Proverbs, Book of

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{{Books of the Old Testament}}
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{{Books of Ketuvim}}
 
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
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{{epname|Proverbs, Book of}}
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The '''Book of Proverbs''' is one of the books of the [[Ketuvim]] of the [[Tanakh]] and of the [[Writings]] of the [[Old Testament]].
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The '''Book of Proverbs''' is one of the books of the "[[Writings]]" of the [[Old Testament]]. It represents the most concise representation of [[Jewish]] wisdom literature contained within the [[biblical canon]]. Proverbs provides its readers with clear-cut teachings about how to achieve happiness through understanding one’s proper relation with God’s role in society. Its approach is best summarized in one of its most famous dicta: "The fear of [[Yahweh|the Lord]] is the beginning of wisdom, and knowledge of the Holy One is understanding." (9:10) The book teaches in a straightforward and uncomplicated manner that whoever does right will be blessed, and whoever does evil will suffer.
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Traditionally ascribed to [[Solomon]], Proverbs today is generally held to a later work combining several sources. While some insist that those sections specifically attributed to Solomon in the text were truly written by him, critical scholars believe the work's language and attitude make it likely that it was both written and compiled in the period after the [[Babylonian exile]].
  
 
==Proverbs==
 
==Proverbs==
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The Book of Proverbs belongs to the group of ''Ḥokmah'', or "Wisdom" books, in which [[Job]] and [[Ecclesiastes]] are also included.
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[[Image:Wisdom-and folly.jpg|thumb|250px|"Wisdom has built her house... 'Let all who are simple come in here!' she says to those who lack judgment."—Proverbs 9:1-4]]
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The following divisions of the book are indicated in the text:
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The Book of Proverbs belongs to the group of ''Ḥokmah'', or "Wisdom" books, in which [[Job]] and [[Ecclesiastes]] are also included. The following divisions of the book are indicated in the text:
  
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#A group of discourses on the conduct of life (ch. 1-9), comprising the praise of wisdom as the guide of life (1-4); warnings against unchaste women (5-7); the description of wisdom as the controller of life and as [[Yahweh]]'s companion in the creation of the world (8); and a contrast between wisdom and folly (9).
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#A group of discourses on the conduct of life (ch. one to nine), comprising the praise of wisdom as the guide of life (1-4); warnings against unchaste women (five to seven); the description of wisdom as the controller of life and as [[Yahweh]]'s companion in the creation of the world (eight); and a contrast between wisdom and folly (nine).
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# A collection, or book, of aphoristic couplets (10-22).
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# A collection, or book, of aphoristic [[couplet]]s (ten to 22).
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#Two small groups of aphoristic quatrains (22-24).
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#Two small groups of aphoristic [[quatrain]]s (22-24).
 
#A second collection of couplets (25-29).
 
#A second collection of couplets (25-29).
 
#A miscellaneous group of discourses and numerical aphorisms (30-31), mostly in tetrads (30); and a picture of a model housewife (31).
 
#A miscellaneous group of discourses and numerical aphorisms (30-31), mostly in tetrads (30); and a picture of a model housewife (31).
  
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These divisions, various in form and content, suggest that the book was formed by the combination of a number of booklets, rather than being a unitary work.
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These divisions, so various from each other in form and content, suggest that the book was formed by the combination of a number of booklets, rather than originally being a unitary work.
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==Authorship==
 
  
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The ascription of the book to [[Solomon]], in the titles and in tradition, is though by critical scholars to be without valid foundation. The elaborate heading to the section 25-29 ("Proverbs of Solomon Edited by Scholars of Hezekiah's Court") is paralleled by the superscriptions to some of the Psalms (51, 59, 60.), is likewise considered untrustworthy. Hezekiah's time may have been chosen by the author of this heading because he recognized the collection as later than the one which precedes it. Moreover the thought of the Book of Proverbs differs significant from that of the Hezekian as to the Solomonic age.
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==Authorship and date==
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The original [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] title of the book of Proverbs is "Míshlê Shlomoh" ("Proverbs of [[Solomon]]"). The [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] [[vulgate]] translations of the title were "Proverbs" and "Proverbial," respectively, from which the English title of Proverbs is derived.
  
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In the first place, there is no trace in the book of the religious problems and conflicts of the pre-exilic period. The [[prophets]], from [[Amos]] to [[Ezekiel]], are in deadly fear of foreign cults, and testify that Israel is largely given over to the worship of other gods than [[Yahweh]] and to [[idolatry]]. The polemic against such infidelity is the dominant note of the prophetic preaching down to the latter half of the sixth century. But in Proverbs there is not a word of all this. [[Monotheism]] is quietly taken for granted. There is no mention of [[priests]] or prophets, and the sacrificial ritual is almost completely ignored. Throughout the biblical literature till the time of [[Ezra]] the national interest is predominant. Here it is quite lacking—the name Israel does not even occur.  
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The attribution of the work to [[Solomon]] is due to the ascription in Proverbs 1:1: "The proverbs of Solomon the son of [[David]], King of Israel." However, no commentator today believes that Solomon was the author of each separate proverb in the book—the book itself attributes two of its sections to other writers—and his authorship of any of them is doubted by most critical scholars.
  
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The fact that religious atmosphere of the book is wholly different from that which characterizes Jewish thought down to the end of the fifth century leads most scholars to conclude that the work is post-exilic.
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It was often the custom to attribute a writing to the king or another person of prominence in order to honor him, or to give those writings more prestige. Solomon is portrayed in the [[Bible]] as well as in extra-biblical literature as a king of extensive and supreme [[wisdom]]. In [[1 Kings]] 4:29-34, 3000 proverbs and over 1000 songs are said to have been written by him. People reportedly came from all over the world to hear the wisdom of Solomon. Among those who accept this view of Solomon, the general assumption is that he authored at least some of the Book of Proverbs, but that the book was not solely his work. One reason for this admission is that other names than Solomon's are linked to various sections of the book. There is also other evidence that several sources were combined into the current work creating elements of disunity that suggest more than one author even beyond those specifically mentioned.
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==Wisdom==
 
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In no point is the change more noticeable than in the attitude toward wisdom. The wisdom of the pre-Ezran Old Testament writings is shrewd common sense and general keen intelligence (II Sam. xiv.; I Kings iii.); and because it was controlled by worldly considerations it was looked on with disfavor by the Prophets as not being in harmony with the word of God as they understood it (Jer. viii. 9, ix. 23; Ezek. vii. 26). In Proverbs it stands for the broadest and highest conception of life, and is identified with the law of God. Yet it is the utterance of sages, whose counsel is represented as the only sufficient guide of conduct (i.-iv., xxii. 17-21). The sages do not employ the prophetic formula "Thus saith the Lord" or appeal to the law of Moses; they speak out of their own minds, not claiming divine inspiration, yet assuming the absolute authoritativeness of what they say—that is, they regard conscience as the final guide of life. While the contents of the book are various, parts of it dealing with simple, every-day matters, the prevailing tone is broadly religious: God is the ruler of the world, and wisdom is the expression (through human conscience) of His will. In one passage (viii.), animated by a fine enthusiasm, wisdom is personified (almost hypostatized) as a cosmic force, the nursling of God, standing by His side at the creation of the world (comp. Job xxviii.; Wisdom of Solomon vii.). This conception, foreign to the pre-Ezran Old Testament thought, suggests the period when the Jews came under Greek influence.
 
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No Immortality or Messiah.
 
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The theology of Proverbs is the simplest form of theism. The individual man stands in direct relation with God, needing no man or angel to act as mediator (comp. Job v. 1. xxxiii. 23). No supernatural being, except God, is mentioned. Salvation lies in conduct, which is determined by man's will. Men are divided into two classes, the righteous and the wicked: the former are rewarded, the latter punished, by God; how one may pass from one class into the other is not said. Reward and punishment belong to the present life; the conception of the underworld is the same as in the body of Old Testament writings; there is no reference to ethical immortality (on xi. 7 and xiv. 32 see the commentaries). Wickedness leads to premature death (v. 5, ix. 18, et al.); wisdom confers long life (iii. 16). Doubtless the authors, pious men, observed the national sacrificial laws (xv. 8), but they lay no stress on them—they regard conduct as the important thing. The book contains no Messianic element. The description in xvi. 10-15 is of the ideal king, who is controlled by the human law of right (in contrast with the delineations in Isa. xi. 1-5, xxxii. 1, 2; Zech. ix. 9). This attitude may point to a time when there was a lull in the general Messianic i nterest (about 250-200 B.C.E.), but it is satisfactorily accounted for by the supposition that the sages, concerned with the inculcation of a universal code of life, took little interest in the popular hope of a restoration of national independence.
 
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Proverbs bears witness, especially in the first and the third division, to the existence of some sort of organized higher instruction at the time when it was composed. The frequent form of address, "my son," indicates the relation of a teacher to his pupils. There is no information regarding regular academies before the second century B.C.E. (from Antigonus of Soko onward), but it is probable that those that are known did not spring into existence without forerunners. The instruction in such schools would naturally be of the practical ethical sort that is found in Proverbs (on the "mashal" form here adopted see Proverbs). The book has been always highly valued for the purity and elevation of its moral teaching. Not only are justice and truthfulness everywhere enjoined, but revenge is forbidden (xxiv. 17), and kindness to enemies insisted on (xxv. 21). The conception of family life is a high one: monogamy is taken for granted; children are to honor parents, and parents to be the guides of children; an honorable position is assigned the wife and mother. Infidelity on the part of a married woman is denounced at length (v., vii.), and the youth is repeatedly warned against the "strange woman," that is, the unchaste wife of another man. There are many maxims relating to thrift and economy (vi. 1-11, xxvii. 23-27, et al.). Excess is denounced, and self-control and temperance enjoined. The motive urged for well-doing is well-being, success, and happiness. In so far the ethical system is utilitarian, but the success presented as a goal, while sometimes merely material (xi. 15; xviii. 2, 18, et al.), rises at other times to the height of an ideal conception of a happy life (iii., viii.). In this higher sense the utilitarian view approaches the idea of a life devoted to humanity, though this idea is not definitely expressed in Proverbs.
 
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Date.
 
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The characteristics described above point to the post-Ezran period as the time of origination of the book; to this period alone can be referred the tacit recognition of monotheism and monogamy, the absence of a national tone, and the marks of a developed city life. These traits are reproduced in Ben Sira (B.C. 190), the similarity of whose thought to that of Proverbs is obvious. But this latter is made up of different parts that appear to be of different dates. From a comparison of thought and form the following conclusion may be regarded as probable: The earliest collections (about the year 400) were the aphorisms contained in x.-xv., xvi.-xxii. 16, xxv.-xxvii., and xxviii.-xxix., from which later editors formed the two booklets, x.-xxii. 16 and xxv.-xxix. (350-300). A little later came the collection of more elaborate quatrains, xxii. 17-xxiv., and, toward the middle of the third century, the sustained discourses of i.-ix. The latest section, probably, is xxx.-xxxi., and the whole may have been edited not long before the year 200. These dates are approximate, but it seems reasonably certain that the book is later than the year 400 B.C.E. On the objection made to its canonization see Bible Canon (§ 11); on the text and versions see the commentaries. In the Septuagint the order of subsections in the third, fourth, and fifth divisions is as follows: xxii. 17-xxiv. 22; xxx. 1-14; xxiv. 23-34; xxx. 15-33; xxxi. 1-9; xxv.-xxix.; xxxi. 10-31. Whether this divergence from the Hebrew order is due to accident, or to caprice, or to an original difference of arrangement, it is hardly possible to say.
 
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==Title and authorship==
 
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The original [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] title of the book of Proverbs is "Míshlê Shlomoh" ("Proverbs of [[Solomon]]"). [[Greek language|Greek]] In the Greek [[Septuagint]] version the title became "paroimai paroimiae" ("Proverbs"). In the [[Latin]] [[vulgate]] the title was "proverbial," from which the English title of Proverbs is derived.
 
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The actual authorship of Proverbs has been a matter of controversy. Today, the the book is generally recognized as a collection of wisdom poetry and [[aphorism]]s by various authors. These were later collected and assigned to [[Solomon]], whose name appears in Proverbs 1:1: "The proverbs of Solomon the son of [[David]], King of Israel." However, few commentators today believe that he was the author of each separate proverb in the book, and his authorship of any of them is questioned by critical scholars. It was often the custom to attribute a writing to the King or another person of prominence in order to honor them, or to give those writings more prestige.
 
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Solomon is portrayed in the [[Bible]] as well as in extra-biblical literature as a king of extensive and supreme [[wisdom]]. In [[1 Kings]] 4:29-34, 3000 proverbs and over 1000 songs are said to have been written by him. People reportedly came from all over the world to hear the wisdom of Solomon. Among those who accept this view of Solomon, the general assumption is that he authored at least some of the Book of Proverbs, but that the book was not solely his work. One reason for this admission is other names than Solomon's are linked to other sections of the book. There is also other evidence that several sources were combined into the current work creating elements of disunity that suggest more than one author even beyond those specifically mentioned.
 
  
 
The text itself contains at least eight specific instances where authorship is mentioned:
 
The text itself contains at least eight specific instances where authorship is mentioned:
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Studies of word usage have indicated that the highest percentage of commonalities are between the three [[Solomon]] sections. The next most common are the Wise Men sections, and the least commonalities were with the sections attributed to Agur, Lemuel, and the unknown author. A majority of scholars, such as Crenshaw, Murphy and Perdue, hold to the belief that much of Proverbs was brought together from a time well after Solomon.
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However, the ascription of any part of the book to [[Solomon]] is thought by critical scholars to be without valid foundation. In the first place, there is no trace in the book of the religious problems and conflicts of the pre-exilic period (before 587 B.C.E.). The [[prophets]], from [[Amos]] to [[Ezekiel]], are in deadly fear of foreign cults, and testify that Israel is largely given over to the worship of other gods than [[Yahweh]] and to [[idolatry]]. The polemic against such infidelity is the dominant note of the prophetic preaching down to the latter half of the sixth century. But in Proverbs there is not a word of all this. [[Monotheism]] is quietly taken for granted. There is no mention of [[priests]] or prophets, and the sacrificial ritual is almost completely ignored. Also, throughout the biblical literature till the time of [[Ezra]] the national interest is predominant. Here it is quite lacking—the name Israel does not even occur.  
  
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==Date of writing==
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The fact that the religious and cultural atmosphere of the book is wholly different from that which characterizes Jewish thought down to the end of the fifth century leads most scholars to conclude that the work is post-exilic.
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Dates for the writing of the book are also unclear. Due to the suggested authorship of [[Solomon]] and the collaboration of [[Hezekiah]]’s men there are some dates that can be worked with. However there are not enough to give specific timing to the completion of the book though it could have been as late as third century [[BC]]
 
  
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==Influences==
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===Wisdom===
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There have been suggestions that there is a crossover of some Egyptian nature in the proverbs from The [[Instructions of Amenemopet]].
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[[Image:Rich-rule-over-the-poor.jpg|thumb|left|250px|"The rich rule over the poor, and the borrower is servant to the lender."—Proverbs 22:7]]
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The "wisdom" of the pre-Ezran [[Old Testament]] writings is shrewd common sense and general keen intelligence (2 Sam. 14; 1 Kings 3). Because it was controlled by worldly considerations it was looked on with disfavor by the prophets as not being in harmony with the word of God as they understood it (Jer. 8:9; Ezek. 7:26). In Proverbs, wisdom stands for the broadest and highest conception of life, and is identified with the law of God. Yet it is the utterance not of prophets but of sages, whose counsel is represented as the only sufficient guide of conduct (1-4, 12:17-21).
 +
 
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The sages do not employ the prophetic formula "Thus saith the Lord" or appeal to the [[Torah|law of Moses]]. They speak out of their own minds, not claiming divine inspiration, yet assuming the absolute authoritativeness of what they say—that is, they regard conscience as the final guide of life.
 +
 
 +
While the contents of the book are varied, in the parts of it dealing with simple, every-day matters, the prevailing tone is broadly religious: God is the ruler of the world, and wisdom is the expression (through human conscience) of His will. In one passage (8), wisdom is personified as a cosmic force, the nursling of God, standing by His side at the creation of the world (compare [[Job]] 28; [[Wisdom of Solomon]] 7). This conception, foreign to the pre-Ezran Old Testament thought, suggests the period when the Jews came under Greek influence.
 +
 
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==Teachings==
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The theology of Proverbs is the simplest form of [[theism]]. The individual man stands in direct relation with God, needing no man or angel to act as mediator. No supernatural being, except God, is mentioned. [[Salvation]] lies in conduct, which is determined by man's will.
 +
 
 +
Men are divided into two classes, the righteous and the wicked: the former are rewarded, the latter punished, by God. How one may pass from one class into the other is not said. Reward and punishment belong to the present life, and the conception of the [[underworld]] is the same as in the body of [[Old Testament]] writings. There is no reference to ethical immortality in which sinners are punished and the righteous are rewarded. Wickedness leads to premature death (5:5, 9:18); wisdom confers long life (3:16).
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[[Image:Righteous-woman.jpg|thumb|A wife of noble character who can find? She is worth far more than rubies. She opens her arms to the poor and extends her hands to the needy.—Proverbs 31:10-20]]
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Doubtless the authors, who were pious men, observed the national sacrificial laws (25:8), but they lay no stress on them. They regard ethical conduct as the important thing.
 +
 
 +
The book contains no Messianic element. A description in 26: 10-15 is of the ideal king, who is controlled by the human law of right, not a [[Messiah]] per se. This attitude may point to a time when there was a lull in the general Messianic interest (about 250-200 B.C.E.), but it may also be accounted for by the supposition that the sages, concerned with the inculcation of a universal code of life, took little interest in the popular hope of a restoration of the national independence which the Messiah would bring.
 +
 
 +
Proverbs bears witness, especially in the first and the third division, to the existence of some sort of organized higher instruction at the time when it was composed. The frequent form of address, "my son," indicates the relation of a teacher to his pupils. There is no information regarding regular academies before the second century B.C.E., but it is probable that those that are known did not spring into existence without forerunners. The instruction in such schools would naturally be of the practical ethical sort that is found in Proverbs. The book has been always highly valued for the purity and elevation of its moral teaching.
 +
 
 +
Not only are justice and truthfulness everywhere enjoined, but revenge is forbidden (24:17), and kindness to enemies insisted on (25:21). The conception of family life is a high one: [[monogamy]] is taken for granted, children are to honor parents, and parents to be the guides of children. An honorable position is assigned to the wife and mother. Infidelity on the part of a married woman is denounced at length (5, 7), and the young man is repeatedly warned against the "strange woman," that is, the unchaste wife of another man.
 +
 
 +
There are many maxims relating to thrift and economy (6:1-11, 27:23-27, ''et al''). Excess is denounced, and self-control and temperance enjoined. The motives urged for well-doing are well-being, success, and happiness. The ethical system is thus utilitarian, but the success presented as a goal, while sometimes merely material, rises at other times to the height of an ideal conception of a happy life (3, 8).
  
 
==Proverbs as wisdom literature==
 
==Proverbs as wisdom literature==
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The book of Proverbs is referred to as [[wisdom literature]] along with several other books: the [[book of Job]], [[Ecclesiastes]] and [[Song of Solomon]], along with several [[apocrypha]]l books.
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The Book of Proverbs is referred to as [[wisdom literature]], along with the [[book of Job]], [[Ecclesiastes]] and [[Song of Solomon]], and several [[apocrypha]]l books. However, many commentators have noted a marked contrast in its attitude from Job and Ecclesiastes in particular.
  
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==Setting==
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For Proverbs, the righteous man who practices wisdom and fears God will be blessed in the here and now: "The Lord does not let the righteous go hungry," it insists. "Blessings crown the head of the righteous, but violence overwhelms the mouth of the wicked." (Proverbs 10:3-6)
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It is difficult to pin the provenance of Proverbs down. Several suggestions have been made.
 
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*Family
 
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In the society of ancient Israel, the family played an important role in the upbringing and education of children. Some internal evidence hints to the use of Proverbs in a family setting: The phrase "my Son" appears some 20 times throughout the book. The role of the mother is also listed some 10 times.  
 
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*Court
 
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The name of Solomon stands in the title of the book, thus suggesting a royal setting. Throughout the Old Testament is wisdom connected with the court.
 
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*School
 
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It is possible practical and reflective wisdom was transmitted in a house of learning or instruction. <ref>W. Dennis Tucker, "Literary Forms in the Wisdom Literature" In: An introduction to Wisdom Literature and the Psalms, FS Marvin E. Tate, ed. H. Wayne Ballard, 163-166</ref>
 
  
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==What is the central theme of the book?==
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Ecclesiastes takes an almost opposite view: "In this meaningless life of mine I have seen both of these: a righteous man perishing in his righteousness, and a wicked man living long in his wickedness." (Ecc. 7:15) The Book of Job, meanwhile, deals at length with the paradox of a righteous man, Job, whom God has allowed to suffer horribly.
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The central theme to the book of Proverbs can be linked to Proverbs 1:7 "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; Fools despise wisdom and instruction." This theme of centrality of the knowledge of God runs through the entirety of the book. The instructions that are given, although they are for everyday circumstances, allude to humankind’s uprightness before God. The thought pattern that the reverence and respect for God in all circumstances brings true knowledge is encouraged in this book. The book centers on the willingness to learn as important. God’s people were brought into the belief that God’s law is something that is part of life and is a duty, and this required obedience. Proverbs calls this kind of obedience the fear of the Lord. This obligation, which is similar to the knowledge of God that they had from the prophetic books, involves reverence, gratitude, and commitment to do the will of God in every circumstance. The main goal of Proverbs is to define clearly what it means to be fully devoted to God’s will and seeing his will accomplished in this world.
 
  
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A second theme is that obedience to God's law will bring His blessing, while disobedience will result in disaster.
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Proverbs, like the [[Psalms]], admits no such gray areas. He who does well will be blessed, and he that does evil will be punished. It has thus provided a sure comfort for those struggling with ethical dilemmas, assuring them that God will bless them if they do what is right. On those occasions where this formula fails, readers can turn to Job and Ecclesiastes for the more nuanced view.
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==See also==
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== See also ==
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*[[Solomon]]
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*[[Pride goes before a fall]]
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*[[Book of Job]]
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*[[Proverbs 31]]
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*[[Book of Ecclesiastes]]
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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* Benson, Clarence H., Old Testament Survey: Poetry and Prophecy, 1972
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*Dell, Katharine J. ''The Book of Proverbs in Social and Theological Context''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 9780521633055
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* Blank, S. H. "Book of Proverbs," in The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible [1962]
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*Hunter, Alastair G. ''Wisdom Literature''. SCM core text. London: SCM Press, 2006. ISBN 9780334040156
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* Chapman, Milo L., Purkiser, W.T., Wolf, Earl C. & Harper, A. F. Beacon Bible Commentary: Job through Song of Solomon, 1967
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*Murphy, Roland E. ''Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther''. The Forms of the Old Testament literature, v. 13. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 1981. ISBN 9780802818775
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* Crenshaw, James L. "Book of Proverbs," The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 1992
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*Whybray, R. N. ''The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study''. History of biblical interpretation series, v. 1. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1995. ISBN 9789004103740
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* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12505b.htm Dean, Matt. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume II, 2003]
 
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* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=565&letter=P ''Jewish Encyclopedia''], with dates of compilation and manuscript traditions
 
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* Lasor, William Sanford, Hubbard, David Allan, & Bush, Frederic Wm., ''Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament'', 1996
 
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* Murphy, Roland E., Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. Grand Rapids, 1981
 
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* Perdue, Leo G. Proverbs: interpretation A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, 2000
 
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* Steinmann, Andrew E. "Proverbs 1-9 as a Solomonic Composition," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, 43, no. 4
 
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*{{cite_book|author=[[Bruce Waltke|Waltke, Bruce]]|title=Book Of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15 | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | date=2004 | isbn=978-0802825452 }}
 
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*{{cite_book|author=Waltke, Bruce|title=The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 15-31|isbn=978-0802827760|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|date=2005}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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{{wikisourcepar|Bible (King James)/Proverbs|Proverbs}}
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All links retrieved November 18, 2023.
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{{wikiquote}}
 
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Online translations of ''Book of Proverbs'':
 
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*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
 
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** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15771 Mishlei - Proverbs (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
 
  
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*[[Christian]] translations:
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*[http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15771 Translation with Rashi's commentary] ''www.chabad.org''.
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**[http://www.letgodbetrue.com/proverbs/index.htm The Proverbs of Solomon (KJV)]
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*[http://www.biblegateway.com Various versions] ''www.biblegateway.com''
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**[http://www.biblegateway.com Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions]
 
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**[http://unbound.biola.edu Unbound Bible 100+ languages/versions] at [[Biola University]]
 
  
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==Notes==
 
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<div class="references-small">
 
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<references />
 
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<!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. Use <ref></ref> in the text. —>
 
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{{Books of the Bible}}
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[[Category:Books of the Hebrew Bible]]
 
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[[Category:Proverbs]]
 
 
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[[Category:Judaism]]
 
[[Category:Religion]]
 
[[Category:Religion]]
  
 
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Latest revision as of 00:28, 19 November 2023

Tanakh
Torah | Nevi'im | Ketuvim
Books of Ketuvim
Three Poetic Books
1. Psalms
2. Proverbs
3. Job
Five Megillot
4. Song of Songs
5. Ruth
6. Lamentations
7. Ecclesiastes
8. Esther
Other Books
9. Daniel
10. Ezra-Nehemiah
11. Chronicles

The Book of Proverbs is one of the books of the "Writings" of the Old Testament. It represents the most concise representation of Jewish wisdom literature contained within the biblical canon. Proverbs provides its readers with clear-cut teachings about how to achieve happiness through understanding one’s proper relation with God’s role in society. Its approach is best summarized in one of its most famous dicta: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and knowledge of the Holy One is understanding." (9:10) The book teaches in a straightforward and uncomplicated manner that whoever does right will be blessed, and whoever does evil will suffer.

Traditionally ascribed to Solomon, Proverbs today is generally held to a later work combining several sources. While some insist that those sections specifically attributed to Solomon in the text were truly written by him, critical scholars believe the work's language and attitude make it likely that it was both written and compiled in the period after the Babylonian exile.

Proverbs

"Wisdom has built her house... 'Let all who are simple come in here!' she says to those who lack judgment."—Proverbs 9:1-4

The Book of Proverbs belongs to the group of Ḥokmah, or "Wisdom" books, in which Job and Ecclesiastes are also included. The following divisions of the book are indicated in the text:

  1. A group of discourses on the conduct of life (ch. one to nine), comprising the praise of wisdom as the guide of life (1-4); warnings against unchaste women (five to seven); the description of wisdom as the controller of life and as Yahweh's companion in the creation of the world (eight); and a contrast between wisdom and folly (nine).
  2. A collection, or book, of aphoristic couplets (ten to 22).
  3. Two small groups of aphoristic quatrains (22-24).
  4. A second collection of couplets (25-29).
  5. A miscellaneous group of discourses and numerical aphorisms (30-31), mostly in tetrads (30); and a picture of a model housewife (31).

These divisions, so various from each other in form and content, suggest that the book was formed by the combination of a number of booklets, rather than originally being a unitary work.

Authorship and date

The original Hebrew title of the book of Proverbs is "Míshlê Shlomoh" ("Proverbs of Solomon"). The Greek and Latin vulgate translations of the title were "Proverbs" and "Proverbial," respectively, from which the English title of Proverbs is derived.

The attribution of the work to Solomon is due to the ascription in Proverbs 1:1: "The proverbs of Solomon the son of David, King of Israel." However, no commentator today believes that Solomon was the author of each separate proverb in the book—the book itself attributes two of its sections to other writers—and his authorship of any of them is doubted by most critical scholars.

It was often the custom to attribute a writing to the king or another person of prominence in order to honor him, or to give those writings more prestige. Solomon is portrayed in the Bible as well as in extra-biblical literature as a king of extensive and supreme wisdom. In 1 Kings 4:29-34, 3000 proverbs and over 1000 songs are said to have been written by him. People reportedly came from all over the world to hear the wisdom of Solomon. Among those who accept this view of Solomon, the general assumption is that he authored at least some of the Book of Proverbs, but that the book was not solely his work. One reason for this admission is that other names than Solomon's are linked to various sections of the book. There is also other evidence that several sources were combined into the current work creating elements of disunity that suggest more than one author even beyond those specifically mentioned.

The text itself contains at least eight specific instances where authorship is mentioned:

Proverbs Authors/Collectors
1:1 Solomon
10:1 Solomon
25:1 Solomon (as copied by Hezekiah’s men)
30:1 Agur son of Jakeh
31:1 Lemuel (or his mother)
31:10-31? unknown author

However, the ascription of any part of the book to Solomon is thought by critical scholars to be without valid foundation. In the first place, there is no trace in the book of the religious problems and conflicts of the pre-exilic period (before 587 B.C.E.). The prophets, from Amos to Ezekiel, are in deadly fear of foreign cults, and testify that Israel is largely given over to the worship of other gods than Yahweh and to idolatry. The polemic against such infidelity is the dominant note of the prophetic preaching down to the latter half of the sixth century. But in Proverbs there is not a word of all this. Monotheism is quietly taken for granted. There is no mention of priests or prophets, and the sacrificial ritual is almost completely ignored. Also, throughout the biblical literature till the time of Ezra the national interest is predominant. Here it is quite lacking—the name Israel does not even occur.

The fact that the religious and cultural atmosphere of the book is wholly different from that which characterizes Jewish thought down to the end of the fifth century leads most scholars to conclude that the work is post-exilic.

Wisdom

"The rich rule over the poor, and the borrower is servant to the lender."—Proverbs 22:7

The "wisdom" of the pre-Ezran Old Testament writings is shrewd common sense and general keen intelligence (2 Sam. 14; 1 Kings 3). Because it was controlled by worldly considerations it was looked on with disfavor by the prophets as not being in harmony with the word of God as they understood it (Jer. 8:9; Ezek. 7:26). In Proverbs, wisdom stands for the broadest and highest conception of life, and is identified with the law of God. Yet it is the utterance not of prophets but of sages, whose counsel is represented as the only sufficient guide of conduct (1-4, 12:17-21).

The sages do not employ the prophetic formula "Thus saith the Lord" or appeal to the law of Moses. They speak out of their own minds, not claiming divine inspiration, yet assuming the absolute authoritativeness of what they say—that is, they regard conscience as the final guide of life.

While the contents of the book are varied, in the parts of it dealing with simple, every-day matters, the prevailing tone is broadly religious: God is the ruler of the world, and wisdom is the expression (through human conscience) of His will. In one passage (8), wisdom is personified as a cosmic force, the nursling of God, standing by His side at the creation of the world (compare Job 28; Wisdom of Solomon 7). This conception, foreign to the pre-Ezran Old Testament thought, suggests the period when the Jews came under Greek influence.

Teachings

The theology of Proverbs is the simplest form of theism. The individual man stands in direct relation with God, needing no man or angel to act as mediator. No supernatural being, except God, is mentioned. Salvation lies in conduct, which is determined by man's will.

Men are divided into two classes, the righteous and the wicked: the former are rewarded, the latter punished, by God. How one may pass from one class into the other is not said. Reward and punishment belong to the present life, and the conception of the underworld is the same as in the body of Old Testament writings. There is no reference to ethical immortality in which sinners are punished and the righteous are rewarded. Wickedness leads to premature death (5:5, 9:18); wisdom confers long life (3:16).

A wife of noble character who can find? She is worth far more than rubies. She opens her arms to the poor and extends her hands to the needy.—Proverbs 31:10-20

Doubtless the authors, who were pious men, observed the national sacrificial laws (25:8), but they lay no stress on them. They regard ethical conduct as the important thing.

The book contains no Messianic element. A description in 26: 10-15 is of the ideal king, who is controlled by the human law of right, not a Messiah per se. This attitude may point to a time when there was a lull in the general Messianic interest (about 250-200 B.C.E.), but it may also be accounted for by the supposition that the sages, concerned with the inculcation of a universal code of life, took little interest in the popular hope of a restoration of the national independence which the Messiah would bring.

Proverbs bears witness, especially in the first and the third division, to the existence of some sort of organized higher instruction at the time when it was composed. The frequent form of address, "my son," indicates the relation of a teacher to his pupils. There is no information regarding regular academies before the second century B.C.E., but it is probable that those that are known did not spring into existence without forerunners. The instruction in such schools would naturally be of the practical ethical sort that is found in Proverbs. The book has been always highly valued for the purity and elevation of its moral teaching.

Not only are justice and truthfulness everywhere enjoined, but revenge is forbidden (24:17), and kindness to enemies insisted on (25:21). The conception of family life is a high one: monogamy is taken for granted, children are to honor parents, and parents to be the guides of children. An honorable position is assigned to the wife and mother. Infidelity on the part of a married woman is denounced at length (5, 7), and the young man is repeatedly warned against the "strange woman," that is, the unchaste wife of another man.

There are many maxims relating to thrift and economy (6:1-11, 27:23-27, et al). Excess is denounced, and self-control and temperance enjoined. The motives urged for well-doing are well-being, success, and happiness. The ethical system is thus utilitarian, but the success presented as a goal, while sometimes merely material, rises at other times to the height of an ideal conception of a happy life (3, 8).

Proverbs as wisdom literature

The Book of Proverbs is referred to as wisdom literature, along with the book of Job, Ecclesiastes and Song of Solomon, and several apocryphal books. However, many commentators have noted a marked contrast in its attitude from Job and Ecclesiastes in particular.

For Proverbs, the righteous man who practices wisdom and fears God will be blessed in the here and now: "The Lord does not let the righteous go hungry," it insists. "Blessings crown the head of the righteous, but violence overwhelms the mouth of the wicked." (Proverbs 10:3-6)

Ecclesiastes takes an almost opposite view: "In this meaningless life of mine I have seen both of these: a righteous man perishing in his righteousness, and a wicked man living long in his wickedness." (Ecc. 7:15) The Book of Job, meanwhile, deals at length with the paradox of a righteous man, Job, whom God has allowed to suffer horribly.

Proverbs, like the Psalms, admits no such gray areas. He who does well will be blessed, and he that does evil will be punished. It has thus provided a sure comfort for those struggling with ethical dilemmas, assuring them that God will bless them if they do what is right. On those occasions where this formula fails, readers can turn to Job and Ecclesiastes for the more nuanced view.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Dell, Katharine J. The Book of Proverbs in Social and Theological Context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 9780521633055
  • Hunter, Alastair G. Wisdom Literature. SCM core text. London: SCM Press, 2006. ISBN 9780334040156
  • Murphy, Roland E. Wisdom Literature: Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. The Forms of the Old Testament literature, v. 13. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 1981. ISBN 9780802818775
  • Whybray, R. N. The Book of Proverbs: A Survey of Modern Study. History of biblical interpretation series, v. 1. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1995. ISBN 9789004103740

External links

All links retrieved November 18, 2023.


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