Difference between revisions of "Loon" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Taxobox  
 
{{Taxobox  
 
| name = Divers or Loons  
 
| name = Divers or Loons  
 
| image = Common Loon.jpg  
 
| image = Common Loon.jpg  
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| image_caption = [[Common Loon]] or Great Northern Diver<br/>''Gavia immer''
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| image_caption = [[Common loon]] or great northern diver<br/>''Gavia immer''
 
| image_width = 240px
 
| image_width = 240px
 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
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| infraclassis = [[Neognathae]]
 
| infraclassis = [[Neognathae]]
 
| ordo = '''Gaviiformes'''
 
| ordo = '''Gaviiformes'''
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| ordo_authority = [[Alexander Wetmore|Wetmore]] & [[Waldron DeWitt Miller|Miller]], [[1926]]
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| ordo_authority = [[Alexander Wetmore|Wetmore]] & [[Waldron DeWitt Miller|Miller]], 1926
 
| familia = '''Gaviidae'''
 
| familia = '''Gaviidae'''
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| familia_authority = [[Joel Asaph Allen|J.A. Allen]], [[1897]]
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| familia_authority = [[Joel Asaph Allen|J.A. Allen]], 1897
 
| genus = '''''Gavia'''''
 
| genus = '''''Gavia'''''
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| genus_authority = [[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], [[1788]]
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| genus_authority = [[Johann Reinhold Forster|Forster]], 1788
 
| subdivision_ranks = Species
 
| subdivision_ranks = Species
 
| subdivision =  
 
| subdivision =  
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''[[Gavia adamsii]]''<br>
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''[[Gavia adamsii]]''<br/>
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''[[Gavia arctica]]''<br>
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''[[Gavia arctica]]''<br/>
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''[[Gavia immer]]''<br>
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''[[Gavia immer]]''<br/>
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''[[Gavia pacifica]]''<br>
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''[[Gavia pacifica]]''<br/>
 
''[[Gavia stellata]]''
 
''[[Gavia stellata]]''
 
}}
 
}}
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'''Loon''' is the common name for fish-eating, aquatic [[bird]]s comprising the [[genus]] '''''Gavia''''' of their own family (Gaviidae) and order (Gaviiformes), characterized by legs placed far back on the body, a long beaks, webbed feet, and a unique laughing call. They are found in North America and northern Eurasia and are also known as '''divers''' (for example, in the United Kingdom and Ireland), being expert diving and swimming birds but very poor at maneuvering on land. There are five extant [[species]] of loons.
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{{toc}}
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While advancing an individual function of survival, [[reproduction]], and self-maintenance, this taxonomic group also provides a function for the [[ecosystem]] and for humans. [[Ecology|Ecologically]], loons are part of [[food chain]]s, consuming [[fish]], [[frog]]s, [[salamander]]s, [[crayfish]], [[leech]]es, and so forth, and being preyed upon by large carnivorous fish, snapping turtles, [[gull]]s, [[eagle]]s, and [[crow]]s. For humans, their unique  behaviors&mdash;such as diving underwater for fish, awkwardly moving on land, long takeoffs for flight, and haunting vocalizations&mdash;add to the wonder of nature.
  
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The '''loons''' (e.g. North America) or '''divers''' (e.g. UK/Ireland) are a group of aquatic birds found in many parts of [[North America]] and northern [[Eurasia]]. All living species of loons are members of one [[genus]], '''''Gavia''''',<ref>[[Etymology]]: ''gavia'', [[Latin]] for [[smew]] - a quite unrelated species that also happens to be a black-and-white marine fishing bird. It is not likely that the [[Ancient Romans]] had much knowledge of loons, as these are limited to more northern [[latitude]]s.</ref>  [[family (biology)|family]], '''Gaviidae''', and [[order (biology)|order]] '''Gaviiformes''' all of their own.
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==Description==
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Loons are about the size of a large [[duck]] or small [[goose]], which they somewhat resembles in shape when swimming. Their [[Feather|plumage]] is largely black-and-white, with gray on the head and neck in some species, and a white belly, and all species have a spear-shaped bill. Loons have webs between their three front toes and pointed [[wing]]s.  
  
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The loons are the size of a large [[duck]] or small goose, which they somewhat resembles in shape when swimming. Their [[Feather|plumage]] is largely black-and-white, with grey on the head and neck in some species, and a white belly, and all species have a spear-shaped bill.  
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Loons are excellent swimmers, using their feet to propel themselves above and under water and their wings for assistance. Because their feet are far back on the body, loons are poorly adapted to moving on land. They usually avoid going onto land, except when nesting.
  
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The European name "diver" comes from the bird's habit of catching fish by swimming calmly along the surface and then abruptly plunging into the water. The North American name ''loon'' comes from the bird's haunting, yodelling cry.
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All loons are decent fliers, though the larger species have some difficulty taking off and thus must swim into the wind to pick up enough velocity to get airborne. Only the [[red-throated diver]] can take off from land. Once airborne, their considerable stamina allows them to migrate long distances southwards in winter, where they reside in coastal waters. Loons can live as long as 30 years.
  
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{{Listen|filename=loons.ogg|title=Loons calling|format=[[Ogg]]}}
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The European name "diver" comes from the bird's habit of catching fish by swimming calmly along the surface and then abruptly plunging into the water. The North American name "loon" comes from the bird's haunting, yodeling cry.
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== Ecology ==
 
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Loons are excellent swimmers, using their feet to propel themselves above and under water and their wings for assistance. Because their feet are far back on the body, loons are poorly adapted to moving on land. They usually avoid going onto land, except when nesting.
 
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All loons are decent fliers, though the larger species have some difficulty taking off and thus must swim into the wind to pick up enough velocity to get airborne. Only the [[Red-throated Diver]] can take off from land. Once airborne, their considerable stamina allows them to migrate long distances southwards in winter, where they reside in coastal waters. Loons can live as long as 30 years.
 
  
 
===Diet===
 
===Diet===
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Loons find their prey by sight. They eat fish, [[amphibian]]s, and crustaceans. Specifically, they eat crayfish, frogs, snails, salamanders and leeches. They prefer clear lakes because they can see their prey more easily through the water. The loon uses its pointy bill to stab or grasp prey. They eat vertebrate prey headfirst to facilitate swallowing, and swallow all their prey whole.
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Loons find their prey by sight. They eat [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s ([[frog]]s, [[salamander]]s), and invertebrates such as [[crustacean]]s ([[crayfish]]), [[mollusk]]s ([[snail]]s), [[insect]]s, and [[annelid]]s ([[leech]]es). They prefer clear lakes because they can see their prey more easily through the water. The loon uses its pointy bill to stab or grasp prey. They eat [[vertebrate]] prey headfirst to facilitate swallowing, and swallow all their prey whole.
  
 
To help digestion, loons swallow small pebbles from the bottoms of lakes. Similar to [[grit]] eaten by [[chicken|chickens]], these [[gastrolith]]s may assist the loon's [[gizzard]] in crushing the hard parts of the loon's food such as the [[exoskeleton]]s of crustaceans and the bones of frogs and salamanders. The gastroliths may also be involved in stomach cleaning as an aid to regurgitation of indigestible food parts.  
 
To help digestion, loons swallow small pebbles from the bottoms of lakes. Similar to [[grit]] eaten by [[chicken|chickens]], these [[gastrolith]]s may assist the loon's [[gizzard]] in crushing the hard parts of the loon's food such as the [[exoskeleton]]s of crustaceans and the bones of frogs and salamanders. The gastroliths may also be involved in stomach cleaning as an aid to regurgitation of indigestible food parts.  
  
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Loons may inadvertently ingest small lead pellets, released by anglers and hunters, which will slowly lead to the loon's death by lead poisoning. Jurisdictions that have banned the use of lead shot and sinkers include [[Maine]], [[New Hampshire]], [[Vermont]], some areas of [[Massachusetts]], [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and [[Denmark]].<ref>If your jurisdiction is not listed here, this does not mean that lead shot and weights are legal. For a review of the impact of lead shot and alternatives, see Minnesota PCA (2007). For a review of gastrolith function, see Wings (2007).</ref>
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Loons may inadvertently ingest small [[lead]] pellets, released by anglers and hunters, which will slowly lead to the loon's death by lead poisoning. Among jurisdictions that have banned the use of lead shot and sinkers are included [[Maine]], [[New Hampshire]], [[Vermont]], some areas of [[Massachusetts]], [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], and [[Denmark]].
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[[Image:Common Loon on nest - Osgood Pond.JPG|thumb|Common Loon on the nest]]
 
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[[Image:feedingtime.jpg|thumb|right|Common Loon feeding its young]]
 
  
 
=== Reproduction ===
 
=== Reproduction ===
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During the summer, loons nest on fresh water lakes and/or large ponds. Smaller bodies of water (up to 0.5 [[square kilometer|km²]]) will usually only have one pair. Larger lakes may have more than one pair, with each pair occupying a bay or section of the lake.  
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[[Image:Common Loon on nest - Osgood Pond.JPG|thumb|Common loon on the nest.]]
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[[Image:feedingtime.jpg|thumb|right|Common loon feeding its young]]
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During the summer, loons nest on [[freshwater]] lakes and/or large ponds. Smaller bodies of water (up to 0.5 [[square kilometer|km²]]) will usually only have one pair. Larger lakes may have more than one pair, with each pair occupying a bay or section of the lake.  
  
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Loons build their nests close to the water, preferring sites that are completely surrounded by water. They may use the same site from year to year. Loons will use a variety of materials found nearby to build their nests including pine tree needles, leaves, grass, moss, and sometimes clumps of mud. Both the male and female help with nest building and incubation, which usually lasts 26-31 days. If the eggs are lost, the pair may re-nest, often in the same general location.
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Loons build their nests close to the water, preferring sites that are completely surrounded by water. They may use the same site from year to year. Loons will use a variety of materials found nearby to build their nests, including [[pine]] tree needles, [[leaf|leaves]], [[grass]], [[moss]], and sometimes clumps of [[mud]]. Both the male and female help with nest building and incubation, which usually lasts 26 to 31 days. If the eggs are lost, the pair may re-nest, often in the same general location.
  
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Usually one or two eggs are laid in June. Loon chicks are [[precocial]], able to swim right away, but are often seen riding on their parents' back. This behavior allows the chicks to rest, conserve heat, and avoid predators such as large carnivorous fish, snapping turtles, gulls, eagles, and crows. After a day or two, chicks cease returning to the nest but remain in their parent's company.
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Usually one or two eggs are laid in June. Loon chicks are [[precocial]], able to swim right away, but are often seen riding on their parents' back. This behavior allows the chicks to rest, conserve heat, and avoid predators such as large carnivorous [[fish]], snapping turtles, [[gull]]s, [[eagle]]s, and [[crow]]s. After a day or two, chicks cease returning to the nest but remain in their parent's company.
  
 
Chicks remain with and are fed exclusively by their parents for about eight weeks. After eight weeks, chicks will begin to dive for some of their own food. By 11 or 12 weeks of age, chicks are able to gather almost all of their own food and may be able to fly.
 
Chicks remain with and are fed exclusively by their parents for about eight weeks. After eight weeks, chicks will begin to dive for some of their own food. By 11 or 12 weeks of age, chicks are able to gather almost all of their own food and may be able to fly.
  
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A pair may mate for life, although banding studies have shown that loons will sometimes switch mates after a failed nesting attempt and even between nesting attempts in the same season.<ref>USFWS (2005)</ref> Male loons appear more faithful to breeding territories than to mates.<ref>Montana FW&P (2007)</ref>
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A pair may mate for life, although banding studies have shown that loons will sometimes switch mates after a failed nesting attempt and even between nesting attempts in the same season <ref>United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2005. Common loons at Seney NWR, June 2005. ''United States Fish and Wildlife Service''.
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</ref>. Male loons appear more faithful to breeding territories than to mates<ref>Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (Montana FW&P). 2007. [http://fwp.mt.gov/fieldguide/detail_ABNBA01030.aspx Animal field guide: Common loon.] ''Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks''. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
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</ref>.
  
 
==Systematics and evolution==
 
==Systematics and evolution==
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[[Image:Gavia arctica1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Black-throated Diver]] or Arctic Loon (''Gavia arctica'')]]
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[[Image:Gavia arctica1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Black-throated diver]] or Arctic loon ''(Gavia arctica).'']]
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All living species are classed in the genus '''''Gavia'''''.
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All living species of loons are classed in the genus '''''Gavia.'''''
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* [[Red-throated Diver]] or Red-throated Loon, ''Gavia stellata''. 
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* [[Red-throated diver]] or red-throated loon, ''Gavia stellata''  
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* [[Black-throated Diver]] or Arctic Loon, ''Gavia arctica''.
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* [[Black-throated diver]] or Arctic loon, ''Gavia arctica''
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* Pacific Diver or [[Pacific Loon]], ''Gavia pacifica'' - formerly included in ''G. arctica''
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* Pacific diver or [[Pacific loon]], ''Gavia pacifica'' – formerly included in ''G. arctica''
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* Great Northern Diver or [[Common Loon]], ''Gavia immer''.
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* Great northern diver or [[common loon]], ''Gavia immer''
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* White-billed Diver or [[Yellow-billed Loon]], ''Gavia adamsii''
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* White-billed diver or [[yellow-billed loon]], ''Gavia adamsii''
  
 
===Relationships and evolution===
 
===Relationships and evolution===
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The loons were formerly often considered to be the most ancient of the northern hemisphere bird families; this idea grew basically out of the perceived similarity of shape and (probably) habits between loons and the entirely unrelated extinct [[Cretaceous]] order [[Hesperornithiformes]]. However, the two groups are merely the product of [[convergent evolution]] and adapted in a similar way to a similar [[ecological niche]].<ref>This was proposed in the early 20th century already (Stolpe 1935).</ref>
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The loons formerly were often considered to be the most ancient of the northern hemisphere bird families; this idea grew basically out of the perceived similarity of shape and (probably) habits between loons and the entirely unrelated extinct [[Cretaceous]] order [[Hesperornithiformes]]. However, the two groups are merely superficially similiar, likely the product of [[convergent evolution]] and adapted in a similar way to a similar [[ecological niche]]. This already was proposed in the early twentieth century<ref>M. Stolpe, (1935). [http://www.springerlink.com/content/p8362gn204701848/ ''Colymbus, Hesperornis, Podiceps:'' Ein Vergleich ihrer hinteren Extremität.] ''Journal of Ornithology'' 80(1): 161-247. [Article in German]. Retrieved July 20, 2008.</ref>.
  
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More recently, it has become clear that the [[Anseriformes]] (waterfowl) and the [[Galliformes]] are the most ancient groups of modern birds, while loons belong to a more modern radiation. What is also generally accepted as a fact is that loons and [[grebe]]s are not closely related at all, but rather one of the most stunning examples of convergence in the known birds. The [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] still allied the loons with the grebes in its [[paraphyletic]] "Ciconiiformes", and it is almost certain that the relationships of loons lie with some of the orders united therein. Alternatively, loons have tentatively been considered to share a rather close relationship with [[wader]]s, [[penguin]]s or [[Procellariiformes|procellariiform]] seabirds.<ref>Olson (1985), Mayr (2004)</ref>
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More recently, it has become apparent that the [[Anseriformes]] (waterfowl) and the [[Galliformes]] likely are the most ancient groups of modern birds, with the loons (Gaviiformes) belonging to a more modern radiation. What is also generally accepted as a fact is that loons and [[grebe]]s are not closely related at all, but rather one of the most stunning examples of convergence in the known birds. The [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] still allies the loons with the grebes in its [[paraphyletic]] "Ciconiiformes," and it is almost certain that the relationships of loons lie with some of the orders united therein. Alternatively, loons have tentatively been considered to share a rather close relationship with [[wader]]s, [[penguin]]s, or [[Procellariiformes|procellariiform]] seabirds<ref>S. L. Olson,  1985. Section X.I. Gaviiformes. ''Avian Biology'' 8: 202-214; G. Mayr 2004. [http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/colymboides.pdf A partial skeleton of a new fossil loon (Aves, Gaviiformes) from the early Oligocene of Germany with preserved stomach content.] ''Journal of Ornithology'' 145: 281-286. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
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2004</ref>.
  
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The conflicting molecular data is not much resolved by the [[fossil]] record. Modern loons are only known with certainty since the [[Eocene]], but by that time almost all modern bird orders are known or strongly suspected to have existed anyway. The Late Eocene to Early [[Miocene]] genus ''[[Colymboides]]'' was widespread in Western and Central Europe; it is usually placed in the Gaviidae already, but may actually be more primitive; it is quite distinct from modern loons and could well be paraphyletic. From the genus ''Gavia'', about a dozen fossil species have been discovered to date, which are known from the Early Miocene onwards and had a more southerly distribution, like today's [[California]], [[Florida]] and [[Italy]]:
 
 
[[Image:four-loons.jpg|thumb|right|Loons, Wolfe Lake, Ontario]]
 
[[Image:four-loons.jpg|thumb|right|Loons, Wolfe Lake, Ontario]]
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The conflicting molecular data is not much resolved by the [[fossil]] record. Modern loons are only known with certainty since the [[Eocene]], but by that time almost all modern bird orders are known or strongly suspected to have existed anyway. The Late Eocene to Early [[Miocene]] genus ''[[Colymboides]]'' was widespread in Western and Central Europe; it is usually placed in the Gaviidae already, but may actually be more primitive. It is quite distinct from modern loons and could well be paraphyletic. From the genus ''Gavia,'' about a dozen fossil species have been discovered to date, which are known from the Early Miocene onwards and had a more southerly distribution, like today's [[California]], [[Florida]], and [[Italy]]:
  
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*''Gavia egeriana'' <small>Švec, 1982</small> (Early Miocene of Czechoslovakia -? Late Miocene of E USA)
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*''Gavia egeriana'' <small>Švec, 1982</small> (Early Miocene of Czechoslovakia -? Late Miocene of Eastern U.S.)
 
*''Gavia schultzi'' <small>Mlíkovský, 1998</small> (Middle Miocene of Sankt Margarethen, Austria)
 
*''Gavia schultzi'' <small>Mlíkovský, 1998</small> (Middle Miocene of Sankt Margarethen, Austria)
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*''Gavia'' sp. (Calvert? Middle Miocene or Maryland, USA)<ref>[[USNM]] 1661, [[distal]] right [[tibiotarsus]]. Smaller than [[Common Loon]]: Wetmore (1941), Olson (1985).</ref>
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*''Gavia'' sp. (Calvert? Middle Miocene or Maryland, USA)<ref>National Museum of Natural History 1661, [[distal]] right [[tibiotarsus]]. Smaller than [[common loon]]: Wetmore (1941), Olson (1985).</ref>
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*''Gavia'' spp. (Middle Miocene of Steinheim, Germany) - 3 species<ref name = milkovsky2002-64>Mlíkovský (2002: p.64)</ref>
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*''Gavia'' spp. (Middle Miocene of Steinheim, Germany)--3 species<ref name = milkovsky2002-64>J. Mlíkovský 2002. [http://www.nm.cz/download/JML-18-2002-CBE.pdf ''Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe.''] (Prague: Ninox Press. ISBN 8090110538), 64. Retrieved July 20, 2008.</ref>
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*''Gavia brodkorbi'' (Late Miocene of Orange County, USA)
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*''Gavia brodkorbi'' (Late Miocene of Orange County, U.S.)
 
*''Gavia moldavica'' <small>Kessler, 1984</small> (Late Miocene of Chişinău, Moldova)
 
*''Gavia moldavica'' <small>Kessler, 1984</small> (Late Miocene of Chişinău, Moldova)
 
*''Gavia paradoxa'' <small>Umanska, 1981</small> (Late Miocene of Čebotarevka, Ukraine)
 
*''Gavia paradoxa'' <small>Umanska, 1981</small> (Late Miocene of Čebotarevka, Ukraine)
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*''Gavia concinna'' <small>[[Alexander Wetmore|Wetmore]], 1940</small> (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene -? Late Pliocene of W and SE USA)<ref>Known from skull and limb bones. Much like a large [[Black-throated Diver]] but stouter and heavy-billed like [[Common Loon]]. Has been considered possible [[junior synonym]] of ''G. portisi'', but this is unlikely for reasons of [[biogeography]]: Brodkorb (1953), Mlíkovský (2002: p.64).</ref>
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*''Gavia concinna'' <small>[[Alexander Wetmore|Wetmore]], 1940</small> (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene -? Late Pliocene of W and SE U.S.)<ref>Brodkorb (1953), Mlíkovský (2002): 64).</ref>
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*''Gavia fortis'' <small>Olson & Rasmussen, 2001</small> (Yorktown Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, South Carolina, USA)
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*''Gavia fortis'' <small>Olson & Rasmussen, 2001</small> (Yorktown Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, South Carolina, U.S.)
 
*''Gavia'' sp. (Early Pliocene of Kerč Peninsula, Ukraine)<ref name = milkovsky2002-64 />
 
*''Gavia'' sp. (Early Pliocene of Kerč Peninsula, Ukraine)<ref name = milkovsky2002-64 />
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*''Gavia'' spp. (Yorktown Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, South Carolina, USA) - 2 species
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*''Gavia'' spp. (Yorktown Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, South Carolina, U.S.)--2 species
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*''Gavia howardae'' <small>[[Pierce Brodkorb|Brodkorb]], 1953</small> (Middle Pliocene of San Diego, California, USA)<ref>Known from [[distal]] [[humerus]] pieces [[LACM]] 2111, 2133, 2175. Specimen LACM 2175 was initially listed as 2131. Maybe closest to [[Pacific Loon]] but smaller than [[Red-throated Diver]]; appears to be quite distinct: Brodkorb (1953).</ref>
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*''Gavia howardae'' <small>[[Pierce Brodkorb|Brodkorb]], 1953</small> (Middle Pliocene of San Diego, California, USA)<ref>P. Brodkorb (1953). [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v055n04/p0211-p0214.pdf A review of the Pliocene loons.] ''Condor'' 55(4): 211-214. Retrieved July 20, 2008.</ref>
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*''Gavia'' cf. ''concinna'' (Middle Pliocene of San Diego, California, USA)<ref>Specimen [[LACM]] 2142, a small piece of [[proximal]] left [[humerus]]. It is either from a small ''G. concinna'' or an unknown species: Brodkorb (1953).</ref>
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*''Gavia'' cf. ''concinna'' (Middle Pliocene of San Diego, California, USA)<ref>Brodkorb (1953).</ref>
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*''Gavia palaeodytes'' <small>Wetmore, 1943</small> (Middle Pliocene of Pierce, Florida, USA)<ref>Known from a few limb bones. Roughly similar in size to [[Pacific Loon]], but proportions seem to differ and apparently not close to any living species except maybe [[Red-throated Diver]]: Brodkorb (1953).</ref>
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*''Gavia palaeodytes'' <small>Wetmore, 1943</small> (Middle Pliocene of Pierce, Florida, U.S.)<ref>Brodkorb (1953).</ref>
 
*''Gavia'' sp. (Early Pleistocene of Kairy, Ukraine)<ref name = milkovsky2002-64 />
 
*''Gavia'' sp. (Early Pleistocene of Kairy, Ukraine)<ref name = milkovsky2002-64 />
 
*''Gavia'' cf. ''immer'' (Pleistocene of California and Florida, USA) - possibly a ''G. immer'' [[paleosubspecies]]<ref>Brodkorb (1953)</ref>
 
*''Gavia'' cf. ''immer'' (Pleistocene of California and Florida, USA) - possibly a ''G. immer'' [[paleosubspecies]]<ref>Brodkorb (1953)</ref>
  
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''"Gavia" portisi'' from the [[Late Pliocene]] of [[Orciano Pisano]] ([[Italy]]) is known from a [[cervical vertebra]] that may or may not have been from a loon. If so, it was from a bird slightly smaller than [[Common Loon]]. Older authors were quite sure the bone was indeed from a ''Gavia'' and even considered ''G. concinna'' a possibly [[junior synonym]] of it. This is now regarded as rather unlikely for reasons of biogeography. Interestingly, an [[Early Pliocene]] loon skull form [[Empoli]] (Italy) was referred to ''G. concinna''. The vertebra may now be lost, making ''"G." portisi'' a ''[[nomen dubium]]''.<ref>Brodkorb (1953), Mlíkovský (2002: p.64, 256-257)</ref>
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''Gavia" portisi'' from the [[Late Pliocene]] of [[Orciano Pisano]] ([[Italy]]) is known from a [[cervical vertebra]] that may or may not have been from a loon. If so, it was from a bird slightly smaller than [[common loon]]. Older authors were quite sure the bone was indeed from a ''Gavia'' and even considered ''G. concinna'' a possibly [[junior synonym]] of it. This is now regarded as rather unlikely for reasons of biogeography. Interestingly, an [[Early Pliocene]] loon skull form [[Empoli]] (Italy) was referred to ''G. concinna.'' The vertebra may now be lost, making ''"G." portisi'' a ''[[nomen dubium]]''<ref>Brodkorb 1953; Mlíkovský 2002, 64, 256-257</ref>.
  
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In addition, there are some much older forms that are sometimes assigned to the Gaviiformes. From the [[Late Cretaceous]], the genera ''[[Lonchodytes]]'' ([[Lance Formation]], Wyoming) and ''[[Neogaeornis]]'' ([[Quinriquina Formation]], [[Chile]]) have been described; the latter might have been a primitive loon, but possibly a [[hesperornithiformes|hesperornithiform]], and both have sometimes been allied with the orders which are considered related to loons. Doubtfully valid and surrounced by considerable dispute<ref>See for example the discussion in Mayr (2004).</ref> is the supposed Late Cretaceous loon ''[[Polarornis]]'' ([[Seymour Island]], [[Antarctica]]). ''[[Eupterornis]]'' from the [[Paleocene]] of France has some features reminiscent of loons, but others seem more similar to [[Charadriiformes]] such as gulls ([[Laridae]]). A piece of a [[carpometacarpus]] supposedly from [[Oligocene]] rocks near [[Lusk, Wyoming]] was described as ''[[Gaviella pusilla]]'', but this also shows some similarities to the [[plotopterid]]s.<ref>Discussed in Olson (1985).</ref> ''Parascaniornis'', sometimes allied to the loons, has more recently determined to be a [[junior synonym]] of the hesperornithiform ''[[Baptornis]]''.
+
In addition, there are some much older forms that are sometimes assigned to the Gaviiformes. From the [[Late Cretaceous]], the genera ''[[Lonchodytes]]'' ([[Lance Formation]], Wyoming) and ''[[Neogaeornis]]'' ([[Quinriquina Formation]], [[Chile]]) have been described; the latter might have been a primitive loon, but possibly a [[hesperornithiformes|hesperornithiform]], and both have sometimes been allied with the orders which are considered related to loons. Doubtfully valid and surrounded by considerable dispute<ref>Mayr (2004).</ref> is the supposed Late Cretaceous loon ''[[Polarornis]]'' ([[Seymour Island]], [[Antarctica]]). ''Eupterornis,'' from the [[Paleocene]] of France, has some features reminiscent of loons, but others seem more similar to [[Charadriiformes]], such as gulls ([[Laridae]]). A piece of a [[carpometacarpus]] supposedly from [[Oligocene]] rocks near [[Lusk, Wyoming]] was described as ''[[Gaviella pusilla]],'' but this also shows some similarities to the [[plotopterid]]s.<ref>Olson (1985).</ref> ''Parascaniornis,'' sometimes allied to the loons, has more recently determined to be a [[junior synonym]] of the hesperornithiform ''[[Baptornis]].''
  
−
== Loons in popular culture ==
+
==Notes==
−
The Common Loon is the provincial bird of [[Ontario]] and is depicted on the Canadian one-dollar coin, which has come to be known affectionately as the "[[loonie]]".<ref>Stewart (2004): p.143</ref> It is also the official state bird of [[Minnesota]],<ref>Heinrichs (2003): p.44</ref> and [[Mercer, Wisconsin]] promotes itself as the "Loon Capital of the World".<ref>Moran ''et al.'' (2005): p.78</ref> Loons are mentioned several times in the film [[On Golden Pond (1981 film)|On Golden Pond]].
+
<references/>
  
−
==Footnotes==
+
==References==
−
{{reflist|2}}
 
  
−
==References==
+
* Brodkorb, P. 1953. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v055n04/p0211-p0214.pdf A review of the Pliocene loons.] ''Condor'' 55(4): 211-214. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|[[Pierce Brodkorb|Brodkorb, Pierce]]}} (1953): A Review of the Pliocene Loons. ''[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]'' '''55'''(4): 211-214. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v055n04/p0211-p0214.pdf PDF fulltext] [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/DJVU/v055n04/P0211-P0214.djvu DjVu fulltext]
+
* Heinrichs, A. 2003. ''Minnesota''. Compass Point Books. ISBN 0756503159.
−
* {{aut|Heinrichs, Ann}} (2003): ''Minnesota''. Compass Point Books. <small>ISBN 0756503159</small>
+
* Mayr, G. 2004. [http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/colymboides.pdf A partial skeleton of a new fossil loon (Aves, Gaviiformes) from the early Oligocene of Germany with preserved stomach content.] ''Journal of Ornithology'' 145: 281-286. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|Mayr |first=Gerald}} (2004): A partial skeleton of a new fossil loon (Aves, Gaviiformes) from the early Oligocene of Germany with preserved stomach content. ''[[Journal of Ornithology|J. Ornithol.]]'' '''145''': 281-286 <small>{{doi|10.1007/s10336-004-0050-9}}</small> [http://www.senckenberg.de/files/content/forschung/abteilung/terrzool/ornithologie/colymboides.pdf PDF fulltext]
+
* Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 2007. [http://www.pca.state.mn.us/oea/reduce/sinkers.cfm Let's get the lead out! Non-lead alternatives for fishing tackle.] Version of June, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|Minnesota Pollution Control Agency}} (2007): [http://www.pca.state.mn.us/oea/reduce/sinkers.cfm Let's Get the Lead Out! Non-lead alternatives for fishing tackle]. Version of June, 2007. Retrieved 2007-JUL-23.
+
* Mlíkovský, J. 2002. [http://www.nm.cz/download/JML-18-2002-CBE.pdf ''Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe.''] Prague: Ninox Press. ISBN 8090110538. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|Mlíkovský, Jirí}} (2002): ''Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe''. Ninox Press, Prague. <small>ISBN 80-901105-3-8</small> [http://www.nm.cz/download/JML-18-2002-CBE.pdf PDF fulltext]<!-- This should be treated with extreme caution as regards merging of species. Splits are usually good though. See also critical review in Auk121:623-627 here http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3793/is_200404/ai_n9396879 —>
+
* Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (Montana FW&P). 2007. [http://fwp.mt.gov/fieldguide/detail_ABNBA01030.aspx Animal field guide: Common loon.] ''Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks''. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (Montana FW&P)}} (2007): [http://fwp.mt.gov/fieldguide/detail_ABNBA01030.aspx Animal Field Guide: Common Loon]. Retrieved 2007-MAY-12.
+
* Moran, M., M. Sceurman, L. S. Godfrey, and R. D. Hendricks. 2005. ''Weird Wisconsin: Your Travel Guide to Wisconsin's Local Legends and Best Kept Secrets.'' Sterling Publishing. ISBN 0760759448.
−
* {{aut|Moran, Mark; Sceurman, Mark; Godfrey, Linda S. & Hendricks, Richard D.}} (2005): ''Weird Wisconsin: Your Travel Guide to Wisconsin's Local Legends and Best Kept Secrets''. Sterling Publishing. <small>ISBN 0760759448</small>
+
* Olson, S. L. 1985. Section X.I. Gaviiformes. ''Avian Biology'' 8: 202-214.  
−
* {{aut|[[Storrs Olson|Olson, Storrs L.]]}} (1985): Section X.I. Gaviiformes. ''In:'' Farner, D.S.; King, J.R. & Parkes, Kenneth C. (eds.): ''Avian Biology'' '''8''': 202-214. Academic Press, New York.
+
* Stewart, B. D. 2004. ''Across The Land: A Canadian Journey Of Discovery.'' Victoria, BC, Canada: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412022762.
−
* {{aut|Stewart, Barry D.}} (2004): ''Across The Land: A Canadian Journey Of Discovery''. Trafford Publishing. <small>ISBN 1412022762</small>
+
* Stolpe, M. 1935. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/p8362gn204701848/ ''Colymbus, Hesperornis, Podiceps:'' Ein Vergleich ihrer hinteren Extremität.] ''Journal of Ornithology'' 80(1): 161-247. [Article in German]. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|Stolpe, M.}} (1935): ''Colymbus, Hesperornis, Podiceps'':, ein Vergleich ihrer hinteren Extremität. ''[[Journal of Ornithology|J. Ornithol.]]'' '''80'''(1): 161-247. [Article in German] <small>{{DOI|10.1007/BF01908745}}</small>
+
* United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2005. [http://www.fws.gov/midwest/seney/documents/Loonupdatejun05.pdf Common loons at Seney NWR, June 2005.] ''United States Fish and Wildlife Service''. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|[[Alexander Wetmore|Wetmore, Alexander]]}} (1941): An Unknown Loon from the Miocene Fossil Beds of Maryland. ''[[Auk (journal)|Auk]]'' '''58'''(4): 567. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v058n04/p0567-p0567.pdf PDF fulltext] [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v058n04/DJVU/P0567-P0567.djvu DjVu fulltext]
+
* Wetmore, A. 1941. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v058n04/p0567-p0567.pdf An unknown loon from the Miocene fossil beds of Maryland.] ''Auk'' 58(4): 567. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
−
* {{aut|[[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]] (USFWS)}} (2005): Common Loons at Seney NWR, June 2005. [http://www.fws.gov/midwest/seney/documents/Loonupdatejun05.pdf PDF fulltext]<!-- accessdate=2007-05-12 —>
+
* Wings, O. 2007. A review of gastrolith function with implications for fossil vertebrates and a revised classification. ''Acta Palaeontologica Polonica'' 52: 1-16.
−
* {{aut|Wings, Oliver}} (2007): A review of gastrolith function with implications for fossil vertebrates and a revised classification. ''Acta Palaeontologica Polonica'' '''52''': 1-16 [http://www.app.pan.pl/acta52/app52-001.pdf PDF fulltext]
 
−
{{refend}}
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
{{commonscat|Gaviidae}}
+
All links retrieved November 3, 2022.
−
*Video of [http://www.kare11.com/video/player.aspx?aid=30875&bw= nesting loons]. Video captures the laying and hatching of two eggs on [[Lake George (Anoka County)|Lake George]] in Minnesota.<ref>Schara, Ron: [http://www.kare11.com/news_article.aspx?storyid=130323 The Life of a Loon]. ''[[KARE|KARE11]]''. Vwersion of 2007-MAY-15. Retrieved 2007-NOV-10.</ref>
+
 
−
* [http://www.tolweb.org/Gaviidae/26386 Tree of Life Gaviidae]
+
* [https://journeynorth.org/tm/loon/identification.html How to Identify Loons and Their Calls].  
−
* [http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/loon/identification.html Loon sounds]
 
−
* [http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/familia.phtml?idFamilia=8 Loon videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
 
−
* [http://www.loon.org/ Loon Preservation Committee]
 
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* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscidivingbirds/ ''Diving Birds of North America'', by Paul Johnsgard]
 
  
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<!--State Bird—>
 
  
 
{{Footer Birds}}
 
{{Footer Birds}}

Latest revision as of 07:53, 9 March 2023


Divers or Loons
Common loon or great northern diver Gavia immer
Common loon or great northern diver
Gavia immer
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Subclass: Neornithes
Infraclass: Neognathae
Order: Gaviiformes
Wetmore & Miller, 1926
Family: Gaviidae
J.A. Allen, 1897
Genus: Gavia
Forster, 1788
Species

Gavia adamsii
Gavia arctica
Gavia immer
Gavia pacifica
Gavia stellata

Loon is the common name for fish-eating, aquatic birds comprising the genus Gavia of their own family (Gaviidae) and order (Gaviiformes), characterized by legs placed far back on the body, a long beaks, webbed feet, and a unique laughing call. They are found in North America and northern Eurasia and are also known as divers (for example, in the United Kingdom and Ireland), being expert diving and swimming birds but very poor at maneuvering on land. There are five extant species of loons.

While advancing an individual function of survival, reproduction, and self-maintenance, this taxonomic group also provides a function for the ecosystem and for humans. Ecologically, loons are part of food chains, consuming fish, frogs, salamanders, crayfish, leeches, and so forth, and being preyed upon by large carnivorous fish, snapping turtles, gulls, eagles, and crows. For humans, their unique behaviors—such as diving underwater for fish, awkwardly moving on land, long takeoffs for flight, and haunting vocalizations—add to the wonder of nature.

Description

Loons are about the size of a large duck or small goose, which they somewhat resembles in shape when swimming. Their plumage is largely black-and-white, with gray on the head and neck in some species, and a white belly, and all species have a spear-shaped bill. Loons have webs between their three front toes and pointed wings.

Loons are excellent swimmers, using their feet to propel themselves above and under water and their wings for assistance. Because their feet are far back on the body, loons are poorly adapted to moving on land. They usually avoid going onto land, except when nesting.

All loons are decent fliers, though the larger species have some difficulty taking off and thus must swim into the wind to pick up enough velocity to get airborne. Only the red-throated diver can take off from land. Once airborne, their considerable stamina allows them to migrate long distances southwards in winter, where they reside in coastal waters. Loons can live as long as 30 years.

The European name "diver" comes from the bird's habit of catching fish by swimming calmly along the surface and then abruptly plunging into the water. The North American name "loon" comes from the bird's haunting, yodeling cry.

Diet

Loons find their prey by sight. They eat fish, amphibians (frogs, salamanders), and invertebrates such as crustaceans (crayfish), mollusks (snails), insects, and annelids (leeches). They prefer clear lakes because they can see their prey more easily through the water. The loon uses its pointy bill to stab or grasp prey. They eat vertebrate prey headfirst to facilitate swallowing, and swallow all their prey whole.

To help digestion, loons swallow small pebbles from the bottoms of lakes. Similar to grit eaten by chickens, these gastroliths may assist the loon's gizzard in crushing the hard parts of the loon's food such as the exoskeletons of crustaceans and the bones of frogs and salamanders. The gastroliths may also be involved in stomach cleaning as an aid to regurgitation of indigestible food parts.

Loons may inadvertently ingest small lead pellets, released by anglers and hunters, which will slowly lead to the loon's death by lead poisoning. Among jurisdictions that have banned the use of lead shot and sinkers are included Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, some areas of Massachusetts, Yellowstone National Park, Great Britain, Canada, and Denmark.

Reproduction

Common loon on the nest.
Common loon feeding its young

During the summer, loons nest on freshwater lakes and/or large ponds. Smaller bodies of water (up to 0.5 km²) will usually only have one pair. Larger lakes may have more than one pair, with each pair occupying a bay or section of the lake.

Loons build their nests close to the water, preferring sites that are completely surrounded by water. They may use the same site from year to year. Loons will use a variety of materials found nearby to build their nests, including pine tree needles, leaves, grass, moss, and sometimes clumps of mud. Both the male and female help with nest building and incubation, which usually lasts 26 to 31 days. If the eggs are lost, the pair may re-nest, often in the same general location.

Usually one or two eggs are laid in June. Loon chicks are precocial, able to swim right away, but are often seen riding on their parents' back. This behavior allows the chicks to rest, conserve heat, and avoid predators such as large carnivorous fish, snapping turtles, gulls, eagles, and crows. After a day or two, chicks cease returning to the nest but remain in their parent's company.

Chicks remain with and are fed exclusively by their parents for about eight weeks. After eight weeks, chicks will begin to dive for some of their own food. By 11 or 12 weeks of age, chicks are able to gather almost all of their own food and may be able to fly.

A pair may mate for life, although banding studies have shown that loons will sometimes switch mates after a failed nesting attempt and even between nesting attempts in the same season [1]. Male loons appear more faithful to breeding territories than to mates[2].

Systematics and evolution

Black-throated diver or Arctic loon (Gavia arctica).

All living species of loons are classed in the genus Gavia.

  • Red-throated diver or red-throated loon, Gavia stellata
  • Black-throated diver or Arctic loon, Gavia arctica
  • Pacific diver or Pacific loon, Gavia pacifica – formerly included in G. arctica
  • Great northern diver or common loon, Gavia immer
  • White-billed diver or yellow-billed loon, Gavia adamsii

Relationships and evolution

The loons formerly were often considered to be the most ancient of the northern hemisphere bird families; this idea grew basically out of the perceived similarity of shape and (probably) habits between loons and the entirely unrelated extinct Cretaceous order Hesperornithiformes. However, the two groups are merely superficially similiar, likely the product of convergent evolution and adapted in a similar way to a similar ecological niche. This already was proposed in the early twentieth century[3].

More recently, it has become apparent that the Anseriformes (waterfowl) and the Galliformes likely are the most ancient groups of modern birds, with the loons (Gaviiformes) belonging to a more modern radiation. What is also generally accepted as a fact is that loons and grebes are not closely related at all, but rather one of the most stunning examples of convergence in the known birds. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy still allies the loons with the grebes in its paraphyletic "Ciconiiformes," and it is almost certain that the relationships of loons lie with some of the orders united therein. Alternatively, loons have tentatively been considered to share a rather close relationship with waders, penguins, or procellariiform seabirds[4].

Loons, Wolfe Lake, Ontario

The conflicting molecular data is not much resolved by the fossil record. Modern loons are only known with certainty since the Eocene, but by that time almost all modern bird orders are known or strongly suspected to have existed anyway. The Late Eocene to Early Miocene genus Colymboides was widespread in Western and Central Europe; it is usually placed in the Gaviidae already, but may actually be more primitive. It is quite distinct from modern loons and could well be paraphyletic. From the genus Gavia, about a dozen fossil species have been discovered to date, which are known from the Early Miocene onwards and had a more southerly distribution, like today's California, Florida, and Italy:

  • Gavia egeriana Švec, 1982 (Early Miocene of Czechoslovakia -? Late Miocene of Eastern U.S.)
  • Gavia schultzi Mlíkovský, 1998 (Middle Miocene of Sankt Margarethen, Austria)
  • Gavia sp. (Calvert? Middle Miocene or Maryland, USA)[5]
  • Gavia spp. (Middle Miocene of Steinheim, Germany)—3 species[6]
  • Gavia brodkorbi (Late Miocene of Orange County, U.S.)
  • Gavia moldavica Kessler, 1984 (Late Miocene of Chişinău, Moldova)
  • Gavia paradoxa Umanska, 1981 (Late Miocene of Čebotarevka, Ukraine)
  • Gavia concinna Wetmore, 1940 (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene -? Late Pliocene of W and SE U.S.)[7]
  • Gavia fortis Olson & Rasmussen, 2001 (Yorktown Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, South Carolina, U.S.)
  • Gavia sp. (Early Pliocene of Kerč Peninsula, Ukraine)[6]
  • Gavia spp. (Yorktown Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, South Carolina, U.S.)—2 species
  • Gavia howardae Brodkorb, 1953 (Middle Pliocene of San Diego, California, USA)[8]
  • Gavia cf. concinna (Middle Pliocene of San Diego, California, USA)[9]
  • Gavia palaeodytes Wetmore, 1943 (Middle Pliocene of Pierce, Florida, U.S.)[10]
  • Gavia sp. (Early Pleistocene of Kairy, Ukraine)[6]
  • Gavia cf. immer (Pleistocene of California and Florida, USA) - possibly a G. immer paleosubspecies[11]

Gavia" portisi from the Late Pliocene of Orciano Pisano (Italy) is known from a cervical vertebra that may or may not have been from a loon. If so, it was from a bird slightly smaller than common loon. Older authors were quite sure the bone was indeed from a Gavia and even considered G. concinna a possibly junior synonym of it. This is now regarded as rather unlikely for reasons of biogeography. Interestingly, an Early Pliocene loon skull form Empoli (Italy) was referred to G. concinna. The vertebra may now be lost, making "G." portisi a nomen dubium[12].

In addition, there are some much older forms that are sometimes assigned to the Gaviiformes. From the Late Cretaceous, the genera Lonchodytes (Lance Formation, Wyoming) and Neogaeornis (Quinriquina Formation, Chile) have been described; the latter might have been a primitive loon, but possibly a hesperornithiform, and both have sometimes been allied with the orders which are considered related to loons. Doubtfully valid and surrounded by considerable dispute[13] is the supposed Late Cretaceous loon Polarornis (Seymour Island, Antarctica). Eupterornis, from the Paleocene of France, has some features reminiscent of loons, but others seem more similar to Charadriiformes, such as gulls (Laridae). A piece of a carpometacarpus supposedly from Oligocene rocks near Lusk, Wyoming was described as Gaviella pusilla, but this also shows some similarities to the plotopterids.[14] Parascaniornis, sometimes allied to the loons, has more recently determined to be a junior synonym of the hesperornithiform Baptornis.

Notes

  1. ↑ United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2005. Common loons at Seney NWR, June 2005. United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
  2. ↑ Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (Montana FW&P). 2007. Animal field guide: Common loon. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  3. ↑ M. Stolpe, (1935). Colymbus, Hesperornis, Podiceps: Ein Vergleich ihrer hinteren Extremität. Journal of Ornithology 80(1): 161-247. [Article in German]. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  4. ↑ S. L. Olson, 1985. Section X.I. Gaviiformes. Avian Biology 8: 202-214; G. Mayr 2004. A partial skeleton of a new fossil loon (Aves, Gaviiformes) from the early Oligocene of Germany with preserved stomach content. Journal of Ornithology 145: 281-286. Retrieved July 20, 2008. 2004
  5. ↑ National Museum of Natural History 1661, distal right tibiotarsus. Smaller than common loon: Wetmore (1941), Olson (1985).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 J. Mlíkovský 2002. Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe. (Prague: Ninox Press. ISBN 8090110538), 64. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  7. ↑ Brodkorb (1953), Mlíkovský (2002): 64).
  8. ↑ P. Brodkorb (1953). A review of the Pliocene loons. Condor 55(4): 211-214. Retrieved July 20, 2008.
  9. ↑ Brodkorb (1953).
  10. ↑ Brodkorb (1953).
  11. ↑ Brodkorb (1953)
  12. ↑ Brodkorb 1953; Mlíkovský 2002, 64, 256-257
  13. ↑ Mayr (2004).
  14. ↑ Olson (1985).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

External links

All links retrieved November 3, 2022.


Birds
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Anatomy: Anatomy - Skeleton - Flight - Eggs - Feathers - Plumage
Evolution and extinction. Evolution - Archaeopteryx - Hybridisation - Late Quaternary prehistoric birds - Fossils - Taxonomy - Extinction
Behaviour: Singing - Intelligence - Migration - Reproduction- Brood parasites
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