Book of Joshua

Books of the Hebrew Bible

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1–2 Samuel 1–2 Kings 1–2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Solomon (Song of Songs) Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel other Minor Prophets

The Book of Joshua (Hebrew: Sefer Y'hoshua ספר יהושע) is the sixth book in both the Hebrew Tanakh and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. This book stands as the first in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of Israel from the possession of the Promised Land to the Babylonian Captivity.

Contents and structure

The book of Joshua contains a history of the Israelites from the death of Moses thought the death of Joshua.

The book essentially consists of three parts:

1. The history of the conquest of the land (1-12).
2. The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes.
3. The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24).

Conquest

• Rahab (2). Joshua sends out two spies from Shittim to explore the city of Jericho. They are saved from falling into the hands of the king by the shrewd tactics of Rahab, a harlot, in return for promising not to attack her when they later invade.

Joshua and the Israelites crossing the Jordan

• The Crossing of the Jordan (1, and 3-4). Having re-iterated the duty to follow the commandments given through Moses, Joshua orders the Israelites to set forth. When they reach the Jordan River carrying the sacred Ark of the Covenant, the river miraculously stops flowing. The priests carrying it halt, allowing the rest of the Israelites to cross as well. In commemoration of the event, Joshua orders two monuments to be erected: one in the river-bed itself; the other on the western bank, at Gilgal (which does not yet have its name), where the Israelites encamp.

• The Circumcision of the Israelites (5:1-12). The Israelites are circumcised at Gibeath-Haaraloth. This is explained as owing the the fact that those males born during the previous 40-year period the wilderness had not having been circumcised.

• The Captain of the Lord's host (5:13-15). Nearing Jericho, Joshua meets a myserious man standing with his sword drawn and identifying himself as the "captain of the host of the Lord" arrives. Joshua prostrates himself before this apparently angelic being and asks what message he brings. The man tells Joshua to remove his sandals because the land he stands upon is holy.

• The Battle of Jericho (6)—Placing Jericho under siege, the Israelites employ a divinely-commanded strategy to circle the city quietly once a day for six days, and on the seventh to make seven circuits, each time loudly blowing horns and shouting. On the final circuit, the walls cave in, and the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, are slaughtered. By God's command, even women and children are not spared. A curse is pronounced against rebuilding the city.

• The First Battle of Ai (7)—The city of Ai, near Bethel, is surveyed and pronounced weak. Joshua sends only a small group to attack them but they are defeated, causing Joshua and the people to the verge of despair. But God announces that the people have sinned, as someone has stolen some of the spoils from Jericho which were meant to be devoted the sacred Tabernacle. The sinner is discovered by casting lots, finally detecting the culprit as Achan. He admits having taken a costly Babylonian garment, as well as silver and gold, and his confession is verified by the finding of the treasure buried in his tent. Achan is taken into the valley of Achor, where he and entire family are stoned and burned to death, successfully appeasing God.

• The Second Battle of Ai (8:1-29)—Some 30,000 Israelites set an ambush of Ai overnight, after which another Israelite force attacks in the morning and then feigns retreat, drawing the forces of Ai and Bethel away from the city. The larger force then captures Ai and burns it, "leaving neither survivors nor fugitives," except for Ai's king, who is captured and hung on a tree (possibly still alive); and then his dead body is thrown into a pit and covered with a heap of stones.

• The Ritual of Ebal and Gerizim (8:30-35)—Joshua erects an altar on Mount Ebal and makes offerings upon it, carving the words Law of Moses onto stones. The people are arranged into two sections, with one facing Ebal and the other facing Gerizim. They each read the blessings and curses specified in Deuteronomy as appropriate.

• The Hivite Treaty (9) - The Hivites of Gibeon trick the Israelites into thinking them distant foreigns, as opposited to natives of Canaan whom God commanded the Israelites to drive out or destroy. They thus gain a non-aggression treaty from the Israelites, agreeing to become Israel's "servants." They would henceforth be treated as virtual slaves, they would be spared from the order to slaughter all the residents of the land, and the Israelites would also offer them military protection.

Joshua commands the sun to stand still in the sky

• The five kings of the Amorites (10)—Adonizedek, the Jebusite King of Jerusalem, brings about an alliance of the "five kings of the Amorites" (including himself and the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon). They besiege the Hivites in Gibeon, whom they perceive as traitors. The Hivites implore Joshua for help, and so he launches a surprise night attack, causing the Amorites to panic and flee as far as Beth-horon. The author quotes from the Book of Jasher, which states that the sun stood still at Gibeon, and the moon in the valley of Ajalon, in order that Joshua could complete the battle. The five kings hide in a cave, but are discovered and trapped there until their army has been completely obliterated, at which point they kill hung from trees until nightfall. Several cities (though apparently not Jerusalem) are captured, and the narrator concludes with the following tribute to Joshua and his God:

He totally destroyed all who breathed, just as the Lord, the God of Israel, had commanded. Joshua subdued them from Kadesh Barnea to Gaza and from the whole region of Goshen to Gibeon. All these kings and their lands Joshua conquered in one campaign, because the Lord, the God of Israel, fought for Israel.

• The battle against Hazor (11:1-20, 23)—Jabin, King of Hazor, his army, and those of his vassals, rendezvous at Merom. Joshua, however, executes a swift attack and is able to defeat them. Pursuing them to a great distance, he hamstrings their horses, burns their chariots, captures Hazor, slaughters its inhabitants, and burns it to the ground. The sons of Anak are driven away from the mountains and Hebron. Lesser royal residences are also captured and their inhabitants slaughtered. The narrator declares total victory:

So Joshua took this entire land: the hill country, all the Negev, the whole region of Goshen, the western foothills, the Arabah and the mountains of Israel with their foothills, 17 from Mount Halak, which rises toward Seir, to Baal Gad in the Valley of Lebanon below Mount Hermon. He captured all their kings and struck them down, putting them to death. 18 Joshua waged war against all these kings for a long time. 19 Except for the Hivites living in Gibeon, not one city made a treaty of peace with the Israelites, who took them all in battle. 20 For it was the Lord himself who hardened their hearts to wage war against Israel, so that he might destroy them totally, exterminating them without mercy, as the Lord had commanded Moses.

Division of the Land

First a description is given of the domains east of the Jordan which were conquered and given to Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh). After God gives Joshua a gloss concerning the unconquered region, he reminds him about Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh), already having been allocated land by Moses, and about the Levites not being given territory, only cities. The territory is handed out by lot, Judah gaining the first lot, although they fail to drive out the Canaanites living in Jerusalem. Then the house of Joseph gets its territory, Ephraim failing to drive out the Canaanites of Gezer, and it is pointed out that the daughters of Zelophehad, part of the tribe of Manasseh, are also given territory of their own. The house of Joseph is given the mountain region, including the forest, and is told that they will be able to drive out the Canaanites living there despite the presence of iron chariots. The Israelites then assemble at Shiloh, and Joshua sends out a survey team. When the survey is complete, the remaining land is divided amongst the lesser tribes. Finally, the tribes whose lands are east of the Jordan are allowed to go to their lands.

• The Joshua King List (12:7-24)—A list of 31 cities which were conquered and had kings.

• A description of the boundaries of the Israelite Tribes.—The description of the boundaries of Judah (15:1-12) and of Benjamin (18:11-20) is quite distinct from the list of their cities. The boundaries of Ephraim (16:4-9) and (half of) Manasseh (17:7-11) are unusual in that they also include enclaves in some of the territory of the surrounding tribes, the boundaries of them as a whole are also given (16:1-3). Descriptions of the boundaries of the other tribes are also given: Reuben (13:15-16, 20, 23a), Gad (13:24-27), Machir (half of Manasseh) (13:29-31), Zebulon (10-14), Issachar (22a), Asher (24, and 26b-29a), and Naphtali (19:32-34) - except for those of Levi (who only have cities), Dan, and Simeon, for whom only cities are listed.

• Cities lists by tribe—The lists for Judah (15:20-62) and Benjamin (18:21-28) are extensive, leading many to suspect it was derived from a later administrative document. The lists for the other territorial tribes—Reuben (13:16-21a and 13:23b), Gad (13:24-28), Simeon (19:1-9), Zebulon (19:10-16), Issachar (19:17-23), Asher (19:25-31), Naphtali (19:32-39), Dan (19:40-46)—are each partly mixed with the descriptions of their boundaries. The list for the tribe of Levi (21:1-45) is broken into its three clans. Conversely, a list for Ephraim and Manasseh is either incomplete or missing.

• The Anakim (14:6-15, and 15:13-14)—Caleb reminds Joshua of his loyalty and requests Hebron as his personal portion. The request is granted, and Caleb drives out the sons of Anak which are residing there. (The account seems to contradict chapter 11, in which the Anakites are already defeated and Caleb is not mentioned.)

• The story of Othniel and Achsah (15:15-19)—Caleb marches against Kiriath-sepher, promising to give his daughter, Achsah, in marriage to whoever conquers it. His nephew, Othniel, takes up the challenge and so gains her hand in marriage.Achsah asks for a greater dowry from her father, and so is given the upper and lower pools in addition to the land in the Negev she has already been allocated.

• Attack on Leshem (19:47-48)—The territory of the tribe of Dan is too small for them so they attack Leshem, slaughtering its inhabitants, and refounding it under the name Dan.

• Joshua's portion (19:49-50)—Joshua himself is given Timnah-serah, which he has requested, in the territory of Ephraim.

• Cities of refuge (20)—Several towns are specified as places in which a person guilty of unintentional manslaughter may flee and be protected from the blood vengeance of the victim's clan.

• The altar of Ed (22:10-34)—When they return to their lands, Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh) build a large altar. The other tribes take offense at this, suspecting either idolatry or schism, and prepare for war. However, they first send Aaron's grandsonson Phinehas the priest, together with princes from each of the tribes to admonish them. The eastern tribes respond by stating that the altar is only a wtiness of their loyalty to the future central altar to be erected in the future. The altar is named Ed (which translates as witness) in memory.

Joshua's last words death

• Joshua's final speech (23-24). Joshua, now very old, calls an assembly, and when it meets, he admonishes the people to remain loyal to the Torah of Moses. Joshua then gathers all the tribes together at Shechem, where he admonishes people again, recounting prior events.

• The Stone of Witness (24:26).—Joshua then sets up a large stone beneath a tree, within the holy ground at Shechem, in witness to a promise of the people to be faithful.

• The death of Joshua. (24:28-32)—Joshua dies and is buried in his alotted land. The Joseph, which the Israelites carried with them from Egypt are buried nearby.

• 'Phinehas as high priest. (24:33)—Soon, Aaron's son Eleazar also dies. He is succeeded by his son Phinehas. Henceforth it will be the priesthood who carries forth the traditions set forth by Moses and Joshua.

Historicity

Although early archaeological excavations seemed to support the historicity of Joshua, for example by finding destruction layers in a number of prominent sites such as Jericho, the conclusion that such destruction must have been due to Joshua has since been largely rejected. More recent rassessments and later excavations have reversed the earlier conclusions. Most archaeologists now believe that the destruction layers of various cities date from widely different times, and thus rather than a unified short military campaign, the remains are more suggestive of a series of isolated disasters/attacks over a period of centuries.

In the particular case of Jericho, it was already abandoned during the time of the Israelite conquest. Thus the supposed conquest of Jericho by Israelites would have been the conquest and destruction of an empty ruin. The remains of Lachish and Hazor were both Canaanite cities in the Late Bronze Age. Between the thirteenth and twelfth centuries B.C.E., both cities were destroyed; they were later resettled by Israelites. Ai, on the other hand, appears to have been abandoned during the Early Bronze Age was not reoccupied until well after the twelth century B.C.E. Even if one of these sets of cities was destroyed by an Israelite conquest, the other must have been destroyed at some point that was over a century later or earlier, contradicting the biblical account of a short period in which both sets were destroyed. In addition Ai is a particularly odd name for a town to have before its destruction, since it means ruin; meanwhile in the case of Hazor, a number of Egyptian inscriptions claim that it was destroyed by Seti I (circa 1300 B.C.E.) rather than the Israelites.

The time periods involved in the destruction layers of the cities overlap the campaigns of the Sea Peoples (who consistently burnt rich cities to the ground, even if they intended to later settle on the ruins), and the currently unexplained general late Bronze Age collapse of civilization in the whole eastern Mediterranian. It is far more plausible, from the point of view of an increasing majority of archaeologists, for these causes to have been responsible for the destruction of the cities, rather than an invasion of Israelites lasting only about 20 or so years.

In addition, since archaeological remains show a smooth cultural continuity in this period, rather than the destruction of one culture (Canaanite) and replacement by another (Israelite), a growing majority of archaeologists believe that the Israelites were simply an emergent subculture within Canaanite society—i.e. that an Israelite conquest would be a logical impossibility—it would have involved the Canaanites invading themselves, from Canaan.

Authorship

Jewish tradition ascribes authorship of the book to Joshua, and consequently places its origin at the time of the supposed Israelite invasion (which biblical chronology places in either the 15th or 13th centuries B.C.E.). Some opinions presented in the Talmud state that the book was written by Joshua except for the last verses (24:29-33) which were added by Phinehas the priest; other rabbinical writers took a different stance (see below).

Certainly, the author presents himself as an eyewitness to the accounts described, occasionally using first person pronouns (for instance, in Joshua 5:1), although Joshua himself is usually described in the third person. Some sections (e.g. 5:9, 7:26, 24:29-33), even according to Jewish tradition, could however only have been added after Joshua's death; tradition normally ascribes these sections to Eleazar or Phinehas (Eleazar's son). Also problematic is the frequently used phrase to this day, suggesting a substantial amount of time between the events and the account being written.

Despite there being a Jewish tradition of authorship, in Christian circles, both Catholic and Protestant, the authorship has been considered dubious since ancient times. Theodoret proposed that it was written by a later author who had access to documents from Joshua's time, while Athanasius argued that the ascription to Joshua was merely indicative of the main hero of the text.

In modern times, religiously conservative Jewish scholars continued to generally adhere to the traditional view, arguing that the book was written by a contemporary of Joshua, and their view was also adopted by American Protestants. However, with the advent of source criticism, many scholars now reject claims of authorship by Joshua or his contemporaries.

Instead of the traditional Jewish view, most modern scholars have suggested a number of alternative and related possibilities, arguing that the Book of Joshua must be regarded as a compilation. An analysis of its contents makes it certain, in the eyes of scholars, that its sources are of the same character as those of the Pentateuch. Despite the Jewish tradition of authorship, the view of modern scholars was also the impression of classical Rabbis, to a certain degree; according to Mak. 11a, the chapter concerning the cities of refuge (Joshua 20) was taken from the Pentateuch. Classical Rabbinical writings refer to Joshua as having been written in the light of the Deuteronomic legislation (Genesis Rashi 6:14).

Scholars now believe that Joshua is a continuation of the JE version of the torah, and thus two of the main spliced-together narrative sources within it - Jahwist (J), and Elohist (E) - or at least deriving from sources from the same schools of thought as these. The Deuteronomist is considered to have detached the Joshua section of this at some later point and embedded it within the Deuteronomic history, making a number of minor edits and framing additions (mainly Joshua 1, 21:43-22:6, and 23). Thus the work would be mainly the work of writers from the 8th and 7th century, but with retouchings from the exilic period.

The form of this modern theory that argues for the sources being J and E, rather than from similar schools, is known as the hexateuch theory, since the first six books would have been the original narrative unit). Although, given their narrative, it is probable that J, E, and P (the Priestly source), continued their narrative as far as the conquest of the land, the books of Ezra and of Nehemiah give no intimation of the existence of a hexateuch. Nevertheless, a number of scholars have argued that Hosea, Amos, and Micah, were aware of a hexateuch-like JE source, due to passages such as Micah 6:5+, Hosea 9:10, 12:4+, and Amos 2:10, 5:25, 7:4.

Relationship with the Book of Judges

The presence of certain incidents mentioned by later biblical texts, particularly the Book of Judges, is often considered to drastically conflict with the situation presented by the Book of Joshua. For instance, Jericho, represented in Joshua as completely overthrown and upon the rebuilding of which a solemn curse is invoked, is mentioned as existing at a later date, when it appears as a holy, rather than cursed, city. While Joshua concludes with a nearly all-out victory, the narrative of Judges begins by portraying Canaan as hardly conquered, with disparate rather than united Israelite tribes. Judges portrays several battles against the Canaanites that could hardly be considered as just minor skirmishes, with several of the tribes often acting against the Canaanites quite independently and without any sort of overarching military plan; in Judges the conquest appears to be a matter that took several decades rather than a brief time under one central leader.

—However, in Joshua the remnants of unconquered peoples is discussed, covering some of these discrepancies.

The ethical problem of war and genocide

One difficulty in this book arises out of the command given by God to completely exterminate "anything that breathes" in the cities in the land to be inherited. (Deuteronomy 20:16-18)

Liberal theologians see this as an ethically unjustifiable order to commit genocide, which is inconsistent with the overall view in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures of God as a loving, compassionate Creator. They see it as a theological polemic, with the majority of events invented during or after the Babylonian captivity, to encourage faithfulness to the Jewish creed at a time when it was being threatened. For instance, Morton (pp. 324-325) says that Joshua "should be understood as a rite of ancient peoples (Israel among them) whereby within the context of their times, they attempted to please God (or the gods)".

Conservative theologians, who see the book as a historically accurate account written during or soon after the life of Joshua, give one of the following explanations to this problem:

1. War was an essential part of the history of the Near East in the fifteenth century B.C.E. Although it is still sinful, some commentators argue that the book shows God using sinful activities in order to accomplish his just purposes. This does not mean that God supports war, simply that he works with humans as they are. ^{[citation needed]} These commentators emphasise what they see as the depraved nature of Canaanite society, pointing to archaeological evidence of practices such as child sacrifice (burning the infant victims alive). For instance, Hallam, who takes this view, lists a number of pieces of archaeological evidence to support this thesis: "Just a few steps from this temple was a cemetery, where many jars were found, containing remains of infants who had been sacrificed in this temple . . . Prophets of Baal and Ashtoreth were official murderers of little children." "Another horrible practice was [what] they called `foundation sacrifices.' When a house was to be built, a child would be sacrificed, and its body built into the wall. . . . The worship of Baal, Ashtoreth, and other Canaanite gods consisted in the most extravagant orgies; their temples were centers of vice. . . . Canaanites worshiped, by immoral indulgence, . . . and then, by murdering their first-born children, as a sacrifice to these same gods." However, some of this evidence is disputed, with others arguing that it may have been invented at a later date in order to justify the act of extermination. Also, according to biblical text, God commanded in many cases the slaughter of every child, as well as the adults, of a defeated people.
2. Christian theologians have tended to emphasise what they see as the progressive nature of revelation in the Bible. As the Bible progresses, God is seen to reveal himself in ways that are fuller, clearer and more accurate, culminating in the ultimate revelation of God in Jesus Christ. God's command through Joshua to take possession of the land by force of arms is viewed in the context of God's command through the second Joshua, Jesus Christ, to bring about his kingdom through the peaceful application of his teaching.

Bibliography

• Morton, William H. Joshua. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 2. Ed. Clifton J. Allen, et al. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970.
• Halley, Henry H. Halley's Bible Handbook. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1927, 1965.
• Mazar, Amihai. The Archaeology of the land of the Bible. New York: Doubleday, 1990.

External links

Online translations of the Book of Joshua:

• Original text:
  • יְהוֹשֻׁעַ Yehoshua - Joshua (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
• Jewish translations:
  • Joshua at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)
  • Yehoshua - Joshua (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org
• Christian translations:
  • Online Bible at GospelHall.org
  • Joshua at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version)
  • Joshua at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version)

Related articles:

• Book of Joshua article (Jewish Encyclopedia)

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This entry incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897. This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.

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