Rhee 1992:192-193).

Jumong (Dongmyeongseong)

Goguryeo was founded by Jumong, who migrated south from Buyeo. Jumong is a Korean name transcribed in hanja as 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모). Although his family name is recorded as Go (meaning "high" in Hanja), this is thought to be a posthumous change from the original family name of Hae, the royal surname of Buyeo.

Jumong is said to be descended from Hae Mosu, the son of the Sun-god (hae in modern Korean means sun). According to legend, Jumong left Dongbuyeo ("Eastern Buyeo") for Jolbon Buyeo, where he married the daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a group of his followers from his native country.

Goguryeo maintained a close early relationship with Dongbuyeo until it was absorbed into Goguryeo. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 B.C.E., Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 B.C.E., and North Okjeo in 28 B.C.E.

Centralisation

Goguryeo developed into an ancient state in the first century and expanded its power in the region. In the time of Taejo of Goguryeo in 53, five local tribes were reorganised into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Taejo successfully expanded Goguryeo by attacking Han China's commanderies of Lelang, Xiantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies.

Continuing its expansion to the northwest, Goguryeo began large-scale, organized attacks against China^{[citation needed]}, as well as conquering neighboring polities such as Okjeo and Dongye. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.

Further expansion

As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was destroyed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313, and from that time the Three Kingdoms dominated the Korean Peninsula.

The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, Former Yan, a Chinese Sixteen Kingdoms state of Xianbei ethnicity, (Some Goguryeo royal family members were seized by Former Yan, and one of them, Gao Yun, briefly ruled Former Yan's successor state Northern Yan from 407 to 409.) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Wandu (丸都, in modern Ji'an, Jilin), and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, Pyongyang, and killed King Gogukwon of Goguryeo in battle.

Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學). By 391, the kingdom's rulers had achieved undisputed control of all of Manchuria and eastern inner Mongolia, as well as of the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.

Goguryeo territory at its height.

Gwanggaeto the Great

The greatest territorial expansion of Goguryeo began during the reigns of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu.

Gwanggaeto reigned from 391 to 412, during which Goguryeo conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya and Wa (Japan). In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. His accomplishments are recorded on the Gwanggaeto Stele, erected in 414 in southern part of Manchuria.

Jangsu Taewang, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427, evidence of the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north. Jangsu also advanced into the east, occupying part of Russia's Primorsky Krai.

During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and most of Manchuria and the Russian maritime province. Goguryeo considered itself the center of the world, and founder Jumong the son of Heaven. The title of the ruler, Daewang, while literally translated as the Greatest of the Kings, is often translated to mean Emperor.

In the late 5th century, it absorbed Bukbuyeo and more Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla.

Internal strife

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, it began a steady decline. King Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother King Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as feudal lords with private armies appointed de facto rulers called Daedaero.

Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551. Goguryeo fought back to reclaim the Seoul region that had been taken by Silla, and manoeuvered to effectively sever the Silla-Baekje alliance.

Military history of Goguryeo

The neutrality of this article or section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page.

Throughout its history, Goguryeo had been aggressive in northeastern China and constantly invaded Chinese settlements. The presence of Goguryeo often caused the Chinese court to apply major military actions towards Goguryeo. Goguryeo repelled numerous attacks from a number of Chinese dynasties and was also at odds with Silla and Baekje, although Goguryeo considered Baekje as an ally several times. Most of the Sui invasions ended as failures for China, and considerably weakened the Sui Dynasty. The Eastern Göktürk, a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, was an ally with Goguryeo and trading was done between the two states.^{[citation needed]} Xueyantuo, a successor state to the Eastern Göktürk state, opened a second front on the Tang Dynasty when Goguryeo was attacked by a Silla-Tang alliance near the end of Goguryeo's rule.

Goguryeo-Sui Wars

The Sui Dynasty was founded in 581. It grew in power and emerged as a powerful dynasty in China. Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. In 598 the Sui, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui was unsuccessful. The 612 campaign was terminated after tremendous losses — reported to be at a greater than 99% casualty rate. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch — the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang of Sui, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered peace and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), an associate of Yang Xuangan, who had fled to Goguryeo, for Emperor Yang to be able to execute Husi. Emperor Yang later planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state at that time was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule. They could not attack further because the soldiers in the Sui heartland would not send millitary supplies.

One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns was the campaign of 612, in which Sui mobilized at least 1,138,000 combat troops. General Eulji Mundeok, led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which overwhelmed the Chinese army and drowned nearly every Chinese soldier. Of the original 310,000 soldiers, a mere 2,700 returned to China. Sui, attacked three more times, all of which were repulsed by Goguryeo.

The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.

Goguryeo-Tang War and Tang-Silla alliance

After Goguryeo repelled attacks from the Sui Dynasty, the new dynasty that took its place, the Tang, attacked Goguryeo as well. Under Tang Taizong, the Tang Dynasty attacked Goguryeo in revenge of the Sui. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Chinese, failing to capture strategic points.

The Tang also forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the Göktürks. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general Yeon Gaesomun, increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang.

In 645, Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at Ansi Fortress. the central figure of a repulse was Yeon Gaesomun and Yang Manchun. In the end, Taizong was not able to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and running out of food supplies. After Taizong's death in 649, a Tang army was again sent to conquer Goguryeo in 661 and 662, but while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang was not able to conquer Goguryeo.

After numerous attacks, the Tang and Silla forces attacked Goguryeo on two fronts, totally exhausting Goguryeo's ability to fight. This subsequently brought the end of Goguryeo's rule.

Fall

Goguryo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 661; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons.

Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. Goguryeo's last king Bojang was captured and taken into exile by the Tang forces.

Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River.

In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, King Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually banished to Szechuan in 681, and died the following year.

Revival movements

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several others. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.

The revival movements were suppressed until the rise of Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general. Dae Joyeong reconquered most of Goguryeo's northern land, establishing the kingdom of Balhae in 698, 30 years after the fall of Goguryeo. Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, while northern Korea and Manchuria were conquered by Balhae. Balhae stood as a successor state to Goguryeo. Not much is known about Balhae, although it is known that Balhae was conquered in 926 by the Liao Dynasty, after which many Goguryeo descent people migrated down to Goryeo. The time of Balhae and Unified Silla is called the North-South State period of Korea.

In the early 10th century, Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla, also claimed to be a successor to Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean peninsula.

Military

The military of Goguryeo has been known to be powerful, especially during the rule of King Gwanggaeto. However, we do not know much of it or its exact number as there are not many records left.

The Goguryeo military was powerful and it grew in strength as Goguryeo began to conquer Manchuria. The Goguryeo cavalry was probably its largest asset. The common foot infantry wore padded armor and a helmet as well, highly unlike the common foot soldier of the later Joseon Dynasty, who had almost no armor.

Captains and higher ranking soldiers wore armor made of lamellar iron armor or scale mail. A helmet was adorned with fancy designs and often had horns to intimidate the enemy. Usually, the armor was fancy and strong as the rank of the soldier.

Weapons used were swords, spears, and axes. Archery was the preferred ranged weapon and there are no records of the usage of slings or crossbows.

Culture

The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.

Lifestyle

Goguryeo clothing was usually thick to help keep the wearer warm from the cold climate of Goguryeo. Men wore loose fitting jackets and trousers while women wore skirts and dresses. Higher class Goguryeo people often had beautiful clothing and adorned jewelry. Unlike common people during the Chosun Dynasty later, Goguryeo people wore colorful clothing.

The diet of the Goguryeo people included rice and barley. Beans were supplementary. Rice was cooked by boiling, similar to how it is cooked in Korea. Bulgogi's predeccessor, the maegjeok, was seasoned meat, and a common dish while eating.

Festivals and pastimes

A mural of a three-legged bird in a Goguryeo tomb.

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.

Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.

Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred. Horse riding was popular and Goguryeo developed strong military skills, as the cavalry was strong.

Religion

A Goguryeo tomb mural.

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. (MyGoguryeo Unknown year, p. culture.htm) Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.

Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The Korean phoenix and dragon were both worshipped upon, while the three-legged bird was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.

Buddhism was first introduced to Korea in 372 The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first Korean kingdom to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in Silla and Baekje, which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.

Cultural impact

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces were influenced by Chinese designs.

Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, Ondol, Goguryeo's unique floor heating system, and Hanbok(Brown 2006, p. 18), traditional clothes of Korea. A modernized version of Ondol can be found in the floor of every modern house in Korea, and Koreans wear Hanbok on traditional holidays and other special occasions.

Legacy

File:Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom.jpg

Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in Jilin, China.

Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in China, for example at Onyeosan ("Five Maiden Peaks") near Ji'an in Manchuria along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral stele of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site

UNESCO added Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.

Language

Detail of a rubbing of the Gwanggaeto Stele (414 C.E.), one of the few surviving records made by Goguryeo, written in Classical Chinese.

Main article: Goguryeo language.

Along with many other kingdoms in east Asia, Goguryeo used Chinese characters and wrote in Classical Chinese. The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages.^{[citation needed]} Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon. Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla. ^{[citation needed]}

The American linguist Christopher Beckwith has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese (Beckwith August 2003). Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe)^{[citation needed]}.

Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.

See also: Korean language

Modern politics

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Goguryeo at territorial prime and modern political boundaries

Goguryeo has been conventionally viewed as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and is described as Korean by most non-Chinese sources. ( Britannica Unknown Year, Encarta 2007, CIA World Factbook 2007, and Columbia Encyclopedia 2005)

Chinese characterization of Goguryeo as a regional power of China in modern times has spawned heated disputes with both North Korea and South Korea. At heart of the Goguryeo controversy is whether Goguryeo was a part of the greater Chinese nation, or an independent Korean kingdom.

China views Goguryeo as a part of the regional history of China rather than of being solely or uniquely Korean.^{[citation needed]} Chinese historian Sun Jinji in 1986 suggested that Goguryeo is separate from the history of the Three Kingdoms in the Korean Peninsula. He argued that “the people of Buyeo and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the Silla lineage.”( Sun 1986, Yonson 2006) This view has since been supported by many other prominent Chinese historians.^{[citation needed]} However, Chinese scholars are not all of one voice on this issue. There are also many Chinese historians who acknowledge Goguryeo history as being shared by both Korea and China within “a framework of the dual elements of a single history” (一史两用论, yishi liangyong lun).(Sun 2004a). More recently, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) generated new controversy through its Northeast Project study of China's three Northeast provinces. The Chinese argument for Goguryeo’s historical heritage in the Northeast Project is based on two main points: the first is that the Goguryeo state grew out of the Han Chinese commandary of Xuantu; and also the Chinese consider Goguryeo and Barhae to be founded by the Mohe (Malgal) peoples, a purported ancestor of modern day Manchurians, who ruled China's last dynasty. ( Sun 2004b, Yonson 2006) The conclusions of the CASS study have created tensions in China-South Korea relations.

In his email to Koreanstudies mailing list, Mark Byington, when completing a postdoctoral program at the Korea Institute, an autonomous non-departmental entity located at Harvard University, has suggested China's official position to be "flimsy," historically speaking, though notes it "accords with current practice in the PRC" in describing "a very vaguely defined greater Chinese nation of the remote past," and that their position is "one that must exist in order to fall into line with current Chinese views of the Chinese past" (Byington 2004a).

Political Connections between Goguryeo and the Chinese Central Plains Dynasties

Template:Totally-disputed According to Wei Cuncheng, a researcher of the Northeast Project, in addition to the almost incessant wars during its existence,Goguryeo also had close political connections with the Chinese Central Plains dynasties, manifested by tribute and the conferring of dynastic titles on Goguryeo kings.^{[citation needed]} Goguryeo for a long time regularly paid tributes, such as horses and jewelries, to show its submissiveness to the Central Plains dynasties. And Goguryeo’s receiving of the titiles matter-of-factly was a demonstration of its subjugation to the Chinese dynasties.^{[citation needed]}

Research conducted by a Japanese scholar shows that from 32 B.C.E. to 666 C.E. Goguryeo paid 205 tributes to the Central Plains dynasties. From 32 B.C.E. to 391 C.E., Goguryeo paid only 17 tributes, but between 423 C.E. and 666 C.E., 188 tributes were paid. According to the analysis of Chinese historians, Goguryeo paid few tributes in its early stage because Goguryeo was treated as a local government of the Han dynasty, and did not need to pay tributes.^{[citation needed]}

Both Korean and Chinese historical records state that the kings of Goguryeo regularly paid tributes to and were conferred titles by the Central Plains dynasties during its later era. According to both The Book Of Jin and Samguk Sagi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms), in 355 C.E., the Yan dynasty conferred the title of “Lord of Lelang”(乐浪公) on King Gogugwon. In 413 C.E., Eastern Jin Emperor Jinan conferred the titles of “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王), “Lord of Lelang” (乐浪公), and “Eastern Expedition General” (征东大将军) on King Jangsu. After King Jangsu died in 491 C.E., the Northern Wei Dynasty conferred the following titles upon King Munjamyeong: “Eastern Expedition General”(征东将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公),and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王).

In 520 C.E., Munjamyeong’s son, King Anjang, was conferred by Northern Wei the titles of “Pacifying East General”(安东将军), “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王),and “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公). After King Anjang died in 531 C.E., the next year Northern Wei conferred on King Anwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong” (辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). In 550 C.E., the Northern Qi Dynasty conferred on King Yangwon the titles of “Cheji General”(车骑大将军), “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公), and “King of Goguryeo” (高句丽王). In 560 C.E., King Pyeongwon was conferred by Northern Qi the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡开国公) and “King of Goguryeo”(高句丽王). In 590 C.E., the Sui Dynasty conferred on King Yeongyang the title of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公). After the Tang Dynasty was established, Goguryeo King Yeongnyu was conferred by Tang the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡公) and “King of Goryeo”(高丽王).

The last titles conferred on the king of Goguryeo was in 643 C.E. by Tang Emperor Taizong. He conferred the titles of “Lord of Liaodong”(辽东郡王) and “King of Goryeo” (高丽王) on King Bojang. The historical records in both Korean and Chinese ancient books show that title-conferring had been a way that the Central Plains tried to impose indirect rules over Goguryeo, and it had been institutionalized from the Eastern Jin dynasty to the Tang dynasty, with every Goguryeo king from Jangsu to Bojang holding titles conferred by the Chinese Central Plains dynasties.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Byeon, Tae-seop (1999), 韓國史通論(Outline of Korean history), 4th ed., Unknown Publisher, ISBN 89-445-9101-6 

• US Library of Congress, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), South Korea:The Three Kingdom Periods, Unknown Publisher 

• Metropolitan Museum, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Korea, 1-500 C.E.) Korea, 1-500C.E., Unknown Publisher 

• Yonson, Ahn (2006), Korea China Textbook War. What's It All About?, History News Network 

• Ramzy, Austin (Unknown Year), Rewriting History, Time Magazine 

• Klingner, Bruce (2004), China Shock for South Korea, Asia Time 

• Shin, Hyoung-Sik (2003), History of Koguryo, Ewha Womans University Press, South Korea 

• Lee, Wha (Unknown Year), Forgotten Glory of Koguryo, Kimsoft.com 

• Brown, John (2006), China, Japan, Korea. Culture and Custom, BookSurge Publishing, ISBN 1419648934 

• Beckwith, Christopher I. (August 2003), Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean, Michigan State University. Retrieved 2006-03-12 

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• Columbia Encyclopedia, Unknown Author (2005), Korea, Bartleby.com. Retrieved 2007-03-12 

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• Sun, Jinji (2004a), Dongbei minzu yuanliu (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast), Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe 

• Sun, Jinji (1986), Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research), Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe 

• Sun, Jinji (2004b), Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi (History Department of People’s Education Press), Zhongguo lishi (Chinese History) II, Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe 

• MyGoguryeo, Unknown (Unknown Year), The Pride History of Korea, MyGoguryeo.net (WWW) 

• Byington, Mark (2004a), Koguryo Part of China?, Koreanstudies mailing list (WWW) 

• Byington, Mark (2004b), The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided, History News Network (WWW) 

• ScienceView, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms, ScienceView (WWW) 

• Rhee, Song nai (1992) Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State. In Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites, edited by C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee, pp. 191-196. WSU Press, Pullman ISBN 0-87422-092-0.

See also

• List of Korea-related topics
• Cheolli Jangseong

External links

Informational

• (English) Encyclopaedia Britannica
• (English) Encarta
• (English) Columbia Encyclopedia
• (Korean) Information about the ancient kingdom
• (English) Goguryeo of Korea

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