Difference between revisions of "Sicily" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Infobox_RegionIT |
 
{{Infobox_RegionIT |
 
  name = Sicilia |
 
  name = Sicilia |
 
  fullname = Regione Sicilia |
 
  fullname = Regione Sicilia |
 
  isocode =   |
 
  isocode =   |
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  capital = [[Palermo]] |
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  capital = Palermo |
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  governor = [[Salvatore Cuffaro]]<br />(''[[Union of Christian and Centre Democrats|UDC]]''-''[[House of Freedoms|CdL]]'') |
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  governor = Salvatore Cuffaro<br />(''[[Union of Christian and Centre Democrats|UDC]]''-''[[House of Freedoms|CdL]]'') |
 
  zone = [[South Italy]] |
 
  zone = [[South Italy]] |
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  province = [[Province of Agrigento|Agrigento]]<br />[[Province of Caltanissetta|Caltanissetta]]<br />[[Province of Catania|Catania]]<br />[[Province of Enna|Enna]]<br />[[Province of Messina|Messina]]<br />[[Province of Palermo|Palermo]]<br />[[Province of Ragusa|Ragusa]]<br />[[Province of Syracuse|Syracuse]]<br />[[Province of Trapani|Trapani]] |
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  province = Agrigento<br />Caltanissetta<br />Catania<br />Enna<br />Messina<br />Palermo<br />Ragusa<br />Syracuse<br />Trapani |
 
  municipality = 390 |
 
  municipality = 390 |
 
  arearank = 1st |
 
  arearank = 1st |
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'''Sicily''' is an [[Autonomous regions with special statute (Italy)|autonomous region]] of [[Italy]].  Also known as ''Sicilia'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''Σικελία'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''Sqallija'' [[Maltese language|Maltese]], it is the largest island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], with an area of [[1 E10 m²|25,700 km²]] and 5 million inhabitants.  For much of its existence, Sicily has stood as a crossroads of international turmoil and power ploys while stronger nations used the island as a base from which to launch or expand their sovereignty.  In the meantime, the Sicilians often suffered as a result of these international struggles.  The following paragraphs provide the reader a brief glimpse of Sicilian history, art, geography, culture, and language on this small, but pivotal, nation.
 
  
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The Greeks knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.  The ancient Siculians, for whom the island was named, are Sicily's first known inhabitants.  In 3000 B.C.E. they introduced animal breeding, agriculture, and artisian activities.  Later settlers included the Phoenicians, who established trading and construction from the forests.  From the eighth to the third century B.C.E. Romans established colonies and further developed agriculture and commerce.  Around the time of Christ, Romans harvested the wheat and established granaries.  The Romans also further developed commerce, and, as in their other colonies, constructed an excellent road system.  In the Middle Ages from the fifth to the fifteen centuries, the economy suffered at first during the Arabic, Goth and Vandal invasions, but once each group settled, the economy advanced, producing such projects as the renovation and fortification of the Port of Palermo.  Additional agricultural growth included irrigation, and the planting new crops such as jasmine, citrus, cotton, and others, which remain popular today.  Development thrived under the Normans, who built magnificant castles in Monreale and Cefalu.  The Swabians introduced large castles and continued the development until the Spanish assumed power.  As a colony under Spain's rule in the sixteenth century, Sicily had large farm like feudal estates, but their production rate became low, a tragedy after so much development had occurred during previous settlements.  In the modern ages, under the Bourbons in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the center of politics moved from Palermo to Naples.  Baroque architecture became prevalent, and many cities and small towns were established.  In the 1860 Sicily and its island neighbors were annexed to Italy; however, in 1946 Sicily was granted its own governance.  In 1871 the first railroad was constructed, and in the 1950's, the large estates were divided into smaller plots of land for homeowners.  The economy developed.  In 1957 hydrocarbon was discovered, and several industrial plants to accommodate its development were built.
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'''Sicily''' is an autonomous region of [[Italy]] and the largest island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], with an area of 9,926 square miles (25,708 sq km) and 5 million inhabitants.  
  
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For much of its existence, Sicily has stood at a crossroads of international turmoil and power ploys while stronger nations used the island as a base from which to launch or expand their sovereignty. The Sicilian people often suffered as a result of the numerous wars and conquests which were a part of these international struggles.
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{{toc}}
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Yet its position as a crossroads also had its benefits, as seen in the great works of art, music, and even cuisine which resulted as a blending of the various peoples who settled this land.
  
 
== Geography ==
 
== Geography ==
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[[Image:Sicily-EO.JPG|thumb|left|225px|NASA orbital photograph of Sicily]]
 
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'''MARY EDITED FULL GEO SECTION.'''
 
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Sicily, the largest island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], is an autonomous region of Italy.  It is directly adjacent to the region of Calabria via the Strait of Messina to the east.  The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.
 
  
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The Aeolian Islands  to the north are administratively a part of Sicily, as are the Aegadian Islands and Pantelleria Island to the west, Ustica Island to the northwest, and the Pelagian Islands to the southwest.
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Sicily, the largest island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], is an autonomous region of Italy. It is directly adjacent to the region of Calabria via the Strait of Messina to the east. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.  
  
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Sicily has been noted for two millennia as a grain-producing territory. However, natural vegetation has been greatly compromised by human influence. Delicious [[orange]]s and other fruit trees grow on the coast, while the interior produces [[olive]]s, [[wine]], and other [[Agriculture|agricultural]] products. The [[mine]]s of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts became a leading sulfur-producing areas in the 19th century, however, [[sulfur]] production has declined since the 1950s.
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The Aeolian Islands to the north are administratively a part of Sicily, as are the Aegadian Islands and Pantelleria Island to the west, Ustica Island to the northwest, and the Pelagian Islands to the southwest.
  
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The only wide valley in this otherwise mountainous land is the fertile Plain of Catania on the easern side. Forests occupy 4 percent of the territory. There are ample springs and underground water sources in this area. The climate of Sicily is subtropical and Mediterranean. Annual precipitation on the plains is 16–24 inches (400–600 mm), and in the mountains 47–55 inches (1,200–1,400 mm).  
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Sicily has been noted for two millennia as a grain-producing territory. However, natural vegetation has been greatly compromised by human influence. [[Orange]]s and other fruits grow on the coast, while the interior produces [[olive]]s, [[wine]], and other [[Agriculture|agricultural]] products. The [[mine]]s of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts became a leading sulfur-producing areas in the nineteenth century. However, [[sulfur]] production has declined since the 1950s.
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[[Image:Sicily-EO.JPG|thumb|left|225px|NASA orbital photograph of Sicily]]
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The only wide valley in this otherwise mountainous land is the fertile Plain of Catania on the eastern side. Forests occupy four percent of the territory. There are ample springs and underground water sources in this area. The climate of Sicily is subtropical and Mediterranean. Annual precipitation on the plains is 16–24 inches (400–600 mm), and in the mountains 47–55 inches (1,200–1,400 mm).  
  
 
=== Mount Etna ===
 
=== Mount Etna ===
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[[Image:EtnaAvió.JPG|thumb|right|250px| Mount Etna]]
 
[[Image:EtnaAvió.JPG|thumb|right|250px| Mount Etna]]
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Mount Etna is an active [[volcano]] on the east coast of Sicily, close to Messina and Catania. It is the largest active volcano in [[Europe]], currently standing about 3,326 m (10,910 ft) high. It is the highest mountain in [[Italy]] south of the [[Alps]], and covers an area of 460 square miles. This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being nearly three times the height of the next largest, [[Mount Vesuvius]].
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Mount Etna is an active [[volcano]] on the east coast of Sicily, close to Messina and Catania. It is the largest active volcano in [[Europe]], currently standing about 10,910 feet (3,326 m) high. It is the highest mountain in [[Italy]] south of the [[Alps]], and covers an area of 460 square miles. This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being nearly three times the height of the next largest, [[Mount Vesuvius]].
  
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Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of eruption. Although it can occasionally be very destructive, it is not generally regarded as being particularly dangerous, and thousands of people live on its slopes and in the surrounding areas. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive [[agriculture]], with [[vineyard]]s and [[orchard]]s spread across the lower slopes of the mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south.
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Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of eruption. Although it can occasionally be very destructive, it is not generally regarded as being particularly dangerous, and thousands of people live on its slopes and in the surrounding areas. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive [[agriculture]], with [[vineyard]]s and [[orchard]]s spread across the lower slopes of the mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south.
  
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=== Towns and cities ===
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=== Towns and Cities ===
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Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, and provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (''Siracusa'' in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, Ragusa. Other Sicilian towns include Acireale, Taormina, Giardini Naxos, Piazza Armerina, Bagheria, Partinico, Carini, Alcamo, Vittoria, Caltagirone, Cefalù, Bronte, Marsala, Corleone, Castellammare del Golfo, Calatafimi, Gela, Termini Imerese, Francavilla di Sicilia, Ferla, and Abacaenum (now Tripi).
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Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, and provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (''Siracusa'' in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, and Ragusa. Other Sicilian towns include Acireale, Taormina, Giardini Naxos, Piazza Armerina, Bagheria, Partinico, Carini, Alcamo, Vittoria, Caltagirone, Cefalù, Bronte, Marsala, Corleone, Castellammare del Golfo, Calatafimi, Gela, Termini Imerese, Francavilla di Sicilia, Ferla, and Abacaenum (now Tripi).
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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[[Image:Sicily Selinunte Temple E (Hera).JPG|thumb|left|225px|Greek temple at Selinunte dedicated to Hera, built in the 5th century B.C.E.]]
 
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'''EDITED'''
 
  
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Sicily's earliest inhabitants were the [[Elymians]] who may have originated near the [[Aegean Sea]]. Later settlers included the [[Sicani]], whose origins may have been from [[Iberia]], and the Siculi or [[Sicels]], who were related to people from southern Italy, such as the ''Italoi'' of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones.  
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Sicily's earliest inhabitants were the [[Elymians]] who may have originated near the [[Aegean Sea]]. Later settlers included the [[Sicani]], whose origins may have been from [[Iberia]], and the Siculi or [[Sicels]], who were related to people from southern Italy, such as the ''Italoi'' of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones.  
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=== Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans ===
  
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=== Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Greeks & Romans ===
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[[Image:Sicily Selinunte Temple E (Hera).JPG|thumb|right|250px|Greek temple at Selinunte dedicated to Hera, built in the fifth century B.C.E.]]
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'''EDITED'''
 
  
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Sicily was colonized by [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Punic]] settlers from [[Carthage]], and by [[Greece|Greek]]s, beginning in the 8th Century B.C.E.. The most important colony was established at [[Syracuse]] in 733 B.C.E. Other important Greek colonies included Gela founded in 688 B.C.E., Agrigento, in 580 B.C.E. Selinunte, Himera, and Zancle or Messene modern-day [[Messina]] founded in 756 B.C.E., These city–states played an important role in classical Greek civilization and came to be known as ''Magna Graecia''; both [[Empedocles]] and [[Archimedes]] originated from Sicily. Greece also played a role in Sicilian [[politics]]; [[Athens]] initiated the disastrous Sicilian Expedition during the Peloponnesian War.
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Sicily was colonized by [[Phoenicia]]ns, [[Punic]] settlers from [[Carthage]], and by [[Greece|Greek]]s, beginning in the eighth century B.C.E.. The most important colony was established at [[Syracuse]] in 733 B.C.E. Other important Greek colonies included Gela founded in 688 B.C.E., Agrigento, in 580 B.C.E. Selinunte, Himera, and Zancle or Messene (modern-day [[Messina]]) founded in 756 B.C.E. These city–states played an important role in classical Greek civilization and came to be known as ''Magna Graecia.'' Both [[Empedocles]] and [[Archimedes]] originated in Sicily. Greece also played a role in Sicilian [[politics]]; [[Athens]] initiated the disastrous [[Sicilian Expedition]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]].
  
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The Greeks experienced conflict with the [[Punic]] trading communities which dealt with [[Carthage]] on the [[Africa]]n mainland, and which had its own colonies on Sicily. Palermo, known as Zis or Sis (or "Panormos" to the Greeks) was originally a Carthaginian city which had been established in the 8th century B.C.E.. Hundreds of [[Phoenicia]]n and Carthaginian gravesites were found in the Palermo [[necropolis]], south of the Norman palace where the kings once enjoed a vast park. Greek influence existed primarily in the eastern areas of Sicily; Lilybaeum, in the far west, was not thoroughly [[Hellenism|Hellenized]]. In the First and Second Sicilian Wars, Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which Syracuse dominated. In 415 B.C.E., in an effort to re-exert its trading power, Athens launched the Sicilian Expedition by attacking Sicily and breaking its seven year truce with Syracuse. As a result, the Peloponnesian War resumed.
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The Greeks experienced conflict with the [[Punic]] trading communities, who dealt with [[Carthage]] on the [[Africa]]n mainland and who had their own colonies on Sicily. Palermo, known as Zis or Sis (or "Panormos" to the Greeks) was originally a Carthaginian city which had been established in the eighth century B.C.E.. Hundreds of [[Phoenicia]]n and Carthaginian gravesites were found in the Palermo [[necropolis]], south of the Norman palace where the kings once enjoyed a vast park. Greek influence existed primarily in the eastern areas of Sicily; Lilybaeum, in the far west, was not thoroughly [[Hellenism|Hellenized]]. In the First and Second [[Sicilian War]]s, Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which Syracuse dominated. In 415 B.C.E., in an effort to re-exert its trading power, Athens launched the Sicilian Expedition by attacking Sicily and breaking its seven year truce with Syracuse. As a result, the Peloponnesian War resumed.
  
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In the 3rd century B.C.E. Messanan Crisis, the Roman Republic intervened in Sicilian affairs, which led to the [[First Punic War]] between [[Rome]] and Carthage. Once the war was completed in 242 B.C.E. [[Rome]] occupied the entire country of Sicily. In 210 B.C.E. Sicily became Rome's first non-Italian province.
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In the third century B.C.E. [[Messanan Crisis]], the [[Roman Republic]] intervened in Sicilian affairs, which led to the [[First Punic War]] between [[Rome]] and Carthage. Once the war was completed in 242 B.C.E., Rome occupied the entire country of Sicily. In 210 B.C.E. Sicily became Rome's first non-Italian province.
  
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The Carthaginians' initial success during the Second Punic War encouraged many Sicilian cities to revolt. Rome sent troops to quash the rebellions; during a battle in the siege of Syracuse [[Archimedes]] was killed. For a short time Carthage held power over portions of Sicily; however, eventually the Sicilians rallied and ousted Carthaginian forces, killing so many of their sympathizers in 210 B.C.E. that the Roman consul M. Valerian proclaimed to the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily."
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The Carthaginians' initial success during the Second Punic War encouraged many Sicilian cities to revolt. Rome sent troops to quash the rebellions; during a battle in the siege of Syracuse, [[Archimedes]] was killed. For a short time Carthage held power over portions of Sicily. However, eventually the Sicilians rallied and ousted Carthaginian forces, killing so many of their sympathizers in 210 B.C.E. that the Roman consul M. Valerian proclaimed to the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily."  
  
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For the next six centuries, Sicily remained a province of the [[Roman Empire]], and its grain fields, which provided the principal food supply for Rome, were its chief significance. The empire did not attempt to Romanize this region, which remained primarily Greek. At this time in Sicily's history the most notable event [[Verres]] infamous government, which [[Cicero]] strongly criticized. In 70 B.C.E. Gaius Verres escaped to avoid a trial by Cicero.
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For the next six centuries, Sicily remained a province of the [[Roman Empire]], and its grain fields, which provided the principal food supply for Rome, were its chief significance. The empire did not attempt to Romanize this region, which remained primarily Greek. At this time in Sicily's history the most notable event was [[Verres]] infamous government, which [[Cicero]] strongly criticized. In 70 B.C.E. Gaius Verres escaped to avoid a trial by Cicero.
  
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Around 200 C.E. [[Christianity]] began to develop in Sicily, and along with it, [[martyrdom]] occurred. However, by 313 C.E. Emperor [[Constantine]] ceased the prohibition of Christianity, and it developed quickly in the following two centuries.
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Around 200 C.E. [[Christianity]] began to develop in Sicily, and along with it, [[martyrdom]] occurred. By 313 C.E. Emperor [[Constantine]] ceased the prohibition of Christianity, and it developed quickly in the following two centuries.
  
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=== Byzantines ===
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=== Byzantines ===  
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'''EDITED'''
 
  
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In 440 C.E. Sicily fell to the Vandal king Geiseric. A few decades later, it came into Ostrogothic hands, where it remained until it was conquered by the [[Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] in 535. In 550 a new Ostrogothic king, Totila, drove down the Italian peninsula and plundered and conquered Sicily. Totila was defeated and killed by the Byzantine general, [[Narses]], in 552.  
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In 440 C.E. Sicily fell to the Vandal King Geiseric. A few decades later, it came into Ostrogothic hands, where it remained until it was conquered by the [[Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] in 535. In 550 the Ostrogothic King Totila drove down the Italian peninsula and plundered and conquered Sicily. Totila was defeated and killed by the Byzantine general, [[Narses]], in 552.  
  
 
In 535, Emperor [[Justinian I]] made Sicily a Byzantine province, and for the second time in Sicilian history, the Greek language became a familiar sound across the island. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was invaded by the Arabs in 652 C.E. However, this was a short lived invasion and the Arabs left soon after.
 
In 535, Emperor [[Justinian I]] made Sicily a Byzantine province, and for the second time in Sicilian history, the Greek language became a familiar sound across the island. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was invaded by the Arabs in 652 C.E. However, this was a short lived invasion and the Arabs left soon after.
  
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For a brief period during Byzantine rule (662-668), Syracuse was the imperial capital, until [[Constans II]] was assassinated. Sicily was then ruled by the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] conquest of 827-902. It is reported in contemporary accounts that Sicilians spoke Greek or Italo-Greek dialects until at least the 10th century, and in some regions for several more centuries.
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For a brief period during Byzantine rule (662–668), Syracuse was the imperial capital until [[Constans II]] was assassinated. Sicily was then ruled by the [[Byzantine Empire]] until the [[Muslim]] [[Arab]] conquest of 827–902. It is reported in contemporary accounts that Sicilians spoke Greek or Italo-Greek dialects until at least the tenth century, and in some regions for several more centuries.
  
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=== Arab control from Tunisia and Egypt ===
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=== Arab Control from Tunisia and Egypt ===  
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'''EDITED'''
 
  
 
The island of Pantelleria was captured by [[Arab]]s in the year 700. Trading arrangements were made between Sicily and Arab merchants, who established themselves in Sicilian ports.  
 
The island of Pantelleria was captured by [[Arab]]s in the year 700. Trading arrangements were made between Sicily and Arab merchants, who established themselves in Sicilian ports.  
  
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Following an 827 failed Sicilian coup attempt against an unpopular Byzantine governor, Euphemius, a wealthy landowner, declared himself Emperor and invited the Aghlabid Emir of [[Tunisia]] to assist him. The response was a fleet of 100 ships and 10,000 troops under the command of [[Asad ibn al-Furat]], which consisted largely of Arab, [[Berber]]s from [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]]. After resistance at Siracusa, the [[Muslim]]s gained a foothold in Mazara del Vallo. Palermo fell after a long siege in 831, but Siracusa held out until 878.  
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Following an 827 failed Sicilian coup attempt against an unpopular Byzantine governor, Euphemius, a wealthy landowner, declared himself Emperor and invited the Aghlabid Emir of [[Tunisia]] to assist him. The response was a fleet of one hundred ships and en thousand troops under the command of [[Asad ibn al-Furat]], which consisted largely of Arab [[Berber]]s from [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]]. After resistance at Siracusa, the [[Muslim]]s gained a foothold in Mazara del Vallo. Palermo fell after a long siege in 831, but Siracusa held out until 878.  
  
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From 842 to 859 the Arabs captured Messina, Modica, Ragusa and Enna. In 902, Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold also fell to the Arabs and by 965 all of Sicily was under Arab control during which time Palermo became one of the largest cities in the world.
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From 842 to 859 the Arabs captured Messina, Modica, Ragusa, and Enna. In 902, Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold, also fell to the Arabs and by 965 all of Sicily was under Arab control. during which time Palermo became one of the largest cities in the world.
  
 
=== Emirate of Sicily ===
 
=== Emirate of Sicily ===
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'''EDITED'''
 
  
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In succession, Sicily was ruled by the Sunni Aghlabid dynasty in [[Tunisia]] and the Shiite Fatimids in [[Egypt]]. The Byzantines took advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years. After suppressing a revolt the Fatimid caliph appointed [[Hassan al-Kalbi]] (948-964) as Emir of Sicily. He successfully managed to control the Byzantines and founded the Kalbid dynasty.  
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[[Image:Palermo 2005 041.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Cathedral of Palermo.]]
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In succession, Sicily was ruled by the Sunni Aghlabid dynasty in [[Tunisia]] and the Shiite Fatimids in [[Egypt]]. The Byzantines took advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years. After suppressing a revolt the Fatimid caliph appointed [[Hassan al-Kalbi]] (948–964) as Emir of Sicily. He successfully managed to control the Byzantines and founded the Kalbid dynasty.  
  
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Raids into southern [[Italy]] continued under the Kalbids into the 11th century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated near Crotone in Calabria. With Emir Yusuf al-Kalbi (990-998) a period of steady decline began. Under al-Akhal (1017-1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions within the ruling family allying themselves variously with Byzantium and the Zirids. By the time of Emir Hasan as-Samsam (1040-1053) the island had fragmented into several small fiefdoms.  
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Raids into southern [[Italy]] continued under the Kalbids into the eleventh century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated near Crotone in Calabria. With Emir Yusuf al-Kalbi (990–998), a period of steady decline began. Under al-Akhal (1017–1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions within the ruling family allying themselves variously with Byzantium and the Zirids. By the time of Emir Hasan as-Samsam (1040–1053) the island had fragmented into several small fiefdoms.  
  
 
As a virtually independent emirate, Sicily played a privileged role as bridge between [[Africa]] and [[Europe]]. Trade flourished and taxes were low. The tolerant regime allowed subjects to abide by their own laws. [[Christian]]s freely converted to [[Islam]] and there were soon hundreds of mosques in Palermo alone.  
 
As a virtually independent emirate, Sicily played a privileged role as bridge between [[Africa]] and [[Europe]]. Trade flourished and taxes were low. The tolerant regime allowed subjects to abide by their own laws. [[Christian]]s freely converted to [[Islam]] and there were soon hundreds of mosques in Palermo alone.  
  
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The Arabs initiated land reforms which in turn, increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a dent to the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices and a private prison.  
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The Arabs initiated land reforms which in turn increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a dent to the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison.  
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[[Image:Palermo 2005 041.jpg|thumb|left|260px|The Cathedral of Palermo.]]
 
  
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In addition to Andalusian and other Arabs, Sicily also had a population of [[Berber]]s, black Africans, [[Persia]]ns, Greeks, [[Jew]]s, [[Slav]]s and Lombards. Western Sicily particularly prospered with Berbers settling in the Agrigento area coupled with [[Bedouin]], [[Syria]]ns and Egyptian Arabs in Palermo.
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In addition to Andalusian and other Arabs, Sicily also had a population of [[Berber]]s, Africans, [[Persia]]ns, Greeks, [[Jew]]s, [[Slav]]s, and Lombards. Western Sicily particularly prospered with Berbers settling in the Agrigento area coupled with [[Bedouin]], [[Syria]]ns, and Egyptian Arabs in Palermo.
  
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Muslim rule in Sicily slowly came to an end following an invitation by the Emirs of Catania and Siracusa for a Norman invasion. The Normans, under Count Roger de Hauteville (Altavilla) attacked Sicily in 1061, beginning a thirty year struggle against the Arabs. In 1068, de Hauteville and his men defeated the Arabs at Misilmeri. The most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo in 1072, and the conquest of Sicily was completed by 1091 with the defeat of the last Emir in Noto.
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Muslim rule in Sicily slowly came to an end following an invitation by the Emirs of Catania and Siracusa for a Norman invasion. The Normans, under Count Roger de Hauteville (Altavilla), attacked Sicily in 1061 beginning a 30 year struggle against the Arabs. In 1068, de Hauteville and his men defeated the Arabs at Misilmeri. The most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo in 1072, and the conquest of Sicily was completed by 1091 with the defeat of the last Emir in Noto.
  
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=== Arab-Norman period ===
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=== Arab-Norman Period ===
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'''EDITED'''
 
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Sicily became a kingdom in 1130, and was established as one of the wealthiest states in [[Europe]].  According to historian John Julius Norwich, Palermo under the Normans became wealthier than [[England]] during that age.  A century later, however, the Norman Hauteville dynasty ended, and the south German or (Swabian) Hohenstaufen dynasty commenced its rule in 1194, with Palermo as its principal seat of governance from 1220.  Unfortunately, the [[Crusades]] instigated local Christian-Muslim conflicts; therefore, in 1224, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], grandson of Roger II, removed the remaining Arabs from Sicily.
 
  
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=== Aragonese control ===
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Sicily became a kingdom in 1130, and was established as one of the wealthiest states in [[Europe]]. According to historian John Julius Norwich, Palermo became wealthier under the Normans than [[England]] during that age. A century later, however, the Norman Hauteville dynasty ended, and the south German or (Swabian) Hohenstaufen dynasty commenced its rule in 1194, with Palermo as its principal seat of governance beginning in 1220. Unfortunately, the [[Crusades]] instigated local Christian-Muslim conflicts and in 1224, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], grandson of Roger II, removed the remaining Arabs from Sicily.
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'''EDITED'''
 
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In 1266 as a result of the conflict between the ruling Hohenstaufen family and the Papacy, [[Charles I of Naples|Charles I]], who was also the duke of Anjou attained control of the island. However, his reign was unpopular.  Charles only visited Sicily once, and he replaced the landowners with French supporters and Sicilian administrators with French officials.  Although the governing staff were excellent traders and efficient rulers, they disregarded Sicilian customs and disdained the inhabitants.  Charles I was primarily interested in using Sicily as a base to expand his trade and power in the Mediterranean. Leaders of other nations, including Byzantine King Michael and Peter of Aragon whose wife, Constance, was a Hohenstaufen, were enemies of Charles and planned to attack him.
 
  
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Tired of French [[taxation]] and control, the native Sicilians conducted their own revolt, the Sicilian Vespers on March 30, 1282. The populace gathered to celebrate Vespers on Easter Monday in Palermo, and French soldiers, whom the people tried to ignore, joined their group.  Conflict arose when a French sargeant grabbed a married Sicilian woman, and her husband stabbed him to death. The French retaliated to defend their fellow soldier.  Many Sicilian locals immediately fought the French troops while others sent messages throughout the rest of Palermo, evoking a popular revolt in the town.  The uprising spread throughout the island, and mass slaughter of Frenchmen occurred.  Later the people requested assistance from King Peter and King Michael.  The Pope attempted, without success, to persuade the people to resume Angevin rule, and King Charles attempted to reconquer the island.  However, King Peter confronted the French sovereign, and the people proclaimed Peter III of Aragon as their new ruler. The War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302.  The king's relatives ruled Sicily as an independent kingdom until 1409; after that time, the island was governed as part of the Crown of Aragon.
+
=== Aragonese Control ===
  
 +
In 1266, as a result of the conflict between the ruling Hohenstaufen family and the Papacy, [[Charles I of Naples|Charles I]], who was also the Duke of Anjou, attained control of the island. He only visited Sicily once, and replaced the landowners with French supporters and Sicilian administrators with French officials. Although the governing staffs were excellent traders and efficient rulers, they disregarded Sicilian customs and disdained the inhabitants.
  
 +
Charles I was an unpopular ruler who was primarily interested in using Sicily as a base to expand his trade and power in the Mediterranean. Leaders of other nations, including Byzantine King Michael and [[Peter of Aragon]] whose wife, Constance, was a Hohenstaufen, were enemies of Charles and planned his overthrow.
  
−
=== Spanish control ===
+
Tired of French [[taxation]] and control, the native Sicilians conducted their own revolt, the [[Sicilian Vespers]], on March 30, 1282. The populace gathered to celebrate Vespers on Easter Monday in Palermo, and French soldiers, whom the people tried to ignore, joined their group. Conflict arose when a French sergeant grabbed a married Sicilian woman, and her husband responded by stabbing him to death. The French retaliated to defend their fellow soldier. Many Sicilian locals immediately fought the French troops while others sent messages throughout the rest of Palermo, evoking a popular revolt in the town. The uprising spread throughout the island, and mass slaughter of Frenchmen occurred. Later the people requested assistance from [[King Peter]] and [[King Michael]].  
−
'''EDITED'''
 
−
In 1479 Sicily fell under the control of [[Spain]]. The island experienced difficult periods of rule by the crown of Savoy from 1713 to 1720 and then the [[Austria]]n [[Habsburg]]s gave way to union with the Bourbon-ruled kingdom of Naples as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
 
  
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Sicily in the Middle Ages experienced diseases and natural disasters along with political problems. For example, the nation suffered a ferocious outbreak of [[Bubonic plague|plague]] in 1656. Also known as Black Plague, this disease was first introduced into Europe via Sicily when an Italian ship with infected crew members returning from trade in China docked in Messina in 1347.
+
The Pope attempted, without success, to persuade the people to resume Angevin rule, and King Charles attempted to re-conquer the island. However, King Peter confronted the French sovereign, and the people proclaimed [[Peter III of Aragon]] as their new ruler. The War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302. The king's relatives ruled Sicily as an independent kingdom until 1409; after that time, the island was governed as part of the Crown of Aragon.
  
−
In 1693, the eastern and southern sections of the island was ravaged by a strong [[earthquake]].  The tremor claimed over 60,000 victims and demolished the towns in the districts of Siracusa, Ragusa, and Catania.  A [[tsunami]] immediately ensued along the Ionian coasts of Sicily and the Messina Strait. 
+
=== Spanish Control ===
  
−
Major revolutionary movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against Bourbon denial of constitutional government. The Sicilian 1848 revolution resulted in a sixteen month period of independence from the Bourbons whose armed forces regained control of the island on May 15, 1849.
+
In 1479 Sicily fell under the control of [[Spain]]. The island experienced difficult periods of rule by the crown of Savoy from 1713 to 1720 and then the [[Austria]]n [[Habsburg]]s gave way to union with the Bourbon-ruled kingdom of Naples as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
  
−
In late 1852, Prince Emanuele Realmuto had set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life, however, was shortened by assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.
+
Sicily in the Middle Ages experienced [[disease]]s and natural disasters along with political problems. The nation suffered a ferocious outbreak of [[Bubonic plague|plague]] in 1656. Also known as Black Plague, this disease was first introduced to [[Europe]] via Sicily when an Italian ship with infected crew members returning from trade in [[China]] docked in Messina in 1347.  
  
 +
In 1693, the eastern and southern sections of the island were ravaged by a strong [[earthquake]]. The tremor claimed over sixty thousand victims and demolished the towns in the districts of Siracusa, Ragusa, and Catania. A [[tsunami]] immediately ensued along the Ionian coasts of Sicily and the Messina Strait.
  
 +
Major revolutionary movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against Bourbon denial of constitutional government. The Sicilian revolution of 1848 resulted in a 16 month period of independence from the Bourbons whose armed forces regained control of the island on May 15, 1849.
  
 +
In late 1852 [[Prince Emanuele Realmuto]] had set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life, however, was shortened by assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.
  
 +
=== Italian Unification ===
  
−
=== Italian unification ===
+
[[Image:Map operation husky landing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on July 10, 1943]]
−
'''EDITED'''
+
Under the rallying cry of Italian unification, [[Guiseppe Garibaldi]] led troops in the invasion of Sicily, adjoining it to the other Italian regions in 1860. In 1866, Palermo revolted against [[Italy]]. Under the leadership of Raffaele Cadorna, the Italian navy responded to this protest by bombing the city, executing the civilian insurgents, and repossessing the island.  
−
Under the rallying cry of Italian unification, [[Guiseppe Garibaldi]] led troops in the invasion of Sicily, adjoining it to the other Italian regions in 1860.
 
  
−
In 1866, Palermo revolted against [[Italy]]. Under the leadership of Raffaele Cadorna, the Italian navy responded to this protest by bombing the city, executing the civilian insurgents, and repossessing the island.  
+
Between 1860 and 1871 over one hundred thousand Sicilians and southern Italian unionists were executed under a brutal campaign by King [[Victor Emanuel II]], who proclaimed himself "King of Italy." The citizens were subjected to ferocious military repression, including martial law, and imprisonment of tens of thousands. Villages were destroyed, and many were deported. As a result the Sicilian economy collapsed and people emigrated in unprecedented numbers. In 1894 labor forces rebelled through the radical ''Fasci Siciliani'' only to be suppressed again by martial law.
  
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Between 1860 and 1871 over 100,000 Sicilians and southern Italian unionists were executed under a brutal campaign by King Victor Emanuel II, who proclaimed himself "King of Italy."  The citizens were subjected to ferocious military repression, including martial law, and imprisonment of tens of thousands.  Villages were destroyed, and many were deported.  Not surprisingly, the Sicilian economy collapsed; people emigrated in unprecedented numbers.  In 1894 labor forces rebelled through the radical ''Fasci Siciliani'' only to be suppresssed again by martial law.
+
Sicily gained independence in 1946, and the people benefited from the partial Italian land reform of 1950–1962 as well as special funding from the ''Cassa per il Mezzogiorno,'' the Italian government's indemnification fund for the south which the government offered from 1950 through 1984.
  
−
[[Image:Map operation husky landing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on 10 July 1943]]
+
== Mafia ==
  
−
Sicily gained independence in 1946, and the people could benefit from the partial Italian land reform of 1950-1962 and special funding from the ''Cassa per il Mezzogiorno,'' the Italian government's indemnification Fund for the South which the government offered from (1950-1984).
+
Sicily was the birthplace of the well-known [[Mafia]], an organized crime operation common in [[Italy]] and the [[United States]].  
  
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== Mafia ==
+
The Mafia is a hierarchically structured criminal society that arose in Sicily during the [[Middle Ages]] as a means of providing protection from the various foreign conquerors of the island. It consisted of many small private armies (''mafie'') that were hired by absentee landlords to protect their properties. Eventually, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, these armies organized and consolidated their power and turned on the landowners, employing extortion methods in order to continue their protective services.
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'''MARY EDITED MAFIA SECTION'''
 
−
Sicily was the birthplace of the well-known [[Mafia]], an organized crime operation common in [[Italy]] and the [[United States]].  
 
  
−
The Mafia is an hierarchically structured criminal society  which arose in Sicily during the [[middle ages]] as a means of providing protection from the various foreign conquerors of the island. It consisted of many small private armies (''mafie'') that were hired by absentee landlords to protect their properties. Eventually, during the 18th and 19th centuries these armies organized and consolidated their power and turned on the landowners, employing extortion methods in order to continue their protective services.
+
The [[Fascism|Fascist]] regime of [[Benito Mussolini]] nearly succeeded in eliminating the Mafia via imprisonment. However, following the [[World War II|Second World War]], the American forces released many of the ''mafiosi,'' who quickly revived their operations.  
  
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The [[Fascism|Fascist]] regime of [[Benito Mussolini]] nearly succeeded in eliminating the Mafia via imprisonment. However following the [[Second World War]], the American forces released many of the mafiosi, who quickly revived their operations.  
+
The [[United States]] used the Italian connection of the American Mafiosi during the invasion of Italy and Sicily in 1943. [[Lucky Luciano]] and other members who had been imprisoned during this time in the U.S. provided information for U.S. military intelligence, who used their influence in Sicily to ease the way for advancing American troops.
  
−
The [[United States]] used the Italian connection of the American Mafiosi during the invasion of Italy and Sicily in 1943. [[Lucky Luciano]] and other members who had been imprisoned during this time in the US, provided information for U.S. military intelligence, who used their influence in Sicily to ease the way for advancing American troops.
+
In the U.S. the name ''Cosa Nostra'' (meaning "our affair") was adopted in the 1960s. Most cities where syndicated crime operates have only one "family," but in New York City, there have been five rival families: Gambino, Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo, and Bonanno.  
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In the U. S., the name Cosa Nostra (meaning "our affair") was adopted in the 1960s. Most cities where syndicated crime operates have only one "family," but in New York City, there have been five rival families: Gambino, Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo, and Bonanno.  
 
  
 
Most Americans, especially outside of the largest cities, are familiar with the Mafia only through its glamorized depiction in the movie "The Godfather," which portrays a detailed example of Sicily and Sicilian mafia traditions.
 
Most Americans, especially outside of the largest cities, are familiar with the Mafia only through its glamorized depiction in the movie "The Godfather," which portrays a detailed example of Sicily and Sicilian mafia traditions.
  
 
== Government ==
 
== Government ==
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[[Image:Provinces_of_Sicily_map.png|thumb|left|250px|The provinces of Sicily]]
 
  
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(Government type)
+
[[Image:Provinces_of_Sicily_map.png|thumb|right|240px|The provinces of Sicily]]
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(Political parties)
 
−
(Foreign Relations)
 
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(Military)
 
  
 +
Sicily, together with the islands of Egadi, Lipari, Pelagie, and Panteleria, forms an autonomous region of [[Italy]]. There are five special regions of Italy that derive their system of governance from special statutes adopted through constitutional laws. The other four autonomous regions besides Sicily are Sardinia, Trentino–Alto Adige, Friuli–Venezia Giulia, and Valle d'Aosta.
  
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=== Flag ===
+
Italy provides certain officials who have responsibilities within the local governments. These include:
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Sicily's regional flag has been recognized since January 2000, and it has been the island's historical banner since 1282. Its design is divided diagonally yellow over red, with the ''[[trinacria]]'', or three points, symbol in the center.  The Trinacria is most likely a solar symbol although most recently it represents the islands three points.  The head shown on the Sicilian Trinacria is [[Medusa's]] face. Other areas, such as the [[Isle of Man]] also use the "Trinacria" as their flag.
 
  
 +
* A Government Commissioner, whose function is to supervise the administrative functions performed by the state and coordinate them with those performed by the region.
 +
* A Prefect, who is responsible for enforcing the orders of the central government.
 +
* A Questore, who is the provincial chief of the state-run police.
  
  
−
== Economy ==
+
=== Flag ===
−
(per capita GDP)
 
−
(Currency)
 
  
 +
Sicily's historical banner since 1282 became its official regional flag in January 2000. Its design is divided diagonally yellow over red, with the ''trinacria,'' or three points, symbol in the center. The Trinacria is most likely a solar symbol, although most recently it represents the island's three points. The head shown on the Sicilian Trinacria is [[Medusa's]] face. Other areas, such as the [[Isle of Man]] also use the "Trinacria" as their flag.
  
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=== Agricultural Products ===
+
== Economy ==
−
(list)
 
  
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=== Import and export ===
+
Sicily, which is the most densely populated island in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], has an economy that is largely underdeveloped.
−
(commodities and trading partners)
 
  
 +
Its industrialization is based upon oil-refining and chemical industries. Large quantities of [[sulfur]] and [[natural gas]] are produced. They also have industries involved in salt extraction, wine making, textile production, food processing, and ship building.
  
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=== Transport ===
+
Sicily's [[Agriculture|agricultural]] products include olives, almonds, barley, wheat, corn, citrus fruits, wine grapes, and [[cotton]]. [[Cattle]], [[mule]]s, [[donkey]]s, and [[sheep]] are also raised.
  
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====Automobile====
+
== Demographics ==
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Most of Sicily's [[motorway]]s or (''autostrade'') run through its northern section.  The most noteworthy ones include the '''A19''' [[Palermo]]-[[Catania]], '''A20''' Palermo-[[Messina]], '''A29''' Palermo-[[Mazara del Vallo]] and the [[toll road]] '''A18''' Messina-Catania. Because the topography is mountainous, much of the roadway network is elevated by columns.  In southern Sicily, the roadway system consists mainly of well-maintained secondary [[roads]].
 
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====Railways====
 
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The national [[railway]] company, [[Trenitalia]], connects Sicily to Italy. [[Trains]], however, must be  loaded onto [[ferries]] for the crossing from the mainland. The [[Stretto di Messina]], S.p. A. was scheduled to construct the [[Strait of Messina Bridge]], which would have been the world's longest [[suspension bridge]], in the second half of 2006.  The span would have formed the first land link to Italy in history.  However, in October of 2006, the Italian Parliament halted the plan due to insufficient support. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/italy/story/0,,1920199,00.html).
 
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====Air====
 
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Sicily is served by national and [[international]] flights, mostly to [[European]] locations, to and from [[Palermo International Airport]] and the substantially busier [[Catania-Fontanarossa Airport]]. There are also minor national [[airports]] in [[Vincenzo Florio Airport|Trapani]] and on the small [[islands]] of [[Pantelleria]] and [[Lampedusa]].
 
−
====Metro====
 
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The [[Trenitalia]] company manages Palermo's urban [[metropolitan rapid transit]] service.  This system has eleven stations, which include an airport stop.
 
−
====Sea====
 
−
[[Virtu Ferries]] provides daily transportation between [[Malta]] and Sicily, and they stop at [[Pozzallo]] or [[Catania]]
 
  
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== Demographics ==
+
[[Image:Palermo panorama.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Palermo is the regional capital of Sicily]]
  
 
=== People ===
 
=== People ===
−
'''MARY EDITED PEOPLE SECTION'''
+
 
−
The position of Sicily as a stepping stone in the center of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean Basin]] has lent it strategic importance throughout history, resulting in an endless procession of settlers and conquerors. Sicilians are therefore a diverse people with a great variety of ethnic and physical influx.
+
The position of Sicily as a stepping stone in the center of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean Basin]] has lent it strategic importance throughout history, resulting in an endless procession of settlers and conquerors. Sicilians are therefore a diverse people with a great variety of ethnic and physical influx.  
  
 
It has been suggested that a genetic boundary divides Sicily into two regions, reflecting the distribution of Siculi and Greek settlements in the east, and Sicani/Elymi, Phoenician/Arab and Norman settlements in the west.  
 
It has been suggested that a genetic boundary divides Sicily into two regions, reflecting the distribution of Siculi and Greek settlements in the east, and Sicani/Elymi, Phoenician/Arab and Norman settlements in the west.  
Line 206: Line 188:
  
 
=== Language ===
 
=== Language ===
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'''MARY EDITED LANGUAGE SECTION'''
+
 
 
Many Sicilians are bilingual in both [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], which is a unique [[Romance language]] and not a derivative of Italian, although it is thought by some to be an Italian dialect. It is a blend of [[Greek]], [[Latin]], Aragonese, [[Arabic]], [[Longobardic]] and Norman-French, reflecting its rich history and expressing the influence of the many types of peoples who previously settled the island.  
 
Many Sicilians are bilingual in both [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], which is a unique [[Romance language]] and not a derivative of Italian, although it is thought by some to be an Italian dialect. It is a blend of [[Greek]], [[Latin]], Aragonese, [[Arabic]], [[Longobardic]] and Norman-French, reflecting its rich history and expressing the influence of the many types of peoples who previously settled the island.  
  
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The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to an intellectual elite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and his court of notaries, or ''Magna Curia''. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by [[Dante Alighieri]], the father of modern Italian who, in his ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian." It was in Sicilian that the first [[sonnet]] was written, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini himself.
+
The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to the intellectual elite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] and his court of notaries, or ''Magna Curia.'' Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by [[Dante Alighieri]], the father of modern Italian who, in his ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian." It was in Sicilian that the first [[sonnet]] was written, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini.
  
 
By the seventeenth century, however, the Sicilian language was mostly spoken by the working classes; the Italian royalty preferred Tuscan, the Savoys utilized Piedmontese, and the Bourbons of Naples primarily spoke Neopolitan.
 
By the seventeenth century, however, the Sicilian language was mostly spoken by the working classes; the Italian royalty preferred Tuscan, the Savoys utilized Piedmontese, and the Bourbons of Naples primarily spoke Neopolitan.
  
−
Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions of Calabria (Calabrese) and Puglia (Salentino); and had a significant influence on the [[Maltese language|Maltese Language]]. Malta was a part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], in its various forms, until the late 18th century. With the predominance of Italian spoken in schools and the media, Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians. Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young. However, the language remains important in the study of name origins, and therefore in history and geneology.
+
Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions of Calabria (Calabrese) and Puglia (Salentino) and had a significant influence on the [[Maltese language|Maltese Language]]. Malta was a part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], in its various forms, until the late eighteenth century. With the predominance of Italian spoken in schools and the media, Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians. Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young. However, the language remains important in the study of name origins, and therefore in history and genealogy.
  
 +
== Society and Culture ==
  
 +
Sicily's population is approximately 5 million, and there are an additional 10 million people of Sicilian descent around the world, mostly in the [[United States]], [[Argentina]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and other [[European Union]] countries. The island today, like all of western Europe, is home to growing communities of immigrants, including [[Tunisia]]ns, [[Morocco|Moroccans]], [[Nigeria]]ns, [[India]]ns, [[Romania]]ns, [[Russia]]ns, [[China|Chinese]] and [[Roma|Gypsies]] from the Balkans.
  
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== Society and culture ==
+
=== Cuisine ===
−
Sicily's population is approximately 5 million, and there are an additional 10 million people of Sicilian descent around the world, mostly in the [[United States]], [[Argentina]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and other [[European Union]] countries. The island today, like all of western Europe, is home to growing communities of immigrants, including [[Tunisia]]ns, [[Morocco|Moroccans]], [[Nigeria]]ns, [[India]]ns, [[Romania]]ns, [[Russi]]ans, Chinese and [[Roma|Gypsies]] from the Balkans.
 
  
−
==Arts==
+
The cuisine of Sicily shows traces of all the cultures that established themselves on the island over the last two millennia. Much of the island's cuisine encourages the use of fresh [[vegetable]]s such as [[eggplant]], [[bell pepper|bell peppers]], and [[tomato|tomatoes]], as well as fish.
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[[Image:Palermo panorama.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Palermo is the regional capital of Sicily]]
 
−
[[Image:Jacob Philipp Hackert 006.jpg|thumb|300px|Landscape with temple ruins on Sicily, [[Jacob Philipp Hackert]], 1778]]
 
  
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Sicily is famous for its [[art]] and is the birthplace of many [[poets]] and [[writers]].  In the early [[13th century]], the [[Sicilian School]], for example, inspired later Italian poetry and created the first Italian standard. The most famous artists include [[Luigi Pirandello]], [[Giovanni Verga]], [[Salvatore Quasimodo]], and [[Gesualdo Bufalino]]. Other [[Sicilian]] artists include the [[composers]] [[Sigismondo d'India]], [[Girolamo Arrigo]], [[Salvatore Sciarrino]], [[Giovanni Sollima]] (from Palermo), [[Alessandro Scarlatti]] (from [[Trapani]] or [[Palermo]]), [[Vincenzo Bellini]], [[Giovanni Pacini]], [[Francesco Paolo Frontini]], [[Alfredo Sangiorgi]], [[Aldo Clementi]], [[Roberto Carnevale]] (from [[Catania]]).
+
The cuisine in Palermo, capital of Sicily and headquarters of the emir during the [[Arab]] domination, exhibits the classic signs of Arab influence in its dishes, for example, the use of [[mint]], [[raisin]]s, fried preparations, and [[pine nut]]s.  
  
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[[Noto]], [[Ragusa]] and particularly [[Acireale]] contain some of Italy's best examples of [[Baroque]] architecture, carved in the local red [[sandstone]]. [[Caltagirone]] is renowned for its decorative [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]]. [[Palermo]] is also a major center of Italian [[opera]]. Its [[Teatro Massimo]] is the largest opera house in Italy and the third largest in the world, seating 1,400.
+
In Catania, located on the east coast, initially settled by [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colonists, [[fish]], [[olive]]s, [[Vicia faba|broad beans]] and fresh [[vegetable]]s are preferred.  
  
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Sicily's ancient pottery and rare works of art contain some of the greatest sources of archeological masterpieces in the world.  They exemplify the beautiful blending of 200 years of Graeco-Sicel, Roman, and Byzantine culture.  The mosaic pieces, a contribution of Byzantine art, are particulary attractive.    The Crow financed and commissioned Sicilian medieval art in its first decades of 11 ACE and 12 ACE.  The Catholic Church also contributed to maintaining art through its "papal legates."  Hauteville dynasty members constructed the first Latin cathedrals, which include the churches of Messina, Lipari, Cefalù, Monreale, Catania, Mazara, and Agrigento.  The Latin spacious style from central Italy and northern Europe combined with the Maghreb decorations, and narrative Byzantine mosaics, and Apulian Romanesque sculpture.
+
In Trapani, the extreme western corner of the island, the North African influence comes to the fore with dishes featuring [[couscous]].
  
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Many cities in Sicily have beautiful architecture which include ruins of aquaducts, lovely Roman patrician villas, temples in Segesta, Selinunte and Agrigento and decorations on ancient buildings. Their pottery and rare works of art generally consist of 200 years of Graeco-Sicel , Roman and Byzantine culture and are outstanding among ancient archaeological treasures.  The fortresses such as the Castle of Euryalus in Syracuse and archaeological sites of Agriengento, Heraclea, Minoa, Himera, Seguesta, Selinunte contributed to Sicily's vast development at a time in the Middle Ages when most other western European countries' arts and sciences were much less developed.
+
The list of well known Sicilian dishes includes arancini (a form of deep fried rice croquettes), Pasta alla Norma (a specialty of Catania), caponata, pani ca meusa (Palermo) and couscous al pesce (Trapani). Sweets are another specialty; examples include: frutta martorana, pignolata, buccellato, cannolo siciliano, granita, and cassata siciliana.
  
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Royalty exerted much influence in architecture.  For example, Roger II built the Cefalù Cathedral and in which he wanted to be buried.  In 1132 he ordered the construction of his Royal Palace in Palermo, which included his own "Palantine Chapel, a magnificient example of Sicilian medieval art that he dedicated to St. Peter.  This building contained many crowns, furnishing, ceremonial clothes, jewels that still attract visitors.  One outstanding item among his collection, now located in the Cathedral Treasury, is the Byzantine imperial crown (Kamelaukion). 
+
===Arts===
  
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Roger II's descendents continued the family tradition of enhancing architecture. For example, his son, William I built the Zisa royal residence in the royal park.  William II continued this practice when he constructed two other outstanding edifices, the Cuba and the Monreale Cathedral, whose interior contains lovely Byzantine mosaics and elegant medieval sculpture in the cloister.
+
[[Image:Jacob Philipp Hackert 006.jpg|thumb|300px|Landscape with temple ruins on Sicily, Jacob Philipp Hackert, 1778]]
  
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Under Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen architecture was formal and elegant, designed to focus on royal practical living and defense requirements of the age.  Several castles and towers were constructed, such as Castello Ursino in Catania, Castello Maniace, in Syracuse, and the Castles of Augusta and Augusta and Milazzo, and the Towers of Enna, of the Colombaia in Trapani, and of Gela.
+
Sicily is famous for its art and is the birthplace of many poets and writers. In the early thirteenth century, the Sicilian School inspired later Italian poetry and created the first Italian standard. The most famous artists from Sicily include [[Luigi Pirandello]], Giovanni Verga, Salvatore Quasimodo, and Gesualdo Bufalino.  
  
−
Religious leaders, too, contributed to the expansion of Sicilian architecture.  For example, Bishop Gualtiero reconstructed much of the old Palermo Cathedral and expanded it to become the greatest cathedral of medieval Sicily.
+
Other Sicilian artists include the composers Sigismondo d'India, Girolamo Arrigo, Salvatore Sciarrino, Giovanni Sollima, [[Alessandro Scarlatti]], [[Vincenzo Bellini]], Giovanni Pacini, Francesco Paolo Frontini, Alfredo Sangiorgi, Aldo Clementi, and Roberto Carnevale.
  
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Architecture took a different development by the first half of the 17th century A.C.E. when Mannerism became popular.  Examples of this style include the Quattro Canti (Giulio Lasso); Porta Felice (Pietro Novelli); the churches of Olivella and San Domenico; the old Shipyard (Mariano Smiriglio); the church of the Teatini (Giacomo Besio), the Town Hall in Syracuse (G. Vermexio); the Benedectine Monastery in Catania (V. De Franchis); and the College and Church of the Jesuits in Trapani (N. Masuccio).  The Church of the Annunziata dei Teatini in Messina Baroque, (Guaríno Guarini), implemented the Baroque style, which was simplified in Palermo through the works of Paolo Amato (1634-1714): Church of the Salvatore; and Giacomo Amato (1643-1732): Church of the Pietà and Santa Téresa alla Kalsa.
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Noto, Ragusa, and particularly Acireale contain some of Italy's best examples of Baroque [[architecture]], carved in the local red [[sandstone]]. [[Caltagirone]] is renowned for its decorative ceramics. [[Palermo]] is also a major center of Italian [[opera]]. Its [[Teatro Massimo]] is the largest opera house in Italy and the third largest in the world.
  
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Antonello da Messina, who lived in the 15th century A.C.E., was the most outstanding Sicilian painter and a great European master of his time. His famous paintings include the Portrait of an Unknown Seaman, in the Cefalù Mandralisca Museum, the Three Saints and the splendid Annunzíata in the Palermo Gallery, the San Gregorio polyptych in the Messina Museum, and the Annunciation in the Palazzo Bellomo Museum in Syracuse.
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[[Antonello da Messina]], who lived in the fifteenth century C.E., was an outstanding Sicilian painter and a great European master of his time. His famous paintings include the ''Portrait of an Unknown Seaman'' in the Cefalù Mandralisca Museum, the ''Three Saints,'' and the splendid ''Annunzíata'' in the Palermo Gallery, the ''San Gregorio'' polyptych in the Messina Museum, and the ''Annunciation'' in the Palazzo Bellomo Museum in Syracuse.
  
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Noteworthy sculptors included Domenico Gagini, who established a workshop which produced great sculptors for several generations, including Antonello Gagini and his sons.  Antonello worked with Polidoro da Caravaggio, who sculpted two exquisite lateral doors in the Duomo of Messina.
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Noteworthy sculptors included [[Domenico Gagini]], who established a workshop that produced great sculptors for several generations, including Antonello Gagini and his sons.  
  
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Sicily is home to two prominent [[folk art]] traditions, both of which draw heavily on the island's [[Norman]] influence. A [[Sicilian wood cart]], or [[Carretto Siciliano]], is painted with intricate decorations of scenes from the Norman romantic poems, including [[The Song of Roland]]. These same stories are shared in traditional [[puppet]] [[theatres]] which feature handmade [[wooden]] [[marionettes]], especially in [[Acireale]], the home town of most of Sicilian puppets.
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Sicily is home to two prominent folk art traditions, both of which draw heavily on the island's [[Norman]] influence. A Sicilian wood cart, or Carretto Siciliano, is painted with intricate decorations of scenes from the Norman romantic poems, including ''[[The Song of Roland]].'' These same stories are shared in traditional [[puppet]] theatres which feature handmade wooden marionettes, especially in Acireale, the home town of most Sicilian puppets.
  
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The 1988 [[movie]] ''[[Nuovo Cinema Paradiso]]'' relayed a story about life in a Sicilian town following [[World War II]].
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Sicily's ancient pottery and rare works of art contain some of the greatest sources of [[Archeology|archeological]] masterpieces in the world. They exemplify the beautiful blending of two hundred years of Graeco-Sicel, Roman, and Byzantine culture. The mosaic pieces, a contribution of Byzantine art, are particularly attractive.  
  
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The Catholic Church contributed to maintaining art through its "papal legates." Hauteville dynasty members constructed the first Latin cathedrals, which include the churches of Messina, Lipari, Cefalù, Monreale, Catania, Mazara, and Agrigento. In these, the Latin spacious style from central [[Italy]] and northern [[Europe]] combined with the [[Maghreb]] decorations, narrative Byzantine mosaics, and Apulian Romanesque sculpture.
  
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==== Architecture ====
  
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Many cities in Sicily have beautiful examples of [[architecture]] that include ruins of [[aquaduct]]s, Roman patrician villas, temples in Segesta, Selinunte, and Agrigento, and decorations on ancient buildings. Their pottery and rare works of art generally consist of two hundred years of Graeco-Sicel, Roman, and Byzantine culture and are outstanding among ancient archaeological treasures.
  
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Fortresses such as the [[Castle of Euryalus]] in Syracuse and the [[Archaeology|archaeological]] sites of Agriengento, [[Heraclea]], [[Minoa]], Himera, Seguesta, and Selinunte give evidence to Sicily's vast development at a time in the Middle Ages when most other western [[Europe]]an countries' arts and sciences were much less developed.
  
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Royalty exerted much influence in architecture. [[Roger II]] built the Cefalù Cathedral in which he wanted to be buried. In 1132 he ordered the construction of his Royal Palace in Palermo, which included his own "Palantine Chapel,” a magnificient example of Sicilian medieval art which was dedicated to [[St. Peter]].
  
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== Notes ==
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Religious leaders, too, contributed to the expansion of Sicilian architecture. Bishop Gualtiero reconstructed much of the old Palermo Cathedral and expanded it to become the greatest cathedral in medieval Sicily.
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<References/>
 
  
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Architecture took a different turn by the first half of the seventh century C.E. when Mannerism became popular. Examples of this style include the Quattro Canti (Giulio Lasso), Porta Felice (Pietro Novelli), the churches of Olivella and San Domenico, the old Shipyard (Mariano Smiriglio), the church of the Teatini (Giacomo Besio), the Town Hall in Syracuse (G. Vermexio), the Benedectine Monastery in Catania (V. De Franchis), the College and Church of the Jesuits in Trapani (N. Masuccio), the Church of the Salvatore, and Giacomo Amato’s (1643–1732) Church of the Pietà and Santa Téresa alla Kalsa. The Church of the Annunziata dei Teatini in Messina Baroque, (Guaríno Guarini) implemented the Baroque style, which was simplified in Palermo through the works of Paolo Amato (1634–1714).
  
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== Sources and further reading ==
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==== Music ====
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* Segre, Cesare, and Carlo Ossola. 1999. ''Antologia della poesia italiana''. Torino: Einaudi. ISBN 8806160389 and ISBN 8806153412
 
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* Migliorini, Bruno. 1992. ''Storia della lingua italiana''. Biblioteca universale Sansoni, 34. Firenze: Sansoni Editore. ISBN 8838313431 and ISBN 9788838313431
 
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* Shapiro, Marianne, and Dante Alighieri. 1990. ''De vulgari eloquentia: Dante's book of exile''. Regents studies in medieval culture. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803242115 and ISBN 9780803242111
 
  
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==External links==
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Sicily has an almost unparalleled history of cultural diversity. The music of Sicily today mirrors that diversity: from the island's great presence as part of [[Magna Grecia]] 2,500 years ago through various historical incarnations as past of the [[Roman Empire]], then an [[Arab]] stronghold, then an integral part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and, finally, as region of the modern nation state of [[Italy]].
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{{portal}}
 
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* [http://www.grifasi-sicilia.com/index.html Piccola Enciclopedia popolare di storia Siciliana di tutti i tempi]. (Italian Language). ''Almanacco Siciliano''. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
 
  
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===Maps===
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Sicily's historical connections lie not just with mainland Italy, but also the ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and more recent [[Arab]] occupiers. The result has been a diverse and unique fusion of musical elements on the island. American musicologist Alan Lomax made some historic recordings of Sicilian traditional music in the twentieth century, including lullabies, dance music, festival music, epic storytelling, and religious music.
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* [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~magnus/geo/geohack.php?params=37_36_0_N_14_10_0_E_type:isle_region:IT_scale:5000000 Map sources/GeoHack]. ''Wikimedia Toolserver''. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
 
  
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===Images===
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Sicily is also home to a great variety of [[Christian]] music, including a cappella devotional songs from Montedoro and many brass bands like Banda Ionica, who play songs from a diverse repertoire. Harvest songs and work songs are also indigenous to the agricultural island, known as "Italy's granary." Sicilian [[flute]] music, called friscaletto, is also popular among traditionalist Sicilians, as are Messina's male choirs.
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* [http://www.sentieridelbarocco.it/tour/index.htm Alla scoperta della Sicilia attraverso le sue immagini]. (Italian Language). ''Sentieri del Barocco''. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
 
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* [http://www.freewebs.com/photoitalia/sicily.htm Sicily Historical Gallery]. ''Photo Italia''. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
 
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* [http://www.teachitaly.com/ Interview with English teacher and author, Frank Adamo]. ''Teach English in Italy''. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
 
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* [http://www.sicile-sicilia.net/english Sicily map]. ''Sicilia''. Retrieved May 24, 2007.
 
  
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== References ==
  
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* Migliorini, Bruno. ''Storia Della Lingua Italiana.'' Biblioteca Universale Sansoni, 34. Firenze: Sansoni Editore. 1992. ISBN 8838313431
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* Shapiro, Marianne, and Alighieri, Dante. ''De Vulgari Eloquentia: Dante's Book of Exile.'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska. 1990. ISBN 0803242115
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* Segre, Cesare, and Ossola, Carlo. ''Antologia Della Poesia Italiana.'' Torino: Einaudi. 1999. ISBN 8806160389 Retrieved July 9, 2007; ISBN 8806153412
  
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==External links==
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All links retrieved January 27, 2023.
  
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* Grifasi, Angelo. [http://www.grifasi-sicilia.com/index.html Sicilian Almanac.]
  
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[[Category:Geography]]
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[[Category:Europe]]
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[[Category:Global regions]]

Latest revision as of 14:33, 27 January 2023

Regione Sicilia
Flag of Sicily
Capital Palermo
President Salvatore Cuffaro
(UDC-CdL)
Provinces Agrigento
Caltanissetta
Catania
Enna
Messina
Palermo
Ragusa
Syracuse
Trapani
Comuni 390
Area 25,708 km²
 - Ranked 1st (8.5 %)
Population (2006 est.)
 - Total

 - Ranked
 - Density


5,017,212
4th (8.5 %)
195/km²
Italy Regions Sicily Map.png
Map highlighting the location of Sicilia in Italy


Sicily is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 9,926 square miles (25,708 sq km) and 5 million inhabitants.

For much of its existence, Sicily has stood at a crossroads of international turmoil and power ploys while stronger nations used the island as a base from which to launch or expand their sovereignty. The Sicilian people often suffered as a result of the numerous wars and conquests which were a part of these international struggles.

Yet its position as a crossroads also had its benefits, as seen in the great works of art, music, and even cuisine which resulted as a blending of the various peoples who settled this land.

Geography

Sicily, the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, is an autonomous region of Italy. It is directly adjacent to the region of Calabria via the Strait of Messina to the east. The Greeks knew Sicily as Trinacria, which refers to its triangular shape.

The Aeolian Islands to the north are administratively a part of Sicily, as are the Aegadian Islands and Pantelleria Island to the west, Ustica Island to the northwest, and the Pelagian Islands to the southwest.

Sicily has been noted for two millennia as a grain-producing territory. However, natural vegetation has been greatly compromised by human influence. Oranges and other fruits grow on the coast, while the interior produces olives, wine, and other agricultural products. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts became a leading sulfur-producing areas in the nineteenth century. However, sulfur production has declined since the 1950s.

NASA orbital photograph of Sicily

The only wide valley in this otherwise mountainous land is the fertile Plain of Catania on the eastern side. Forests occupy four percent of the territory. There are ample springs and underground water sources in this area. The climate of Sicily is subtropical and Mediterranean. Annual precipitation on the plains is 16–24 inches (400–600 mm), and in the mountains 47–55 inches (1,200–1,400 mm).

Mount Etna

Mount Etna

Mount Etna is an active volcano on the east coast of Sicily, close to Messina and Catania. It is the largest active volcano in Europe, currently standing about 10,910 feet (3,326 m) high. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, and covers an area of 460 square miles. This makes it by far the largest of the three active volcanoes in Italy, being nearly three times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius.

Mount Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world and is in an almost constant state of eruption. Although it can occasionally be very destructive, it is not generally regarded as being particularly dangerous, and thousands of people live on its slopes and in the surrounding areas. The fertile volcanic soils support extensive agriculture, with vineyards and orchards spread across the lower slopes of the mountain and the broad Plain of Catania to the south.

Towns and Cities

Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, and provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (Siracusa in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, and Ragusa. Other Sicilian towns include Acireale, Taormina, Giardini Naxos, Piazza Armerina, Bagheria, Partinico, Carini, Alcamo, Vittoria, Caltagirone, Cefalù, Bronte, Marsala, Corleone, Castellammare del Golfo, Calatafimi, Gela, Termini Imerese, Francavilla di Sicilia, Ferla, and Abacaenum (now Tripi).

History

Sicily's earliest inhabitants were the Elymians who may have originated near the Aegean Sea. Later settlers included the Sicani, whose origins may have been from Iberia, and the Siculi or Sicels, who were related to people from southern Italy, such as the Italoi of Calabria, the Oenotrians, Chones, and Leuterni (or Leutarni), the Opicans, and the Ausones.

Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans

Greek temple at Selinunte dedicated to Hera, built in the fifth century B.C.E.

Sicily was colonized by Phoenicians, Punic settlers from Carthage, and by Greeks, beginning in the eighth century B.C.E.. The most important colony was established at Syracuse in 733 B.C.E. Other important Greek colonies included Gela founded in 688 B.C.E., Agrigento, in 580 B.C.E. Selinunte, Himera, and Zancle or Messene (modern-day Messina) founded in 756 B.C.E. These city–states played an important role in classical Greek civilization and came to be known as Magna Graecia. Both Empedocles and Archimedes originated in Sicily. Greece also played a role in Sicilian politics; Athens initiated the disastrous Sicilian Expedition during the Peloponnesian War.

The Greeks experienced conflict with the Punic trading communities, who dealt with Carthage on the African mainland and who had their own colonies on Sicily. Palermo, known as Zis or Sis (or "Panormos" to the Greeks) was originally a Carthaginian city which had been established in the eighth century B.C.E.. Hundreds of Phoenician and Carthaginian gravesites were found in the Palermo necropolis, south of the Norman palace where the kings once enjoyed a vast park. Greek influence existed primarily in the eastern areas of Sicily; Lilybaeum, in the far west, was not thoroughly Hellenized. In the First and Second Sicilian Wars, Carthage was in control of all but the eastern part of Sicily, which Syracuse dominated. In 415 B.C.E., in an effort to re-exert its trading power, Athens launched the Sicilian Expedition by attacking Sicily and breaking its seven year truce with Syracuse. As a result, the Peloponnesian War resumed.

In the third century B.C.E. Messanan Crisis, the Roman Republic intervened in Sicilian affairs, which led to the First Punic War between Rome and Carthage. Once the war was completed in 242 B.C.E., Rome occupied the entire country of Sicily. In 210 B.C.E. Sicily became Rome's first non-Italian province.

The Carthaginians' initial success during the Second Punic War encouraged many Sicilian cities to revolt. Rome sent troops to quash the rebellions; during a battle in the siege of Syracuse, Archimedes was killed. For a short time Carthage held power over portions of Sicily. However, eventually the Sicilians rallied and ousted Carthaginian forces, killing so many of their sympathizers in 210 B.C.E. that the Roman consul M. Valerian proclaimed to the Roman Senate that "no Carthaginian remains in Sicily."

For the next six centuries, Sicily remained a province of the Roman Empire, and its grain fields, which provided the principal food supply for Rome, were its chief significance. The empire did not attempt to Romanize this region, which remained primarily Greek. At this time in Sicily's history the most notable event was Verres infamous government, which Cicero strongly criticized. In 70 B.C.E. Gaius Verres escaped to avoid a trial by Cicero.

Around 200 C.E. Christianity began to develop in Sicily, and along with it, martyrdom occurred. By 313 C.E. Emperor Constantine ceased the prohibition of Christianity, and it developed quickly in the following two centuries.

Byzantines

In 440 C.E. Sicily fell to the Vandal King Geiseric. A few decades later, it came into Ostrogothic hands, where it remained until it was conquered by the Byzantine general Belisarius in 535. In 550 the Ostrogothic King Totila drove down the Italian peninsula and plundered and conquered Sicily. Totila was defeated and killed by the Byzantine general, Narses, in 552.

In 535, Emperor Justinian I made Sicily a Byzantine province, and for the second time in Sicilian history, the Greek language became a familiar sound across the island. As the power of the Byzantine Empire waned, Sicily was invaded by the Arabs in 652 C.E. However, this was a short lived invasion and the Arabs left soon after.

For a brief period during Byzantine rule (662–668), Syracuse was the imperial capital until Constans II was assassinated. Sicily was then ruled by the Byzantine Empire until the Muslim Arab conquest of 827–902. It is reported in contemporary accounts that Sicilians spoke Greek or Italo-Greek dialects until at least the tenth century, and in some regions for several more centuries.

Arab Control from Tunisia and Egypt

The island of Pantelleria was captured by Arabs in the year 700. Trading arrangements were made between Sicily and Arab merchants, who established themselves in Sicilian ports.

Following an 827 failed Sicilian coup attempt against an unpopular Byzantine governor, Euphemius, a wealthy landowner, declared himself Emperor and invited the Aghlabid Emir of Tunisia to assist him. The response was a fleet of one hundred ships and en thousand troops under the command of Asad ibn al-Furat, which consisted largely of Arab Berbers from North Africa and Spain. After resistance at Siracusa, the Muslims gained a foothold in Mazara del Vallo. Palermo fell after a long siege in 831, but Siracusa held out until 878.

From 842 to 859 the Arabs captured Messina, Modica, Ragusa, and Enna. In 902, Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold, also fell to the Arabs and by 965 all of Sicily was under Arab control. during which time Palermo became one of the largest cities in the world.

Emirate of Sicily

The Cathedral of Palermo.

In succession, Sicily was ruled by the Sunni Aghlabid dynasty in Tunisia and the Shiite Fatimids in Egypt. The Byzantines took advantage of temporary discord to occupy the eastern end of the island for several years. After suppressing a revolt the Fatimid caliph appointed Hassan al-Kalbi (948–964) as Emir of Sicily. He successfully managed to control the Byzantines and founded the Kalbid dynasty.

Raids into southern Italy continued under the Kalbids into the eleventh century, and in 982 a German army under Otto II was defeated near Crotone in Calabria. With Emir Yusuf al-Kalbi (990–998), a period of steady decline began. Under al-Akhal (1017–1037) the dynastic conflict intensified, with factions within the ruling family allying themselves variously with Byzantium and the Zirids. By the time of Emir Hasan as-Samsam (1040–1053) the island had fragmented into several small fiefdoms.

As a virtually independent emirate, Sicily played a privileged role as bridge between Africa and Europe. Trade flourished and taxes were low. The tolerant regime allowed subjects to abide by their own laws. Christians freely converted to Islam and there were soon hundreds of mosques in Palermo alone.

The Arabs initiated land reforms which in turn increased productivity and encouraged the growth of smallholdings, a dent to the dominance of the landed estates. The Arabs further improved irrigation systems. The suburb of Al-Khalisa (Kalsa) contained the Sultan's palace, baths, a mosque, government offices, and a private prison.

In addition to Andalusian and other Arabs, Sicily also had a population of Berbers, Africans, Persians, Greeks, Jews, Slavs, and Lombards. Western Sicily particularly prospered with Berbers settling in the Agrigento area coupled with Bedouin, Syrians, and Egyptian Arabs in Palermo.

Muslim rule in Sicily slowly came to an end following an invitation by the Emirs of Catania and Siracusa for a Norman invasion. The Normans, under Count Roger de Hauteville (Altavilla), attacked Sicily in 1061 beginning a 30 year struggle against the Arabs. In 1068, de Hauteville and his men defeated the Arabs at Misilmeri. The most crucial battle was the siege of Palermo in 1072, and the conquest of Sicily was completed by 1091 with the defeat of the last Emir in Noto.

Arab-Norman Period

Sicily became a kingdom in 1130, and was established as one of the wealthiest states in Europe. According to historian John Julius Norwich, Palermo became wealthier under the Normans than England during that age. A century later, however, the Norman Hauteville dynasty ended, and the south German or (Swabian) Hohenstaufen dynasty commenced its rule in 1194, with Palermo as its principal seat of governance beginning in 1220. Unfortunately, the Crusades instigated local Christian-Muslim conflicts and in 1224, Frederick II, grandson of Roger II, removed the remaining Arabs from Sicily.

Aragonese Control

In 1266, as a result of the conflict between the ruling Hohenstaufen family and the Papacy, Charles I, who was also the Duke of Anjou, attained control of the island. He only visited Sicily once, and replaced the landowners with French supporters and Sicilian administrators with French officials. Although the governing staffs were excellent traders and efficient rulers, they disregarded Sicilian customs and disdained the inhabitants.

Charles I was an unpopular ruler who was primarily interested in using Sicily as a base to expand his trade and power in the Mediterranean. Leaders of other nations, including Byzantine King Michael and Peter of Aragon whose wife, Constance, was a Hohenstaufen, were enemies of Charles and planned his overthrow.

Tired of French taxation and control, the native Sicilians conducted their own revolt, the Sicilian Vespers, on March 30, 1282. The populace gathered to celebrate Vespers on Easter Monday in Palermo, and French soldiers, whom the people tried to ignore, joined their group. Conflict arose when a French sergeant grabbed a married Sicilian woman, and her husband responded by stabbing him to death. The French retaliated to defend their fellow soldier. Many Sicilian locals immediately fought the French troops while others sent messages throughout the rest of Palermo, evoking a popular revolt in the town. The uprising spread throughout the island, and mass slaughter of Frenchmen occurred. Later the people requested assistance from King Peter and King Michael.

The Pope attempted, without success, to persuade the people to resume Angevin rule, and King Charles attempted to re-conquer the island. However, King Peter confronted the French sovereign, and the people proclaimed Peter III of Aragon as their new ruler. The War of the Sicilian Vespers lasted until the peace of Caltabellotta in 1302. The king's relatives ruled Sicily as an independent kingdom until 1409; after that time, the island was governed as part of the Crown of Aragon.

Spanish Control

In 1479 Sicily fell under the control of Spain. The island experienced difficult periods of rule by the crown of Savoy from 1713 to 1720 and then the Austrian Habsburgs gave way to union with the Bourbon-ruled kingdom of Naples as the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Sicily in the Middle Ages experienced diseases and natural disasters along with political problems. The nation suffered a ferocious outbreak of plague in 1656. Also known as Black Plague, this disease was first introduced to Europe via Sicily when an Italian ship with infected crew members returning from trade in China docked in Messina in 1347.

In 1693, the eastern and southern sections of the island were ravaged by a strong earthquake. The tremor claimed over sixty thousand victims and demolished the towns in the districts of Siracusa, Ragusa, and Catania. A tsunami immediately ensued along the Ionian coasts of Sicily and the Messina Strait.

Major revolutionary movements occurred in 1820 and 1848 against Bourbon denial of constitutional government. The Sicilian revolution of 1848 resulted in a 16 month period of independence from the Bourbons whose armed forces regained control of the island on May 15, 1849.

In late 1852 Prince Emanuele Realmuto had set up power in North Central Sicily. Highly educated, the prince established a political system set to bring Sicily's economy to the highest levels in all of Italy. The Prince's life, however, was shortened by assassination in 1857. To this day some of his work is still present in the Italian parliament.

Italian Unification

Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on July 10, 1943

Under the rallying cry of Italian unification, Guiseppe Garibaldi led troops in the invasion of Sicily, adjoining it to the other Italian regions in 1860. In 1866, Palermo revolted against Italy. Under the leadership of Raffaele Cadorna, the Italian navy responded to this protest by bombing the city, executing the civilian insurgents, and repossessing the island.

Between 1860 and 1871 over one hundred thousand Sicilians and southern Italian unionists were executed under a brutal campaign by King Victor Emanuel II, who proclaimed himself "King of Italy." The citizens were subjected to ferocious military repression, including martial law, and imprisonment of tens of thousands. Villages were destroyed, and many were deported. As a result the Sicilian economy collapsed and people emigrated in unprecedented numbers. In 1894 labor forces rebelled through the radical Fasci Siciliani only to be suppressed again by martial law.

Sicily gained independence in 1946, and the people benefited from the partial Italian land reform of 1950–1962 as well as special funding from the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the Italian government's indemnification fund for the south which the government offered from 1950 through 1984.

Mafia

Sicily was the birthplace of the well-known Mafia, an organized crime operation common in Italy and the United States.

The Mafia is a hierarchically structured criminal society that arose in Sicily during the Middle Ages as a means of providing protection from the various foreign conquerors of the island. It consisted of many small private armies (mafie) that were hired by absentee landlords to protect their properties. Eventually, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, these armies organized and consolidated their power and turned on the landowners, employing extortion methods in order to continue their protective services.

The Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini nearly succeeded in eliminating the Mafia via imprisonment. However, following the Second World War, the American forces released many of the mafiosi, who quickly revived their operations.

The United States used the Italian connection of the American Mafiosi during the invasion of Italy and Sicily in 1943. Lucky Luciano and other members who had been imprisoned during this time in the U.S. provided information for U.S. military intelligence, who used their influence in Sicily to ease the way for advancing American troops.

In the U.S. the name Cosa Nostra (meaning "our affair") was adopted in the 1960s. Most cities where syndicated crime operates have only one "family," but in New York City, there have been five rival families: Gambino, Genovese, Lucchese, Colombo, and Bonanno.

Most Americans, especially outside of the largest cities, are familiar with the Mafia only through its glamorized depiction in the movie "The Godfather," which portrays a detailed example of Sicily and Sicilian mafia traditions.

Government

The provinces of Sicily

Sicily, together with the islands of Egadi, Lipari, Pelagie, and Panteleria, forms an autonomous region of Italy. There are five special regions of Italy that derive their system of governance from special statutes adopted through constitutional laws. The other four autonomous regions besides Sicily are Sardinia, Trentino–Alto Adige, Friuli–Venezia Giulia, and Valle d'Aosta.

Italy provides certain officials who have responsibilities within the local governments. These include:

  • A Government Commissioner, whose function is to supervise the administrative functions performed by the state and coordinate them with those performed by the region.
  • A Prefect, who is responsible for enforcing the orders of the central government.
  • A Questore, who is the provincial chief of the state-run police.


Flag

Sicily's historical banner since 1282 became its official regional flag in January 2000. Its design is divided diagonally yellow over red, with the trinacria, or three points, symbol in the center. The Trinacria is most likely a solar symbol, although most recently it represents the island's three points. The head shown on the Sicilian Trinacria is Medusa's face. Other areas, such as the Isle of Man also use the "Trinacria" as their flag.

Economy

Sicily, which is the most densely populated island in the Mediterranean Sea, has an economy that is largely underdeveloped.

Its industrialization is based upon oil-refining and chemical industries. Large quantities of sulfur and natural gas are produced. They also have industries involved in salt extraction, wine making, textile production, food processing, and ship building.

Sicily's agricultural products include olives, almonds, barley, wheat, corn, citrus fruits, wine grapes, and cotton. Cattle, mules, donkeys, and sheep are also raised.

Demographics

Palermo is the regional capital of Sicily

People

The position of Sicily as a stepping stone in the center of the Mediterranean Basin has lent it strategic importance throughout history, resulting in an endless procession of settlers and conquerors. Sicilians are therefore a diverse people with a great variety of ethnic and physical influx.

It has been suggested that a genetic boundary divides Sicily into two regions, reflecting the distribution of Siculi and Greek settlements in the east, and Sicani/Elymi, Phoenician/Arab and Norman settlements in the west.

Sicily, however diverse it may be genetically, retains many characteristics of more rural regions bred of its isolation and distance from mainland Italy. There is, therefore a distinctive "Sicilian character."


Language

Many Sicilians are bilingual in both Italian and Sicilian, which is a unique Romance language and not a derivative of Italian, although it is thought by some to be an Italian dialect. It is a blend of Greek, Latin, Aragonese, Arabic, Longobardic and Norman-French, reflecting its rich history and expressing the influence of the many types of peoples who previously settled the island.

The Sicilian language was an early influence in the development of the first Italian standard, although its use remained confined to the intellectual elite. This was a literary language in Sicily created under the auspices of Frederick II and his court of notaries, or Magna Curia. Its linguistic and poetic heritage was later assimilated into the Florentine by Dante Alighieri, the father of modern Italian who, in his De Vulgari Eloquentia claims that "In effect this vernacular seems to deserve a higher praise than the others, since all the poetry written by Italians can be called Sicilian." It was in Sicilian that the first sonnet was written, whose invention is attributed to Giacomo da Lentini.

By the seventeenth century, however, the Sicilian language was mostly spoken by the working classes; the Italian royalty preferred Tuscan, the Savoys utilized Piedmontese, and the Bourbons of Naples primarily spoke Neopolitan.

Sicilian dialects are also spoken in the southern and central sections of the Italian regions of Calabria (Calabrese) and Puglia (Salentino) and had a significant influence on the Maltese Language. Malta was a part of the Kingdom of Sicily, in its various forms, until the late eighteenth century. With the predominance of Italian spoken in schools and the media, Sicilian is no longer the first language of many Sicilians. Indeed, in urban centers in particular, one is more likely to hear standard Italian spoken rather than Sicilian, especially among the young. However, the language remains important in the study of name origins, and therefore in history and genealogy.

Society and Culture

Sicily's population is approximately 5 million, and there are an additional 10 million people of Sicilian descent around the world, mostly in the United States, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and other European Union countries. The island today, like all of western Europe, is home to growing communities of immigrants, including Tunisians, Moroccans, Nigerians, Indians, Romanians, Russians, Chinese and Gypsies from the Balkans.

Cuisine

The cuisine of Sicily shows traces of all the cultures that established themselves on the island over the last two millennia. Much of the island's cuisine encourages the use of fresh vegetables such as eggplant, bell peppers, and tomatoes, as well as fish.

The cuisine in Palermo, capital of Sicily and headquarters of the emir during the Arab domination, exhibits the classic signs of Arab influence in its dishes, for example, the use of mint, raisins, fried preparations, and pine nuts.

In Catania, located on the east coast, initially settled by Greek colonists, fish, olives, broad beans and fresh vegetables are preferred.

In Trapani, the extreme western corner of the island, the North African influence comes to the fore with dishes featuring couscous.

The list of well known Sicilian dishes includes arancini (a form of deep fried rice croquettes), Pasta alla Norma (a specialty of Catania), caponata, pani ca meusa (Palermo) and couscous al pesce (Trapani). Sweets are another specialty; examples include: frutta martorana, pignolata, buccellato, cannolo siciliano, granita, and cassata siciliana.

Arts

Landscape with temple ruins on Sicily, Jacob Philipp Hackert, 1778

Sicily is famous for its art and is the birthplace of many poets and writers. In the early thirteenth century, the Sicilian School inspired later Italian poetry and created the first Italian standard. The most famous artists from Sicily include Luigi Pirandello, Giovanni Verga, Salvatore Quasimodo, and Gesualdo Bufalino.

Other Sicilian artists include the composers Sigismondo d'India, Girolamo Arrigo, Salvatore Sciarrino, Giovanni Sollima, Alessandro Scarlatti, Vincenzo Bellini, Giovanni Pacini, Francesco Paolo Frontini, Alfredo Sangiorgi, Aldo Clementi, and Roberto Carnevale.

Noto, Ragusa, and particularly Acireale contain some of Italy's best examples of Baroque architecture, carved in the local red sandstone. Caltagirone is renowned for its decorative ceramics. Palermo is also a major center of Italian opera. Its Teatro Massimo is the largest opera house in Italy and the third largest in the world.

Antonello da Messina, who lived in the fifteenth century C.E., was an outstanding Sicilian painter and a great European master of his time. His famous paintings include the Portrait of an Unknown Seaman in the Cefalù Mandralisca Museum, the Three Saints, and the splendid Annunzíata in the Palermo Gallery, the San Gregorio polyptych in the Messina Museum, and the Annunciation in the Palazzo Bellomo Museum in Syracuse.

Noteworthy sculptors included Domenico Gagini, who established a workshop that produced great sculptors for several generations, including Antonello Gagini and his sons.

Sicily is home to two prominent folk art traditions, both of which draw heavily on the island's Norman influence. A Sicilian wood cart, or Carretto Siciliano, is painted with intricate decorations of scenes from the Norman romantic poems, including The Song of Roland. These same stories are shared in traditional puppet theatres which feature handmade wooden marionettes, especially in Acireale, the home town of most Sicilian puppets.

Sicily's ancient pottery and rare works of art contain some of the greatest sources of archeological masterpieces in the world. They exemplify the beautiful blending of two hundred years of Graeco-Sicel, Roman, and Byzantine culture. The mosaic pieces, a contribution of Byzantine art, are particularly attractive.

The Catholic Church contributed to maintaining art through its "papal legates." Hauteville dynasty members constructed the first Latin cathedrals, which include the churches of Messina, Lipari, Cefalù, Monreale, Catania, Mazara, and Agrigento. In these, the Latin spacious style from central Italy and northern Europe combined with the Maghreb decorations, narrative Byzantine mosaics, and Apulian Romanesque sculpture.

Architecture

Many cities in Sicily have beautiful examples of architecture that include ruins of aquaducts, Roman patrician villas, temples in Segesta, Selinunte, and Agrigento, and decorations on ancient buildings. Their pottery and rare works of art generally consist of two hundred years of Graeco-Sicel, Roman, and Byzantine culture and are outstanding among ancient archaeological treasures.

Fortresses such as the Castle of Euryalus in Syracuse and the archaeological sites of Agriengento, Heraclea, Minoa, Himera, Seguesta, and Selinunte give evidence to Sicily's vast development at a time in the Middle Ages when most other western European countries' arts and sciences were much less developed.

Royalty exerted much influence in architecture. Roger II built the Cefalù Cathedral in which he wanted to be buried. In 1132 he ordered the construction of his Royal Palace in Palermo, which included his own "Palantine Chapel,” a magnificient example of Sicilian medieval art which was dedicated to St. Peter.

Religious leaders, too, contributed to the expansion of Sicilian architecture. Bishop Gualtiero reconstructed much of the old Palermo Cathedral and expanded it to become the greatest cathedral in medieval Sicily.

Architecture took a different turn by the first half of the seventh century C.E. when Mannerism became popular. Examples of this style include the Quattro Canti (Giulio Lasso), Porta Felice (Pietro Novelli), the churches of Olivella and San Domenico, the old Shipyard (Mariano Smiriglio), the church of the Teatini (Giacomo Besio), the Town Hall in Syracuse (G. Vermexio), the Benedectine Monastery in Catania (V. De Franchis), the College and Church of the Jesuits in Trapani (N. Masuccio), the Church of the Salvatore, and Giacomo Amato’s (1643–1732) Church of the Pietà and Santa Téresa alla Kalsa. The Church of the Annunziata dei Teatini in Messina Baroque, (Guaríno Guarini) implemented the Baroque style, which was simplified in Palermo through the works of Paolo Amato (1634–1714).

Music

Sicily has an almost unparalleled history of cultural diversity. The music of Sicily today mirrors that diversity: from the island's great presence as part of Magna Grecia 2,500 years ago through various historical incarnations as past of the Roman Empire, then an Arab stronghold, then an integral part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and, finally, as region of the modern nation state of Italy.

Sicily's historical connections lie not just with mainland Italy, but also the ancient Greeks and more recent Arab occupiers. The result has been a diverse and unique fusion of musical elements on the island. American musicologist Alan Lomax made some historic recordings of Sicilian traditional music in the twentieth century, including lullabies, dance music, festival music, epic storytelling, and religious music.

Sicily is also home to a great variety of Christian music, including a cappella devotional songs from Montedoro and many brass bands like Banda Ionica, who play songs from a diverse repertoire. Harvest songs and work songs are also indigenous to the agricultural island, known as "Italy's granary." Sicilian flute music, called friscaletto, is also popular among traditionalist Sicilians, as are Messina's male choirs.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Migliorini, Bruno. Storia Della Lingua Italiana. Biblioteca Universale Sansoni, 34. Firenze: Sansoni Editore. 1992. ISBN 8838313431
  • Shapiro, Marianne, and Alighieri, Dante. De Vulgari Eloquentia: Dante's Book of Exile. Lincoln: University of Nebraska. 1990. ISBN 0803242115
  • Segre, Cesare, and Ossola, Carlo. Antologia Della Poesia Italiana. Torino: Einaudi. 1999. ISBN 8806160389 Retrieved July 9, 2007; ISBN 8806153412

External links

All links retrieved January 27, 2023.


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