Difference between revisions of "Prunus" - New World Encyclopedia
Rick Swarts (talk | contribs) |
Rosie Tanabe (talk | contribs) |
||
| (9 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown) | |||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| − | {{Images OK}} | + | {{Images OK}}{{Approved}}{{Copyedited}} |
{{Taxobox | {{Taxobox | ||
| name = ''Prunus'' | | name = ''Prunus'' | ||
| Line 18: | Line 18: | ||
'''''Prunus''''' is an economically important [[genus]] of [[deciduous]] and [[evergreen]] [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, characterized by a [[fruit]] in the form of a [[drupe]], usually white to pink perigynous [[flower]]s with five [[petal]]s and five [[sepal]]s, simple [[leaf|leaves]], and often the production of cyangogenetic glycosides in the [[seed]]s and leaves. There are around 430 [[species]] in this genus, mainly spread throughout the northern temperate regions of the globe. This genus includes the [[plum]]s, [[cherry|cherries]], [[peach]]es, [[apricot]]s, and [[almond]]s. | '''''Prunus''''' is an economically important [[genus]] of [[deciduous]] and [[evergreen]] [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, characterized by a [[fruit]] in the form of a [[drupe]], usually white to pink perigynous [[flower]]s with five [[petal]]s and five [[sepal]]s, simple [[leaf|leaves]], and often the production of cyangogenetic glycosides in the [[seed]]s and leaves. There are around 430 [[species]] in this genus, mainly spread throughout the northern temperate regions of the globe. This genus includes the [[plum]]s, [[cherry|cherries]], [[peach]]es, [[apricot]]s, and [[almond]]s. | ||
| − | The ''Prunus'' genus includes species highly valued for their fruit, as ornamentals, and for timber. The same [[adaptation]]s that advance the various species own needs for reproduction and survival offer larger [[ecology|ecological]], culinary, [[nutrition]]al, commercial, and aesthetic values. Many of the fruits are readily eaten by numerous [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, which digest the fruit flesh and disperse the seeds in their droppings. These fruits also are nutritious and very popular [[food]] for human consumption, being eaten fresh or cooked. Even the bitter almond, which has toxic amounts of hydrogen cyanide, useful for repelling [[herbivore]]s, can have its toxicity removed by roasting, and thus a uniquely human way of food preparation makes these fruits available for people. The flowers, which are useful for attracting [[pollinating]] insects, provide the trees with great beauty and an attractive aroma, and make them popular ornamental trees. And some trees, such as the black cherry, ''P. serotina'', are useful for providing wood for construction. Many of the fruits have important health benefits for people, such as cherries, which are a source of [[vitamin C]], dietary fiber, and anthocyanins, and | + | The ''Prunus'' genus includes species highly valued for their fruit, as ornamentals, and for timber. The same [[adaptation]]s that advance the various species own needs for reproduction and survival offer larger [[ecology|ecological]], culinary, [[nutrition]]al, commercial, and aesthetic values. Many of the fruits are readily eaten by numerous [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s, which digest the fruit flesh and disperse the seeds in their droppings. These fruits also are nutritious and very popular [[food]] for human consumption, being eaten fresh or cooked. Even the bitter almond, which has toxic amounts of hydrogen cyanide, useful for repelling [[herbivore]]s, can have its toxicity removed by roasting, and thus a uniquely human way of food preparation makes these fruits and their unique flavor available for people. The flowers, which are useful for attracting [[pollinating]] insects, provide the trees with great beauty and an attractive aroma, and make them popular ornamental trees. And some trees, such as the black cherry, ''P. serotina'', are useful for providing [[wood]] for construction. |
| + | |||
| + | Many of the fruits have important health benefits for people, such as cherries, which are a source of [[vitamin C]], [[dietary fiber]], and anthocyanins, and [[almond]]s, which offer a rich source of [[protein]], many [[vitamin]]s, [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], [[potassium]], among other nutrients. | ||
==Overview and description== | ==Overview and description== | ||
| − | The ''Prunus'' genus traditionally is placed within the [[rose]] family [[Rosaceae]] as part of the [[subfamily]] [[Prunoideae]] (or [[Amygdaloideae]]), where it is the largest genus. Prunoideae also includes one extant species of ''Oemleria'', five species of ''Maderia'', | + | The ''Prunus'' genus traditionally is placed within the [[rose]] family [[Rosaceae]] as part of the [[subfamily]] [[Prunoideae]] (or [[Amygdaloideae]]), where it is the largest genus. Prunoideae also includes one extant species of ''Oemleria'', five species of ''Maderia'', 90 species of ''Pygeus'', and three to four species of ''Prinsepia'' (Bortiri et al. 2001). However, it sometimes is placed in its own family, [[Prunaceae]] (or Amygdalaceae). |
The Prunoideae (Amygdaloideae) are characterized by have the fruit type as [[drupe]]s and by a basic chromosome number of x = 9 (Bortiri et al. 2001). A drupe is a [[fruit]] in which an outer fleshy part ([[exocarp]], or skin, and [[mesocarp]], or flesh) surrounds a shell (the ''pit'' or ''stone'') of hardened [[endocarp]] with a [[seed]] inside. These fruits develop from a single [[carpel]], and mostly from [[flower]]s with [[superior ovary|superior ovaries]]. The definitive characteristic of a drupe is that the hard, lignified ''stone'' (or pit) is derived from the ovary wall of the flower. Other fleshy fruits may have a stony enclosure that comes from the seed coat surrounding the seed. These fruits are not drupes. | The Prunoideae (Amygdaloideae) are characterized by have the fruit type as [[drupe]]s and by a basic chromosome number of x = 9 (Bortiri et al. 2001). A drupe is a [[fruit]] in which an outer fleshy part ([[exocarp]], or skin, and [[mesocarp]], or flesh) surrounds a shell (the ''pit'' or ''stone'') of hardened [[endocarp]] with a [[seed]] inside. These fruits develop from a single [[carpel]], and mostly from [[flower]]s with [[superior ovary|superior ovaries]]. The definitive characteristic of a drupe is that the hard, lignified ''stone'' (or pit) is derived from the ovary wall of the flower. Other fleshy fruits may have a stony enclosure that comes from the seed coat surrounding the seed. These fruits are not drupes. | ||
| − | [[Image:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The development sequence of a [[Peach#Nectarines|nectarine]] | + | [[Image:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The development sequence of a [[Peach#Nectarines|nectarine]] ''(Prunus persica)'' over a 7½ month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer (see [[:Image:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|image page]] for further information)]] |
| − | The [[flower]]s of members of the ''Prunus'' genus usually are white to pink, with five [[petal]]s and five [[sepal]]s. They are borne singly, or in [[umbel]]s of two to six or sometimes more on [[raceme]]s. The flowers are perigynous, meaning a half-inferior ovary (also known as “half- | + | The [[flower]]s of members of the ''Prunus'' genus usually are white to pink, with five [[petal]]s and five [[sepal]]s. They are borne singly, or in [[umbel]]s of two to six or sometimes more on [[raceme]]s. The flowers are perigynous, meaning a half-inferior ovary (also known as “half-superior,” “subinferior,” or “partially inferior,”) is embedded or surrounded by the receptacle. In some classifications, half-inferior ovaries are not recognized and are instead grouped with either the superior or inferior ovaries. A half-inferior ovary has nearly equal portions of ovary above and below the insertion point. |
A single two-ovuled carpel becomes a drupe (a "prune") with a relatively large hard coated seed (a "stone"). Leaves are simple and usually [[leaf shape|lanceolate]], unlobed, and toothed along the margin. | A single two-ovuled carpel becomes a drupe (a "prune") with a relatively large hard coated seed (a "stone"). Leaves are simple and usually [[leaf shape|lanceolate]], unlobed, and toothed along the margin. | ||
| − | Many ''Prunus'' species produce [[hydrogen cyanide]], usually in their leaves and seeds. This gives a characteristic taste in small (trace) quantities, and becomes bitter in larger quantities. The cyanogenetic glycosides found in ''Prunus'' species are amygdalin, prulaurasin, and prunasin. This makes some ''Prunus'' species toxic, although the fruit usually is safe. Bitter almonds, produced from ''Prunus amygdalus'' var. ''amara'' can be dangerous if eaten raw because they yield significant amounts of prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide), from the enzyme emulsin acting on a soluble glucoside, amygdalin. They must be roasted to overcome the toxicity. Likewise, the seeds or kernals of the pits of [[apricot]]s | + | Many ''Prunus'' species produce [[hydrogen cyanide]], usually in their leaves and seeds. This gives a characteristic taste in small (trace) quantities, and becomes bitter in larger quantities. The cyanogenetic glycosides found in ''Prunus'' species are amygdalin, prulaurasin, and prunasin. This makes some ''Prunus'' species [[toxin|toxic]], although the fruit usually is safe. Bitter almonds, produced from ''Prunus amygdalus'' var. ''amara'' can be dangerous if eaten raw because they yield significant amounts of prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide), from the enzyme emulsin acting on a soluble glucoside, amygdalin. They must be roasted to overcome the toxicity. Likewise, the seeds or kernals of the pits of [[apricot]]s ''(Prunus armeniaca)'' are poisonous until roasted. The leaves of chokecherries, such as ''P. virginiana'' and ''P. virginiana'' var. ''melanocarpa'') can be poisonous to horses that may eat the leaves. |
| − | The earliest [[fossil]] ''Prunus'' are wood, drupe, [[seed]], and a [[leaf]] from the middle [[Eocene]] of the Princeton Chert of [[British Columbia]] (Stockey and Wehr 1996). Using the known age as calibration data, recent research by Oh and Potter (2005) reconstructs a partial [[phylogeny]] of some Rosaceae from a number of [[nucleotide sequence]]s. According to this study, ''Prunus'' and its "sister clade" [[Maloideae]] (apple subfamily) diverged at 44.3 mya (well before most of the [[Primate]]s existed). This date is within the [[Lutetian]], or older middle | + | The earliest [[fossil]] ''Prunus'' are wood, drupe, [[seed]], and a [[leaf]] from the middle [[Eocene]] of the Princeton Chert of [[British Columbia]] (Stockey and Wehr 1996). Using the known age as calibration data, recent research by Oh and Potter (2005) reconstructs a partial [[phylogeny]] of some Rosaceae from a number of [[nucleotide sequence]]s. According to this study, ''Prunus'' and its "sister clade" [[Maloideae]] (apple subfamily) diverged at 44.3 mya (well before most of the [[Primate]]s existed). This date is within the [[Lutetian]], or older middle Eocene. |
==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
| Line 38: | Line 40: | ||
===Linnean classification=== | ===Linnean classification=== | ||
| − | In 1737 Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern ''Prunus'': ''Amygdalus'', ''Cerasus'', ''Prunus'' and ''Padus''. However, in 1754, ''Linneaus'' simplified this to ''Amygdalus'' and ''Prunus'' (Bortiri et al. 2001). Since then the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as it clearer that all the species are more closely related. Bailey (1898, | + | In 1737 Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern ''Prunus'': ''Amygdalus'', ''Cerasus'', ''Prunus'' and ''Padus''. However, in 1754, ''Linneaus'' simplified this to ''Amygdalus'' and ''Prunus'' (Bortiri et al. 2001). Since then the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as it clearer that all the species are more closely related. Bailey (1898, 181) notes, "The numerous forms grade into each other so imperceptibly and inextricably that the genus cannot be readily broken up into species." |
A recent DNA study of 48 species concluded that ''Prunus'' is [[monophyletic]] and is descended from some Eurasian ancestor (Bortiri et al. 2001). | A recent DNA study of 48 species concluded that ''Prunus'' is [[monophyletic]] and is descended from some Eurasian ancestor (Bortiri et al. 2001). | ||
| Line 56: | Line 58: | ||
==Uses== | ==Uses== | ||
| − | [[Image:Japanese-Cherry.web.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Japanese Cherry | + | [[Image:Japanese-Cherry.web.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Japanese Cherry ''(Prunus serrulata)'' in bloom]] |
The genus ''Prunus'' includes a number of important cultivated species, including the [[almond]], [[apricot]], [[cherry]], [[peach]], and [[plum]], all of which have [[cultivar]]s developed for commercial [[fruit]] and "nut" production. The edible part of the almond is the seed; the almond seed is a [[drupe]] and not a true "[[Nut (fruit)|nut]]." | The genus ''Prunus'' includes a number of important cultivated species, including the [[almond]], [[apricot]], [[cherry]], [[peach]], and [[plum]], all of which have [[cultivar]]s developed for commercial [[fruit]] and "nut" production. The edible part of the almond is the seed; the almond seed is a [[drupe]] and not a true "[[Nut (fruit)|nut]]." | ||
| Line 63: | Line 65: | ||
Other species such as [[blackthorn]] are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes. | Other species such as [[blackthorn]] are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes. | ||
| − | The wood of some species is a minor and specialized [[timber]] (cherry wood), usually from larger tree species such as the [[wild cherry]] or black cherry. | + | The wood of some species is a minor and specialized [[timber]] (cherry wood), usually from larger tree species such as the [[wild cherry]] or [[black cherry]]. |
Many species produce an aromatic [[resin]] from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. There are other minor uses, including dye production. | Many species produce an aromatic [[resin]] from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. There are other minor uses, including dye production. | ||
| − | [[Pygeum]] is a | + | [[Pygeum]] is a [[herb]]al remedy containing extracts from the bark of ''[[Prunus africana]]''. It is used as to alleviate some of the discomfort caused by inflammation in patients suffering from [[benign prostatic hyperplasia]]. |
Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many ''Prunus'' species have been [[introduced species|introduced]] to parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalized. | Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many ''Prunus'' species have been [[introduced species|introduced]] to parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalized. | ||
| Line 77: | Line 79: | ||
| | | | ||
Old World: | Old World: | ||
| − | <br>''[[Prunus africana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus africana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus apetala]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus apetala]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus armeniaca]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus armeniaca]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus avium]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus avium]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus buergeriana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus buergeriana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus campanulata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus campanulata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus canescens]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus canescens]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus cerasifera]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus cerasifera]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus cerasoides]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus cerasoides]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus cerasus]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus cerasus]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus cocomilia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus cocomilia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus cornuta]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus cornuta]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus crassifolia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus crassifolia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus davidiana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus davidiana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus domestica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus domestica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus dulcis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus dulcis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus fruticosa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus fruticosa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus geniculata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus geniculata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus glandulosa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus glandulosa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus gracilis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus gracilis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus grayana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus grayana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus incana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus incana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus incisa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus incisa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus insititia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus insititia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus italica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus italica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus jacquemontii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus jacquemontii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus japonica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus japonica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus korshinskyi]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus korshinskyi]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus laurocerasus]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus laurocerasus]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus lusitanica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus lusitanica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus maackii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus maackii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus mahaleb]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus mahaleb]]'' |
| | | | ||
| − | <br>''[[Prunus maximowiczii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus maximowiczii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus minutiflora]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus minutiflora]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Ume|Prunus mume]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Ume|Prunus mume]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus murrayana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus murrayana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus myrtifolia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus myrtifolia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus nipponica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus nipponica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus occidentalis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus occidentalis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus padus]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus padus]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus persica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus persica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus pleuradenia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus pleuradenia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus prostrata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus prostrata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus rivularis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus rivularis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus salicina]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus salicina]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus sargentii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus sargentii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus serrula]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus serrula]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus serrulata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus serrulata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus sibirica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus sibirica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus simonii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus simonii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus sogdiana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus sogdiana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus speciosa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus speciosa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus spinosa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus spinosa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus spinulosa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus spinulosa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus ssiori]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus ssiori]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus subhirtella]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus subhirtella]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus tenella]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus tenella]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus tomentosa]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus tomentosa]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus triloba]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus triloba]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus ursina]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus ursina]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus vachuschtii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus vachuschtii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus verecunda]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus verecunda]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus yedoensis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus yedoensis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus zippeliana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus zippeliana]]'' |
| | | | ||
New World: | New World: | ||
| − | <br>''[[Prunus alabamensis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus alabamensis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus alleghaniensis]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus alleghaniensis]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus americana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus americana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus andersonii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus andersonii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus angustifolia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus angustifolia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus besseyi]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus besseyi]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus caroliniana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus caroliniana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus emarginata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus emarginata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus fasciculata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus fasciculata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus fremontii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus fremontii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus havardii]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus havardii]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus hortulana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus hortulana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus ilicifolia]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus ilicifolia]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus maritima]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus maritima]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus mexicana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus mexicana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus munsoniana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus munsoniana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus nigra]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus nigra]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus pensylvanica]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus pensylvanica]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus pumila]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus pumila]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus serotina]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus serotina]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus subcordata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus subcordata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus texana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus texana]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus triloba]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus triloba]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus umbellata]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus umbellata]]'' |
| − | <br>''[[Prunus virginiana]]'' | + | <br/>''[[Prunus virginiana]]'' |
|} | |} | ||
| Line 175: | Line 177: | ||
* Bailey, L. H. 1898. ''Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits''. New York: The MacMillan Company. | * Bailey, L. H. 1898. ''Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits''. New York: The MacMillan Company. | ||
| − | * Bortiri, E., S.-H. Oh, J. Jiang, S. Baggett, et al. 2001. | + | * Bortiri, E., S.-H. Oh, J. Jiang, S. Baggett, et al. 2001. Phylogeny and systematics of ''Prunus'' (Rosaceae) as determined by sequence analysis of ITS and the chloroplast trnL-trnF spacer DNA. ''Systematic Botany'' 26(4): 797–807. |
| − | * Bortiri, E., S.-H. Oh, F.-Y. Gao, and D. Potter. 2002. | + | * Bortiri, E., S.-H. Oh, F.-Y. Gao, and D. Potter. 2002. The phylogenetic utility Of nucleotide sequences of sorbitol 6-phosphate dehydrogenase in ''Prunus'' (Rosaceae). ''American Journal of Botany'' 89(11): 1697–1708. |
* Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). 1999. [http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=24762 ''Prunus'' L.] ''ITIS Taxonomic Serial No.: 24762 ''. Retrieved August 17, 2008. | * Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). 1999. [http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=24762 ''Prunus'' L.] ''ITIS Taxonomic Serial No.: 24762 ''. Retrieved August 17, 2008. | ||
| − | * Lee, S., and J. Wen. 2001. | + | * Lee, S., and J. Wen. 2001. A phylogenetic analysis of ''Prunus'' and the Amygdaloideae (Rosaceae) using ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA''. ''American Journal of Botany'' 88: 150-160. |
| − | * Oh, S.-H., and D. Potter. 2005. | + | * Oh, S.-H., and D. Potter. 2005. Molecular phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of tribe Neillieae (Rosaceae) using DNA sequences of cpDNA, rDNA, and LEAFY1. ''American Journal of Botany'' 92: 179–192. |
* Okie, W. 2003. [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=154359 Stone fruits]. ''Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture''. Retrieved August 17, 2008. | * Okie, W. 2003. [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=154359 Stone fruits]. ''Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture''. Retrieved August 17, 2008. | ||
| − | * Stockey, R. A., and W. C. Wehr. 1996. Flowering plants in and around Eocene Lakes of the interior. | + | * Stockey, R. A., and W. C. Wehr. 1996. Flowering plants in and around Eocene Lakes of the interior. In R. Ludvigsen, ''Life in Stone: A Natural History of British Columbia's Fossils. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. ISBN 0774805781. |
[[Category:Life sciences]] | [[Category:Life sciences]] | ||
Latest revision as of 01:24, 12 April 2023
| Prunus | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Prunus cerasus (sour cherry) in bloom
| ||||||||||||||
| Scientific classification | ||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||
|
see text |
Prunus is an economically important genus of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs, characterized by a fruit in the form of a drupe, usually white to pink perigynous flowers with five petals and five sepals, simple leaves, and often the production of cyangogenetic glycosides in the seeds and leaves. There are around 430 species in this genus, mainly spread throughout the northern temperate regions of the globe. This genus includes the plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, and almonds.
The Prunus genus includes species highly valued for their fruit, as ornamentals, and for timber. The same adaptations that advance the various species own needs for reproduction and survival offer larger ecological, culinary, nutritional, commercial, and aesthetic values. Many of the fruits are readily eaten by numerous birds and mammals, which digest the fruit flesh and disperse the seeds in their droppings. These fruits also are nutritious and very popular food for human consumption, being eaten fresh or cooked. Even the bitter almond, which has toxic amounts of hydrogen cyanide, useful for repelling herbivores, can have its toxicity removed by roasting, and thus a uniquely human way of food preparation makes these fruits and their unique flavor available for people. The flowers, which are useful for attracting pollinating insects, provide the trees with great beauty and an attractive aroma, and make them popular ornamental trees. And some trees, such as the black cherry, P. serotina, are useful for providing wood for construction.
Many of the fruits have important health benefits for people, such as cherries, which are a source of vitamin C, dietary fiber, and anthocyanins, and almonds, which offer a rich source of protein, many vitamins, calcium, magnesium, potassium, among other nutrients.
Overview and description
The Prunus genus traditionally is placed within the rose family Rosaceae as part of the subfamily Prunoideae (or Amygdaloideae), where it is the largest genus. Prunoideae also includes one extant species of Oemleria, five species of Maderia, 90 species of Pygeus, and three to four species of Prinsepia (Bortiri et al. 2001). However, it sometimes is placed in its own family, Prunaceae (or Amygdalaceae).
The Prunoideae (Amygdaloideae) are characterized by have the fruit type as drupes and by a basic chromosome number of x = 9 (Bortiri et al. 2001). A drupe is a fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a shell (the pit or stone) of hardened endocarp with a seed inside. These fruits develop from a single carpel, and mostly from flowers with superior ovaries. The definitive characteristic of a drupe is that the hard, lignified stone (or pit) is derived from the ovary wall of the flower. Other fleshy fruits may have a stony enclosure that comes from the seed coat surrounding the seed. These fruits are not drupes.
The flowers of members of the Prunus genus usually are white to pink, with five petals and five sepals. They are borne singly, or in umbels of two to six or sometimes more on racemes. The flowers are perigynous, meaning a half-inferior ovary (also known as “half-superior,” “subinferior,” or “partially inferior,”) is embedded or surrounded by the receptacle. In some classifications, half-inferior ovaries are not recognized and are instead grouped with either the superior or inferior ovaries. A half-inferior ovary has nearly equal portions of ovary above and below the insertion point.
A single two-ovuled carpel becomes a drupe (a "prune") with a relatively large hard coated seed (a "stone"). Leaves are simple and usually lanceolate, unlobed, and toothed along the margin.
Many Prunus species produce hydrogen cyanide, usually in their leaves and seeds. This gives a characteristic taste in small (trace) quantities, and becomes bitter in larger quantities. The cyanogenetic glycosides found in Prunus species are amygdalin, prulaurasin, and prunasin. This makes some Prunus species toxic, although the fruit usually is safe. Bitter almonds, produced from Prunus amygdalus var. amara can be dangerous if eaten raw because they yield significant amounts of prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide), from the enzyme emulsin acting on a soluble glucoside, amygdalin. They must be roasted to overcome the toxicity. Likewise, the seeds or kernals of the pits of apricots (Prunus armeniaca) are poisonous until roasted. The leaves of chokecherries, such as P. virginiana and P. virginiana var. melanocarpa) can be poisonous to horses that may eat the leaves.
The earliest fossil Prunus are wood, drupe, seed, and a leaf from the middle Eocene of the Princeton Chert of British Columbia (Stockey and Wehr 1996). Using the known age as calibration data, recent research by Oh and Potter (2005) reconstructs a partial phylogeny of some Rosaceae from a number of nucleotide sequences. According to this study, Prunus and its "sister clade" Maloideae (apple subfamily) diverged at 44.3 mya (well before most of the Primates existed). This date is within the Lutetian, or older middle Eocene.
Classification
Linnean classification
In 1737 Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern Prunus: Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus and Padus. However, in 1754, Linneaus simplified this to Amygdalus and Prunus (Bortiri et al. 2001). Since then the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as it clearer that all the species are more closely related. Bailey (1898, 181) notes, "The numerous forms grade into each other so imperceptibly and inextricably that the genus cannot be readily broken up into species."
A recent DNA study of 48 species concluded that Prunus is monophyletic and is descended from some Eurasian ancestor (Bortiri et al. 2001).
While historical treatments break the genus up into several different genera, such as segregation is not currently widely recognized other than at the subgeneric rank. ITIS (1999) recognizes just the single genus Prunus with the various species and no listed subgenera.
One standard contemporaneous treatment of subgenera derives from the work of Alfred Rehder in 1940. Rehder hypothesized five subgenera: Amygdalus, Prunus, Cerasus, Padus and Laurocerasus (Lee and Wen 2001). To these subgenera, Ingram added Lithocerasus (Okie 2003). The six contemporaneous subgenera are described as follows:
- Prunus subgenera:
- Subgenus Amygdalus: almonds and peaches. Axillary buds in threes (vegetative bud central, two flower buds to sides). Flowers in early spring, sessile or nearly so, not on leafed shoots. Fruit with a groove along one side; stone deeply grooved. Type species Prunus dulcis (almond).
- Subgenus Prunus: plums and apricots. Axillary buds solitary. Flowers in early spring stalked, not on leafed shoots. Fruit with a groove along one side; stone rough. Type species Prunus domestica (plum).
- Subgenus Cerasus: cherries. Axillary buds single. Flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots. Fruit not grooved; stone smooth. Type species Prunus cerasus (sour cherry).
- Subgenus Lithocerasus: dwarf cherries. Axillary buds in threes. Flowers in early spring in corymbs, long-stalked, not on leafed shoots. Fruit not grooved; stone smooth. Type species Prunus pumila (sand cherry).
- Subgenus Padus: bird cherries. Axillary buds single. Flowers in late spring in racemes on leafy shoots, short-stalked. Fruit not grooved; stone smooth. Type species Prunus padus (European bird cherry).
- Subgenus Laurocerasus: cherry-laurels. Axillary buds single. Flowers in early spring in racemes, not on leafed shoots, short-stalked. Fruit not grooved; stone smooth. Mostly evergreen (all the other subgenera are deciduous). Type species Prunus laurocerasus (European cherry-laurel).
Another recent DNA study (Lee and Wen 2001) found that Amygdaloideae can be divided into two clades: Prunus-Maddenia, with Maddenia basal within Prunus, and Exochorda-Oemleria-Prinsepia. Prunus can be divided into two clades as well: Amygdalus-Prunus and Cerasus-Laurocerasus-Padus. Yet another study adds Empectocladus as a subgenus to the former (Bortiri et al. 2002).
Uses
The genus Prunus includes a number of important cultivated species, including the almond, apricot, cherry, peach, and plum, all of which have cultivars developed for commercial fruit and "nut" production. The edible part of the almond is the seed; the almond seed is a drupe and not a true "nut."
There are also a number of species, hybrids, and cultivars grown as ornamental plants, usually for their profusion of flowers, sometimes for ornamental foliage and shape, occasionally for their bark. These ornamentals include the group that may be collectively called flowering cherries (including sakura, the Japanese flowering cherries).
Other species such as blackthorn are grown for hedging, game cover, and other utilitarian purposes.
The wood of some species is a minor and specialized timber (cherry wood), usually from larger tree species such as the wild cherry or black cherry.
Many species produce an aromatic resin from wounds in the trunk; this is sometimes used medicinally. There are other minor uses, including dye production.
Pygeum is a herbal remedy containing extracts from the bark of Prunus africana. It is used as to alleviate some of the discomfort caused by inflammation in patients suffering from benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Because of their considerable value as both food and ornamental plants, many Prunus species have been introduced to parts of the world to which they are not native, some becoming naturalized.
Species
|
Old World:
|
|
New World:
|
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Bailey, L. H. 1898. Sketch of the Evolution of Our Native Fruits. New York: The MacMillan Company.
- Bortiri, E., S.-H. Oh, J. Jiang, S. Baggett, et al. 2001. Phylogeny and systematics of Prunus (Rosaceae) as determined by sequence analysis of ITS and the chloroplast trnL-trnF spacer DNA. Systematic Botany 26(4): 797–807.
- Bortiri, E., S.-H. Oh, F.-Y. Gao, and D. Potter. 2002. The phylogenetic utility Of nucleotide sequences of sorbitol 6-phosphate dehydrogenase in Prunus (Rosaceae). American Journal of Botany 89(11): 1697–1708.
- Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). 1999. Prunus L. ITIS Taxonomic Serial No.: 24762 . Retrieved August 17, 2008.
- Lee, S., and J. Wen. 2001. A phylogenetic analysis of Prunus and the Amygdaloideae (Rosaceae) using ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. American Journal of Botany 88: 150-160.
- Oh, S.-H., and D. Potter. 2005. Molecular phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of tribe Neillieae (Rosaceae) using DNA sequences of cpDNA, rDNA, and LEAFY1. American Journal of Botany 92: 179–192.
- Okie, W. 2003. Stone fruits. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved August 17, 2008.
- Stockey, R. A., and W. C. Wehr. 1996. Flowering plants in and around Eocene Lakes of the interior. In R. Ludvigsen, Life in Stone: A Natural History of British Columbia's Fossils. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press. ISBN 0774805781.
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
