Difference between revisions of "Teotihuacan" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(28 intermediate revisions by 12 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Started}}{{Contracted}}
+
{{Copyedited}}{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{Paid}}
  
 
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
 
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
−
| WHS         = Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacán
+
| WHS     = Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacán
−
| Image       = [[Image:View_from_Pyramide_de_la_luna.jpg|300px|thumb|View of the Avenue of the Dead and the Pyramid of the Sun, from the Pyramid of the Moon.]]
+
| Image   = [[Image:View_from_Pyramide_de_la_luna.jpg|260px|thumb|View of the 'Avenue of the Dead' with the Pyramid of the Sun on the left.]]
 
| State Party = {{MEX}}
 
| State Party = {{MEX}}
−
| Type       = Cultural
+
| Type   = Cultural
−
| Criteria   = i, ii, iii, iv, vi
+
| Criteria = i, ii, iii, iv, vi
−
| ID         = 414
+
| ID     = 414
−
| Region     = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Latin America and the Caribbean]]
+
| Region   = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Latin America and the Caribbean]]
−
| Year       = 1987
+
| Year   = 1987
−
| Session     = 11th
+
| Session   = 11th
−
| Link       = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/414
+
| Link   = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/414
 
}}
 
}}
−
'''Teotihuacán''' [teotiwa'kan] was, at its height in the first half of the [[1st millennium CE]], the largest [[pre-Columbian]] [[city]] in the [[Americas]]. The name Teotihuacán is also used to refer to the [[civilization]] or [[culture]] that this city was the center of, which at its greatest extent included much of central [[Mexico]]. Its influence spread throughout [[Mesoamerica]]; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in [[Veracruz]] and the [[Geography of Mesoamerica#Maya Region|Maya region]].
+
'''Teotihuacán''' was the largest [[pre-Columbian]] [[city]] in the [[Americas]] in the first half of the [[first millennium C.E.]]. It was also one of the largest cities of the world with a population estimated at 125,000–250,000. Teotihuacán became the center of a major [[civilization]] or [[culture]] which also bears its name, and which at its greatest extent included much of central [[Mexico]]. Its influence spread throughout [[Mesoamerica]].  
  
−
The city was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán [[Municipalities of Mexico|municipality]] in the [[Mexico (state)|State of México]], Mexico, about 24.8 miles northeast of [[Mexico City]]. It covers a total surface area of 32.1 square miles and was made a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1987.
+
The city reached its apex between 150 and 450 C.E.. Districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacáno empire. Teotihuacáno monumental [[architecture]] was characterized by stepped [[pyramid]]s that were later adopted by the [[Mayan]]s and [[Aztec]]s. The city is also notable for its lack of fortifications.
 +
 
 +
What is known of this influential, industrious city comes from Mayan inscriptions recounting the tales of Teotihuacán nobility, who were widely traveled. Teotihuacános practiced [[human sacrifice]], with the victims probably being enemy [[warrior]]s captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed in ceremonies to insure that the city could prosper. Sometime during the seventh or eighth centuries C.E. the city was sacked and burned, either as the result of an invasion or from an internal uprising.
 +
{{toc}}
 +
Teotihuacán was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán [[Municipalities of Mexico|municipality]], about 24.8 miles northeast of [[Mexico City]]. It covers a total surface area of eight square miles and was made a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] in 1987.
  
 
==Name==
 
==Name==
−
[[Image:Piramide de la Luna 072006.jpg|thumb|right|360px| ...and the opposing view, from the Pyramid of the Sun.]]The name ''Teotihuacán'' was given by the [[Classical Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]]-speaking [[Aztec]] centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been [[Gloss (transliteration)|glossed]] as 'birthplace of the gods,' reflecting [[Nahua]] creation myths that took place in Teotihuacán. Another translation was offered by Thelma Sullivan, who interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods."  
+
[[Image:Piramide de la Luna 072006.jpg|thumb|right|300px| View of the Pyramid of the Moon.]]
 +
The name ''Teotihuacán'' was given by the [[Classical Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]]-speaking [[Aztec]] people centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been [[Gloss (transliteration)|glossed]] as "birthplace of the gods," reflecting Aztec creation myths about the city. Another translation interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods."  
 +
 
 +
The Maya name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as ''puh'', or Place of Reeds, a name similar to several other Central Mexican settlements.
 +
 
 +
==Site layout==
 +
The city's broad central [[avenue]], called "Avenue of the Dead" by the Aztecs, is flanked by impressive ceremonial [[architecture]], including the immense [[Pyramid of the Sun]] (second largest in the [[New World]]) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller ''talud-tablero'' (stepped) platforms. The Aztecs believed these were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now they are known to be ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples.
 +
 
 +
Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined [[Temple of the Feathered Serpent]]. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who mistakenly believed it was a fort.
  
−
The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as 'puh', or Place of Reeds.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} This suggests that the Maya understood Teotihuacán as a 'Place of Reeds' similar to other Central Mexican settlements that took the name '[[Tollan]],' such as [[Tula, Hidalgo|Tula-Hidalgo]] and [[Cholula]]. This naming convention led to much confusion in the early 20th century as scholars debated whether Teotihuacán or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described by 16th century chronicles. It now seems clear that 'Tollan' may be understood as a generic term applied to any large settlement, rather like the modern expression "the [[Big Smoke]]." In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, ''Tollan'' and other language equivalents serve as a [[metaphor]], linking the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the [[lacustrine]] environment of the [[Valley of Mexico]] and the large gathering of people in a city.<ref>Miller and Taube (1993), p.170.</ref>
+
Many of the rich and powerful Teotihuacános lived in palaces near the temples. The largest of these covers more than 3,947 square yards. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops that produced [[pottery]] and other goods.  
  
−
[[Image:Classic sites 1.svg|thumb|right|300px|Teotihuacán and other important Classic Era settlements.]][[Image:MW-Teotihuacan8.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Platform along the Avenue of the Dead demonstrating the [[Talud-Tablero]] architectural style.]]
+
The geographical layout of Teotihuacán is a good example of the [[Mesoamerican architecture|Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities]], settlements, and buildings as a representation of the Teotihuacáno view of the universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of north. The Avenue of the Dead lines up with Cerro Gordo Mountain to the north of the Pyramid of the Moon.
  
 
== History ==
 
== History ==
 +
[[Image:Piramide del Sol 072006.JPG|thumb|300px|Tourists ascend the massive Pyramid of the Sun, the second largest such structure in the New World.]]
 +
 
===Origins and foundation===
 
===Origins and foundation===
−
The early history of Teotihuacán is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. For many years, archaeologists believed it was built by the [[Toltec]] people, an early Mexican civilization. This belief was based on Aztec writings which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" means "great craftsman" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization. Also, Teotihuacán predates the Toltec civilization, ruling them out as the city's founders. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Other scholars have put forth the [[Totonac]] people as the founders of Teotihuacán, and the debate continues to this day. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in Teotihuacán came from areas influenced by the Teotihuacano civilization, including the [[Zapotec]], [[Mixtec]] and [[Maya civilization|Maya]] peoples. The culture and architecture of Teotihuacán was influenced by the [[Olmec]] people, who are considered to be the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacán date to about 200 B.C.E.., and the largest pyramid, the [[Pyramid of the Sun]], was completed by 100 C.E..
+
The early history of Teotihuacán is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. Today it is believed to have been first settled around 400 B.C.E. by refugees from the ancient city of [[Cuicuilco]] who fled from the volcanic activity which destroyed their homes. However, it did not develop into a major population center until around the beginning of the common era. For many years, archaeologists believed that Teotihuacán was built by the [[Toltec]] people, based on [[Aztec]] writings which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the [[Nahuatl]] (Aztec) word "Toltec" means "great craftsman" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization. Archaeologists now believe that Teotihuacán predates the Toltec civilization, ruling them out as the city's founders.
 +
 
 +
The culture and architecture of Teotihuacán was also influenced by the [[Olmec]] people, who are considered to be the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica. Some scholars have put forth the [[Totonac]] people as the founders of Teotihuacán, and the debate continues to this day. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacán date to about 200 B.C.E., and the largest pyramid, the [[Pyramid of the Sun]], was completed by 100 C.E.
 +
 
 +
===Center of influence===
 +
[[Image:Classic sites 1.svg|thumb|right|300px|Teotihuacán and other important Classic Era settlements.]]
 +
The city reached its [[zenith]] between 150 and 450 C.E., when it was the center of a powerful culture that dominated Mesoamerica, wielding power and influence comparable to [[Roman Empire|ancient Rome]]. At its height the city covered eight [[square mile]]s, and probably housed a population of over 150,000 people, possibly as many as 250,000. Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacáno empire that spread south as far as [[Guatemala]]. Yet, despite its power, notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures. Teotihuacán had a major influence on [[Maya]] history, conquering several Maya centers, including [[Tikal]], and influencing Maya culture.
 +
 
 +
The Teotihuacano style of [[architecture]] was a major contribution to Mesoamerican [[culture]]. The stepped pyramids that were prominent in Maya and Aztec architecture originated in Teotihuacán. This style of building was called "talud-tablero," where a rectangular panel (tablero) was placed over a sloping side (talud).
 +
 
 +
The city was a center of [[industry]], home to many potters, jewelers, and craftsmen. Teotihuacán is also known for producing a great number of [[obsidian]] artifacts.
 +
 
 +
Unfortunately, no [[ancient]] Teotihuacáno non-[[ideogram|ideographic]] texts exist, nor are they known to have a system of writing. However, mentions of the city in inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacán nobility traveled to and perhaps conquered local rulers as far away as [[Honduras]]. [[Maya script|Maya inscriptions]] mention an individual nicknamed by scholars as "[[Spearthrower Owl]]," apparently the ruler of Teotihuacán who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and [[Uaxactún]] in [[Guatemala]].
  
−
===Zenith===
+
Most of what we infer about the culture at Teotihuacán comes from the murals that adorn the site and related ones, and from hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] describing their encounters with Teotihuacáno conquerors.
−
The city reached its [[zenith]] between 150 and 450 C.E., when it was the center of a powerful culture that dominated Mesoamerica, wielding power and influence comparable to ancient Rome. At its height the city covered over 30 [[square kilometre|km²]] (over 11½ [[square mile]]s), and probably housed a population of over 150,000 people, possibly as many as 250,000.<ref>Malstrom, p. 105 gives a figure of 50,000 to 200,000.  Coe et al. (1986) says it "might lie between 125,000 and 250,000".</ref>. Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacano empire that spread south as far as Guatemala. Notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures. Teotihuacán had a major influence on the Preclassic and Classic Maya, conquering several Maya centers including [[Tikal]] and influencing Maya culture. The Teotihuacano style of architecture was a major contribution to Mesoamerican culture. The stepped pyramids that were quite prominent in Maya and Aztec architecture came from Teotihuacán. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} This style of building was called "talud-tablero," where a rectangular panel (tablero) was placed over a sloping side (talud). The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers and craftsmen. Teotihuacán is known for producing a great number of [[obsidian]] artifacts. Unfortunately no [[ancient]] Teotihuacano non-[[ideogram|ideographic]] texts are known to exist (or known to have existed), but mentions of the city in inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacán nobility travelled to and perhaps conquered local rulers as far away as [[Honduras]]. [[Maya script|Maya inscriptions]] mention an individual nicknamed by scholars as "[[Spearthrower Owl]]," apparently ruler of Teotihuacán, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and [[Uaxactún]] in [[Guatemala]].  Most of what we infer about the culture at Teotihuacán comes from the murals that adorn the site and others, like the [[Wagner Murals]], found in private collections, and from hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] describing their encounters with Teotihuacano conquerors.
 
  
 
===Collapse===
 
===Collapse===
−
It was previously believed that sometime during the 7th or 8th centuries, the city was sacked and burned by invaders, possibly the [[Toltec]]s. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the [[elite]] class. Some see this as evidence that the burning was from an internal uprising and that the invasion theory is flawed due to the fact that early archaeological work on the city was focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by the elites, and because all of these sites showed burning, archaeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction in the city was focused on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. Some statues seem to have been destroyed in a methodical way, their fragments dispersed. The fact that population began to decline around 500-600 C.E. also supports the internal unrest hypothesis. The decline of Teotihucán has been correlated with the [[droughts]] related to the [[Climate changes of 535–536]]. This theory is supported by the archeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of [[malnutrition]] during the [[6th century]]. This does not conflict with either of the above theories however since both increased warfare and internal unrest can also be effects of a general period of drought and famine. <ref>Kaufman 2001 p.4 </ref> Other nearby centers like Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla attempted to fill the powerful vacuum left by Teotihuacán's decline. They may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacán in an attempt to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites shows an interest in emulating Teotihuacán forms, but also a more eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.  
+
Sometime during the seventh or eighth centuries C.E., the city was sacked and burned. One theory is that the destruction resulted from the attacks of invaders, possibly the [[Toltec]]s. Opposing this view is a theory of a class-based uprising, based on the fact that the burning was limited primarily to the structures and dwellings associated with the ruling [[elite]]s. The fact that population began to decline around 500-600 C.E. supports the internal unrest [[hypothesis]], but is not inconsistent with the theory of invasion. The decline of Teotihucán has also been correlated with the [[droughts]] related to the [[climate changes of 535–536]]. This theory is supported by the archaeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of [[malnutrition]] during the [[sixth century]].
−
{{clear}}
+
 
 +
Other nearby centers like [[Cholula]], [[Xochicalco]], and [[Cacaxtla]] attempted to fill the powerful vacuum left by Teotihuacán's decline. Earlier, they may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacán in an attempt to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites shows an interest in emulating Teotihuacán forms, but also a more eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.
  
 
==Teotihuacano culture==
 
==Teotihuacano culture==
−
[[Image:Teotihuacan mask Branly 70-1999-12-1.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Stone mask discovered at Teotihuacán, 3rd to 7th century CE]]
+
[[Image:MW-Teotihuacan8.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Platform along the Avenue of the Dead demonstrating the [[Talud-Tablero]] architectural style.]]
−
===People===
+
There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacán was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct [[Zapotec]], [[Mixtec]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], and what seem to be [[Nahua]] quarters. Scholar Terrence Kaufman presents linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacán was of [[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]] and/or [[Mixe-Zoquean languages|Mixe-Zoquean]] linguistic affiliation.<ref>Terrence Kaufman, [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/Nawa.pdf ''"Nawa linguistic prehistory"''] ''www.albany.edu''. Retrieved March 16, 2008.</ref>
−
There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacán was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct [[Zapotec]], [[Mixtec]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]] and what seem to be [[Nahua]] quarters. The [[Totonac]]s have always maintained that they were the ones who built it, a story that was corroborated later by the [[Aztecs]].
 
−
 
 
−
===Language===
 
−
In his 2001 paper,<ref> Kaufman's paper entitled [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/Nawa.pdf ''"Nawa linguistic prehistory"''] can be read as a .pdf file on the site of the MLDP, following this link. </ref> Terrence Kaufman presents linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacán was of [[Totonacan languages|Totonacan]] and/or [[Mixe-Zoquean languages|Mixe-Zoquean]] linguistic affiliation. He uses this to explain general influences from Totonacan and Mixe-Zoquean languages in many other [[Mesoamerican languages]] many of which do not have any known history of contact with either of the above mentioned groups.
 
−
 
 
−
===Religion===
 
−
The religion of Teotihuacán is similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures. Many of the same gods were worshiped, including the [[Quetzalcoatl|Feathered Serpent]] and [[Tlaloc|The Rain god]]. Teotihuacán was a major religious center, and the priests probably had a great deal of political power. As with other Mesoamerican cultures, Teotihuacános practiced [[human sacrifice]]. Human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacán; it is believed that when the buildings were expanded, sacrifices were made to dedicate the new building. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed so the city could prosper. Some were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head and some were even buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military might were also buried alive but imprisoned in cages: [[cougar]]s, a [[wolf]], [[eagle]]s, a [[falcon]], an [[owl]], and even [[venomous snake]]s.
 
  
−
==Site layout==
+
The [[religion]] of Teotihuacán is similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures. Many of the same gods were worshiped, including the [[Quetzalcoatl]], the Feathered Serpent, and [[Tlaloc]] the Rain god. Teotihuacán was a major religious center, and its priests probably had a great deal of political power.
−
The city's broad central [[avenue]], called "Avenue of the Dead" (a translation from its Nahuatl name ''Miccaotli''), is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense [[Pyramid of the Sun]] (second largest in the [[New World]] after the [[Great Pyramid of Cholula]]) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller talud-tablero platforms. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now they are known to be ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples. Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined [[Temple of the Feathered Serpent]]. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort. Many of the rich and powerful Teotihuacanos lived in Palaces near the temples. The largest of these cover more than 3300 sq. meters <ref> Readers Digest, p.116 </ref>. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops that produced pottery and other goods.  
 
  
−
The geographical layout of Teotihuacán is a good example of the [[Mesoamerican architecture|Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities]], settlements and buildings as a representation of the Teotihuacano view of the Universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of north. The Street of the Dead, in particular, seems to line up with Cerro Gordo to the north of the Pyramid of the Moon. Pecked-cross circles throughout the city and in the surrounding regions indicate how the grid was managed over long distances.
+
As with other Mesoamerican cultures, Teotihuacános practiced [[human sacrifice]]. Human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the [[pyramids]] at Teotihuacán; it is believed that when the buildings were expanded, sacrifices were made to dedicate the new building. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed so the city could prosper. Some were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head, and some even buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military might were also buried alive in their cages: [[cougar]]s, a [[wolf]], [[eagle]]s, a [[falcon]], an [[owl]], and even [[venomous snake]]s.
  
 
==Archaeological site==
 
==Archaeological site==
−
[[Image:Teonate.JPG|thumb|right|360px|Pyramid of the Sun]]
+
Knowledge of the huge [[ruins]] of Teotihuacán was never lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During [[Aztec]] times, the city was a place of [[pilgrim]]age and identified with the [[myth of]] [[Tollan]], the place where the [[sun]] was created. Teotihuacán astonished the Spanish ''[[conquistador]]es'' during the Contact era. Today, it is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in [[Mexico]].  
−
Knowledge of the huge [[ruins]] of Teotihuacán was never lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was a place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Teotihuacán astonished the Spanish ''[[conquistador]]es'' during the Contact era. Today Teotihuacán is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in Mexico.
 
  
−
===Excavations and investigations===
+
Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the nineteenth century, and in 1905 major projects of excavation and restoration began under archaeologist [[Leopoldo Batres]]. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of Mexican Independence in 1910. Major programs of excavation and restoration were carried out in 1960-1965 and 1980-1982. Recent projects at the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices at Teotihuacán. Today, Teotihuacán features museums and numerous reconstructed structures; thousands visit the site daily.
−
Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the 19th century, and in 1905 major projects of excavation and restoration began under archaeologist [[Leopoldo Batres]]. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of Mexican Independence in 1910. Major programs of excavation and restoration were carried out in 1960-65 and 1980-82. Recent projects at the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices. Teotihuacán features museums and reconstructed structures.
 
  
 
==Gallery==
 
==Gallery==
−
<center><gallery>  
+
<gallery>
−
Image:Teotihuacan.jpg
+
Image:Teotihuacan Auch 1.jpg|Teotihuacáno statue and masks
−
Image:Teotihuacan_mask_Louvre_MH_78-1-187.jpg|Marble mask, 3rd - 7th century
+
Image:Teotihuacan mask Louvre MH 78-1-187.jpg|Teotihuacano marble mask
−
Image:Piramide del Sol 072006.JPG|Another view of the Pyramid of the Sun
+
Image:Teotihuacan figurine Branly 70-2001-14-2.jpg|Female figurine from Teotihuacán
−
</gallery></center>
+
Image:Busto quetzalcóatl en Teotihuacán.jpg|A statue of Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent
 +
Image:View of Pyramid of the Moon via binoculars.jpg|View of the Pyramid of the Moon
 +
Image:Esqueletos en Totihuacán.jpg|Rich burials unearthed at Teotihuacán
 +
</gallery>
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 69: Line 88:
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Coe, Michael D., Snow, Dean, & Benson, Elizabeth. ''Atlas of Ancient America'', Facts on File, 1986. ISBN 0-816-01199-0  
+
* Coe, Michael D., Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson. ''Atlas of Ancient America (Cultural Atlas of)''. Facts on File, 1986. ISBN 0-816-01199-0  
−
*{{cite web |author={{aut|Kaufman, Terrence}} |authorlink=Terrence Kaufman |year=2001 |title=Nawa linguistic prehistory |url=http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm |publisher=Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project}}
+
* Kaufman, Terrence. [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm ''Nawa linguistic prehistory''] Mesoamerican Languages Documentation Project, 2001. ''Nawa linguistic prehistory''. Retrieved March 16, 2008.
−
*{{cite journal |author={{aut|Malmström, Vincent H.}} |year=1978 |title=Architecture, Astronomy, and Calendrics in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=9 |pages=105–116 |url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~izapa/M-15.pdf |format=[[PDF]] Reprinted |accessdate=2007-01-17}}
+
* Malmström, Vincent H. ''Architecture, Astronomy, and Calendrics in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica'' in Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol. 9, pages 105–116, 1978 ''www.dartmouth.edu''.  
−
*Miller, Mary, & Taubel, Karl. ''The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya'', Thames and Hudson, 1993. ISBN 0-500-05068-6  
+
* Miller, Mary, and Karl Taube. ''The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya''. Thames and Hudson, 1993. ISBN 0-500-05068-6  
−
*Weaver, Muriel Porter. ''The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica'', Academic Press, 1993. ISBN 0-012-63999-0
+
* Weaver, Muriel Porter. ''The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica'', 3rd edition. Academic Press, 1993. ISBN 0-012-63999-0
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* [http://jqjacobs.net/mesoamerica/teotihuacan.html Teotihuacán Photo Gallery]
+
All links retrieved April 29, 2023.
−
* [http://www.sacred-destinations.com/mexico/teotihuacan.htm Teotihuacán] at Sacred Destinations
 
−
* [http://www.LostWorlds.org/ocmulgee_mounds.html Did Teotihuacános Migrate to Southeastern U.S.?]
 
−
* [http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=19695688&x=-98843436&z=16&l=0&m=s Satellite View of Teotihuacán] - at WikiMapia = Google maps + wiki
 
−
* [http://studentweb.tulane.edu/~dhixson/teo/teo.html MesoAmerican Photo Archives: Teotihuacán]
 
  
−
{{World Heritage Sites in Mexico}}
+
* [http://jqjacobs.net/mesoamerica/teotihuacan.html Teotihuacán Photo Gallery: ''Architecture, Astronomy, and Calendrics in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica'' in Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol. 9, pages 105–116, 1978] ''jqjacobs.net''
  
−
{{Pre-Columbian}}
 
  
−
[[Category:nations and places]]
 
 
{{Credit|148101627}}
 
{{Credit|148101627}}
 +
 +
[[Category:Geography]]

Latest revision as of 03:47, 30 April 2023


Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacán*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
View of the 'Avenue of the Dead' with the Pyramid of the Sun on the left.
State Party Flag of Mexico Mexico
Type Cultural
Criteria i, ii, iii, iv, vi
Reference 414
Region** Latin America and the Caribbean
Inscription history
Inscription 1987  (11th Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
** Region as classified by UNESCO.

Teotihuacán was the largest pre-Columbian city in the Americas in the first half of the first millennium C.E.. It was also one of the largest cities of the world with a population estimated at 125,000–250,000. Teotihuacán became the center of a major civilization or culture which also bears its name, and which at its greatest extent included much of central Mexico. Its influence spread throughout Mesoamerica.

The city reached its apex between 150 and 450 C.E.. Districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacáno empire. Teotihuacáno monumental architecture was characterized by stepped pyramids that were later adopted by the Mayans and Aztecs. The city is also notable for its lack of fortifications.

What is known of this influential, industrious city comes from Mayan inscriptions recounting the tales of Teotihuacán nobility, who were widely traveled. Teotihuacános practiced human sacrifice, with the victims probably being enemy warriors captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed in ceremonies to insure that the city could prosper. Sometime during the seventh or eighth centuries C.E. the city was sacked and burned, either as the result of an invasion or from an internal uprising.

Teotihuacán was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality, about 24.8 miles northeast of Mexico City. It covers a total surface area of eight square miles and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

Name

View of the Pyramid of the Moon.

The name Teotihuacán was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec people centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been glossed as "birthplace of the gods," reflecting Aztec creation myths about the city. Another translation interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods."

The Maya name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as puh, or Place of Reeds, a name similar to several other Central Mexican settlements.

Site layout

The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead" by the Aztecs, is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (second largest in the New World) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller talud-tablero (stepped) platforms. The Aztecs believed these were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now they are known to be ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples.

Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who mistakenly believed it was a fort.

Many of the rich and powerful Teotihuacános lived in palaces near the temples. The largest of these covers more than 3,947 square yards. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops that produced pottery and other goods.

The geographical layout of Teotihuacán is a good example of the Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities, settlements, and buildings as a representation of the Teotihuacáno view of the universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of north. The Avenue of the Dead lines up with Cerro Gordo Mountain to the north of the Pyramid of the Moon.

History

Tourists ascend the massive Pyramid of the Sun, the second largest such structure in the New World.

Origins and foundation

The early history of Teotihuacán is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. Today it is believed to have been first settled around 400 B.C.E. by refugees from the ancient city of Cuicuilco who fled from the volcanic activity which destroyed their homes. However, it did not develop into a major population center until around the beginning of the common era. For many years, archaeologists believed that Teotihuacán was built by the Toltec people, based on Aztec writings which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl (Aztec) word "Toltec" means "great craftsman" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization. Archaeologists now believe that Teotihuacán predates the Toltec civilization, ruling them out as the city's founders.

The culture and architecture of Teotihuacán was also influenced by the Olmec people, who are considered to be the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica. Some scholars have put forth the Totonac people as the founders of Teotihuacán, and the debate continues to this day. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacán date to about 200 B.C.E., and the largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 C.E.

Center of influence

Teotihuacán and other important Classic Era settlements.

The city reached its zenith between 150 and 450 C.E., when it was the center of a powerful culture that dominated Mesoamerica, wielding power and influence comparable to ancient Rome. At its height the city covered eight square miles, and probably housed a population of over 150,000 people, possibly as many as 250,000. Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacáno empire that spread south as far as Guatemala. Yet, despite its power, notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures. Teotihuacán had a major influence on Maya history, conquering several Maya centers, including Tikal, and influencing Maya culture.

The Teotihuacano style of architecture was a major contribution to Mesoamerican culture. The stepped pyramids that were prominent in Maya and Aztec architecture originated in Teotihuacán. This style of building was called "talud-tablero," where a rectangular panel (tablero) was placed over a sloping side (talud).

The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers, and craftsmen. Teotihuacán is also known for producing a great number of obsidian artifacts.

Unfortunately, no ancient Teotihuacáno non-ideographic texts exist, nor are they known to have a system of writing. However, mentions of the city in inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacán nobility traveled to and perhaps conquered local rulers as far away as Honduras. Maya inscriptions mention an individual nicknamed by scholars as "Spearthrower Owl," apparently the ruler of Teotihuacán who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and Uaxactún in Guatemala.

Most of what we infer about the culture at Teotihuacán comes from the murals that adorn the site and related ones, and from hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacáno conquerors.

Collapse

Sometime during the seventh or eighth centuries C.E., the city was sacked and burned. One theory is that the destruction resulted from the attacks of invaders, possibly the Toltecs. Opposing this view is a theory of a class-based uprising, based on the fact that the burning was limited primarily to the structures and dwellings associated with the ruling elites. The fact that population began to decline around 500-600 C.E. supports the internal unrest hypothesis, but is not inconsistent with the theory of invasion. The decline of Teotihucán has also been correlated with the droughts related to the climate changes of 535–536. This theory is supported by the archaeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of malnutrition during the sixth century.

Other nearby centers like Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla attempted to fill the powerful vacuum left by Teotihuacán's decline. Earlier, they may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacán in an attempt to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites shows an interest in emulating Teotihuacán forms, but also a more eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.

Teotihuacano culture

A Platform along the Avenue of the Dead demonstrating the Talud-Tablero architectural style.

There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacán was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya, and what seem to be Nahua quarters. Scholar Terrence Kaufman presents linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacán was of Totonacan and/or Mixe-Zoquean linguistic affiliation.[1]

The religion of Teotihuacán is similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures. Many of the same gods were worshiped, including the Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, and Tlaloc the Rain god. Teotihuacán was a major religious center, and its priests probably had a great deal of political power.

As with other Mesoamerican cultures, Teotihuacános practiced human sacrifice. Human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacán; it is believed that when the buildings were expanded, sacrifices were made to dedicate the new building. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed so the city could prosper. Some were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head, and some even buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military might were also buried alive in their cages: cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes.

Archaeological site

Knowledge of the huge ruins of Teotihuacán was never lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was a place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Teotihuacán astonished the Spanish conquistadores during the Contact era. Today, it is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in Mexico.

Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the nineteenth century, and in 1905 major projects of excavation and restoration began under archaeologist Leopoldo Batres. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of Mexican Independence in 1910. Major programs of excavation and restoration were carried out in 1960-1965 and 1980-1982. Recent projects at the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices at Teotihuacán. Today, Teotihuacán features museums and numerous reconstructed structures; thousands visit the site daily.

Gallery

  • Teotihuacáno statue and masks

  • Teotihuacano marble mask

  • Female figurine from Teotihuacán

  • A statue of Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent

  • View of the Pyramid of the Moon

  • Rich burials unearthed at Teotihuacán

Notes

  1. ↑ Terrence Kaufman, "Nawa linguistic prehistory" www.albany.edu. Retrieved March 16, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Coe, Michael D., Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson. Atlas of Ancient America (Cultural Atlas of). Facts on File, 1986. ISBN 0-816-01199-0
  • Kaufman, Terrence. Nawa linguistic prehistory Mesoamerican Languages Documentation Project, 2001. Nawa linguistic prehistory. Retrieved March 16, 2008.
  • Malmström, Vincent H. Architecture, Astronomy, and Calendrics in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica in Journal for the History of Astronomy, vol. 9, pages 105–116, 1978 www.dartmouth.edu.
  • Miller, Mary, and Karl Taube. The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Thames and Hudson, 1993. ISBN 0-500-05068-6
  • Weaver, Muriel Porter. The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica, 3rd edition. Academic Press, 1993. ISBN 0-012-63999-0

External links

All links retrieved April 29, 2023.


Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Teotihuacan&oldid=1110720

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki