Biological pest control

Biological control, biocontrol, or biological pest control is a method of suppressing or controlling the population of undesirable insects, other animals, or plants by the introduction, encouragement, or artificial increase of their natural enemies to economically non–important levels. It is an important component of integrated pest management (IPM) programs (Weeden et al. 2007).

The biological control of pests and weeds relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms. Therefore, it is the active manipulation of natural phenomena in serving human purpose, working harmoniously with nature. A successful story of biological control of pests refer to the human beings’ capability to depict natural processes for their use and can be the most harmless, non–polluting, and self–perpetuating control method.

Predatory Polistes wasp looking for bollworms or other caterpillars on a cotton plant

Overview

Diagram illustrating the natural enemies of cabbage pests

In biological control, the reduction of pest populations is achieved by actively using natural enemies.

Natural enemies of the pests, also known as biological control agents, include predatory and parasitoidal insects, predatory vertebrates, nematode parasites, protozoan parasites, and fungal, bacterial, as well as viral pathogens (Metcalf et al. 1973). Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include herbivores and plant pathogens. Predators, such as lady beetles and lacewings, are mainly free–living species that consume a large number of prey during their lifetime. Parasitoids are species whose immature stage develops on or within a single insect host, ultimately killing the host. Most have a very narrow host range. Many species of wasps and some flies are parasitoids. Pathogens are disease–causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and are relatively specific to certain pest or weed groups.

Strategies of biological control methods

There are three basic types of biological control strategies; conservation biocontrol, classical biological control, and augmentative biological control (biopesticides).

Conservation biocontrol

The conservation of existing natural enemies is probably the most important and readily available biological control practice available to homeowners and gardeners. Natural enemies occur in all areas, from the backyard garden to the commercial field. They are adapted to the local environment and to the target pest, and their conservation is generally simple and cost–effective. For example, snakes consume a lot or rodent and insect pests that can be damaging to agricultural crops or spread disease. Dragonflies are important consumers of mosquitoes.

Eggs, larvae, and pupae of Helicoverpa moths, the main insect pests of cotton, are all attacked by many beneficial insects and research can be conducted in identifying critical habitats, resources needed to maintain them, and ways of encouraging their activity (Lawrence 2005). Lacewings, lady beetles, hover fly larvae, and parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present in aphid colonies. Fungus–infected adult flies are often common following periods of high humidity. These naturally occurring biological controls are often susceptible to the same pesticides used to target their hosts. Preventing the accidental eradication of natural enemies is termed simple conservation.

Classical biological control

Classical biological control is the introduction of exotic natural enemies to a new locale where they did not originate or do not occur naturally. This is usually done by government authorities.

In many instances, the complex of natural enemies associated with an insect pest may be inadequate. This is especially evident when an insect pest is accidentally introduced into a new geographic area without its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are referred to as exotic pests and comprise about 40 percent of the insect pests in the United States. Examples of introduced vegetable pests include the European corn borer, one of the most destructive insects in North America.

To obtain the needed natural enemies, scientists have utilized classical biological control. This is the practice of importing, and releasing for establishment, natural enemies to control an introduced (exotic) pest, although it is also practiced against native insect pests. The first step in the process is to determine the origin of the introduced pest and then collect appropriate natural enemies associated with the pest or closely related species. The natural enemy is then passed through a rigorous quarantine process, to ensure that no unwanted organisms (such as hyperparasitoids or parasites of the parasite) are introduced, then they are mass produced, and released. Follow–up studies are conducted to determine if the natural enemy becomes successfully established at the site of release, and to assess the long–term benefit of its presence.

There are many examples of successful classical biological control programs. One of the earliest successes was with the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), a pest that was devastating the California citrus industry in the late 1800s. A predatory insect, the Australian lady beetle or vedalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis), and a parasitoid fly were introduced from Australia. Within a few years, the cottony cushion scale was completely controlled by these introduced natural enemies (Metcalf et al. 1973). Damage from the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of several natural enemies like imported ichnemonid parasitoid Bathyplectes curculionis. About twenty years after their introduction, the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in the northeastern United States was reduced by 75 percent (Metcalf et al. 1973). A small wasp, Trichogramma ostriniae, introduced from China to help control the European corn borer (Pyrausta nubilalis), is a recent example of a long history of classical biological control efforts for this major pest. Many classical biological control programs for insect pests and weeds are under way across the United States and Canada.

Classical biological control is long lasting and inexpensive. Other than the initial costs of collection, importation, and rearing, little expense is incurred. When a natural enemy is successfully established it rarely requires additional input and it continues to kill the pest with no direct help from humans and at no cost. Unfortunately, classical biological control does not always work. It is usually most effective against exotic pests and less so against native insect pests. The reasons for failure are often not known, but may include the release of too few individuals, poor adaptation of the natural enemy to environmental conditions at the release location, and lack of synchrony between the life cycle of the natural enemy and host pest.

Augmentative biological control

This third strategy of biological control method involves the supplemental release of natural enemies. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of the season (inoculative release) or literally millions may be released (inundative release). Additionally, the cropping system may be modified to favor or augment the natural enemies. This latter practice is frequently referred to as habitat manipulation.

An example of inoculative release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are used to control greenhouse whitefly, and the predaceous mite, Phytoseilus persimilis, is used for control of the two–spotted spider mite. The wasp Encarsia formosa lays its eggs in young whitefly "scales," turning them black as the parasite larvae pupates. Ideally it is introduced as soon as possible after the first adult whitefly are seen. It is most effective when dealing with low level infestations, giving protection over a long period of time. The predatory mite, Phytoseilus persimilis, is slightly larger than its prey and has an orange body. It develops from egg to adult twice as fast as the red spider mite and once established quickly overcomes infestation.

Diagram illustrating the life cycles of Greenhouse whitefly and its parasitoid wasp Encarsia formosa

Lady beetles, lacewings, or parasitoids such as Trichogramma are frequently released in large numbers (inundative release) and are often known as biopesticides. Recommended release rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre per week depending on level of pest infestation. Similarly, entomoparasitic nematodes are released at rates of millions and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests. Entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum, which is specific to species of short–horned grasshoppers (Acridoidea and Pyrgomorphoidea) widely distributed in Africa, has been developed as inundative biological control agent (LUBILOSA 2004).

Habitat or environmental manipulation is another form of augmentation. This tactic involves altering the cropping system to augment or enhance the effectiveness of a natural enemy. Many adult parasitoids and predators benefit from sources of nectar and the protection provided by refuges such as hedgerows, cover crops, and weedy borders. Mixed plantings and the provision of flowering borders can increase the diversity of habitats and provide shelter and alternative food sources. They are easily incorporated into home gardens and even small-scale commercial plantings, but are more difficult to accommodate in large–scale crop production. There may also be some conflict with pest control for the large producer because of the difficulty of targeting the pest species and the use of refuges by the pest insects as well as natural enemies.

Examples of habitat manipulation include growing flowering plants (pollen and nectar sources) near crops to attract and maintain populations of natural enemies. For example, hover fly adults can be attracted to umbelliferous plants in bloom.

Biological control experts in California have demonstrated that planting prune trees in grape vineyards provides an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a key grape pest parasitoid. The prune trees harbor an alternate host for the parasitoid, which could previously overwinter only at great distances from most vineyards. Caution should be used with this tactic because some plants attractive to natural enemies may also be hosts for certain plant diseases, especially plant viruses that could be vectored by insect pests to the crop. Although the tactic appears to hold much promise, only a few examples have been adequately researched and developed.

Different types of biological control agents

Predators

Ladybird larva eating wooly apple aphids

Ladybugs, and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July in the northern hemisphere, are voracious predators of aphids such as greenfly and blackfly, and will also consume mites, scale insects, and small caterpillars. The ladybug is a very familiar beetle with various colored markings, while its larvae are initially small and spidery, growing up to 17 millimeters (mm) long. The larvae have a tapering segmented gray/black body with orange/yellow markings nettles in the garden and by leaving hollow stems and some plant debris over–winter so that they can hibernate over winter.

Hoverflies, resembling slightly darker bees or wasps, have characteristic hovering, darting flight patterns. There are over 100 species of hoverfly, whose larvae principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up to 50 a day, or 1000 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small caterpillars. Adults feed on nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production. Eggs are minute (1 mm), pale yellow-white, and laid singly near greenfly colonies. Larvae are 8–17 mm long, disguised to resemble bird droppings; they are legless and have no distinct head. Therefore, they are semi–transparent with a range of colors from green, white, brown, and black. Hoverflies can be encouraged by growing attractant flowers such as the poached eggplant (Limnanthes douglasii), marigolds, or phacelia throughout the growing season.

Dragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the dragonfly naiads eat mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult mosquitoes. Community–wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also kill dragonflies, thus removing an important biocontrol agent, and can actually increase mosquito populations in the long term.

Other useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles, aphid midge, centipedes, as well as larger fauna such as frogs, toads, lizards, hedgehogs, slow–worms, and birds. Cats and rat terriers kill field mice, rats, june bugs, and birds. Dogs chase away many types of pest animals. Dachshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to kill badgers.

Parasitoidal insects

Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies. For example, the parasitoid Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) has been introduced to control the glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemipterae: Cicadellidae) in French Polynesia and has successfully controlled about 95 percent of the pest density (Hoddle et al. 2006). Parasitiods comprise a diverse range of insects that lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for developing larvae. Parasitic wasps take much longer than predators to consume their victims, for if the larvae were to eat too fast they would run out of food before they became adults. Such parasites are very useful in the organic garden, for they are very efficient hunters, always at work searching for pest invaders. As adults, they require high–energy fuel as they fly from place to place, and feed upon nectar, pollen and sap, therefore planting plenty of flowering plants, particularly buckwheat, umbellifers, and composites will encourage their presence.

Four of the most important groups are:

• Ichneumonid wasps: (5–10 mm) Prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths.
• Braconid wasps: Tiny wasps (up to 5 mm) attack caterpillars and a wide range of other insects including greenfly. It is a common parasite of the cabbage white caterpillar, seen as clusters of sulphur yellow cocoons bursting from collapsed caterpillar skin.
• Chalcid wasps: Among the smallest of insects (<3 mm). It parasitizes eggs/larvae of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, scale insects, and strawberry tortrix moth.
• Tachinid flies: Parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and larval beetles, true bugs, and others.

Parasitic nematodes

Nine families of nematodes (Allantone-matidae, Diplogasteridae, Heterorhabditidae, Mermithidae, Neotylenchidae, Rhabditidae, Sphaerulariidae, Steinernematidae, and Tetradonematidae) include species that attack insects and kill or sterilize them, or alter their development (UN–LN 2003). In addition to insects, nematodes can parasitize spiders, leeches, [[annelid[[s, crustaceans and mollusks. An excellent example of a situation in which a nematode may replace chemicals for control of an insect is the black vine weevil, Otiorhynchus sulcatus, in cranberries. Uses of chemical insecticides on cranberry either are restricted or have not provided adequate control of black vine weevil larvae. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora NC strain was applied, and it provided more than 70 percent control soon after treatment and was still providing that same level of control a year later (Shanks 1990).

Many nematode–based products are currently available. They are formulated from various species of Steinernema and Heterorhabditis. Some of the products found in various countries are ORTHO Bio–Safe, BioVector, Sanoplant, Boden-Ntitzlinge, Helix, Otinem, Nemasys, and so forth (Smart 1995). A fairly recent development in the control of slugs is the introduction of "Nemaslug," a microscopic nematode (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) that will seek out and parasitize slugs, reproducing inside them and killing them. The nematode is applied by watering onto moist soil, and gives protection for up to six weeks in optimum conditions, though is mainly effective with small and young slugs under the soil surface.

Plants to regulate insect pests

Choosing a diverse range of plants for the garden can help to regulate pests in a variety of ways, including;

• Masking the crop plants from pests, depending on the proximity of the companion or intercrop.
• Producing olfactory inhibitors, odors that confuse and deter pests.
• Acting as trap plants by providing an alluring food that entices pests away from crops.
• Serving as nursery plants, providing breeding grounds for beneficial insects.
• Providing an alternative habitat, usually in a form of a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle bank, where beneficial insects can live and reproduce. Nectar–rich plants that bloom for long periods are especially good, as many beneficials are nectivorous during the adult stage, but parasitic or predatory as larvae. A good example of this is the soldier beetle, which is frequently found on flowers as an adult, but whose larvae eat aphids, caterpillars, grasshopper eggs, and other beetles.

The following are plants often used in vegetable gardens to deter insects:

Plant	Pests
Basil	Repels flies and mosquitoes.
Catnip	Deters flea beetle.
Garlic	Deters Japanese beetle.
Horseradish	Deters potato bugs.
Marigold	The workhorse of pest deterrents. Discourages Mexican bean beetles, nematodes and others.
Mint	Deters white cabbage moth, ants.
Nasturtium	Deters aphids, squash bugs and striped pumpkin beetles.
Pot Marigold	Deters asparagus beetles, tomato worm, and general garden pests.
Peppermint	Repels the white cabbage butterfly.
Rosemary	Deters cabbage moth, bean beetles and carrot fly.
Sage	Deters cabbage moth and carrot fly.
Southernwood	Deters cabbage moth.
Summer Savory	Deters bean beetles.
Tansy	Deters flying insects, Japanese beetles, striped cucumber beetles, squash bugs and ants.
Thyme	Deters cabbage worm.
Wormwood	Deters animals from garden.

Pathogens to be used as biopesticides

Various bacterial species are widely used in controlling the pests as well as weeds. The best–known bacterial biological control which can be introduced in order to control butterfly caterpillars is Bacillus thuringiensis, popularly called Bt. This is available in sachets of dried spores, which are mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such as brassicas and fruit trees. After ingestion of the bacterial preparation, the endotoxin liberated and activated in the midgut will kill the caterpillars, but leave other insects unharmed. There are strains of Bt that are effective against other insect larvae. Bt. israelensis is effective against mosquito larvae and some midges.

Viruses most frequently considered for the control of insects (usually sawflies and Lepidoptera) are the occluded viruses, namely NPV, cytoplasmic polyhedrosis (CPV), granulosis (GV), and entomopox viruses (EPN). They do not infect vertebrates, non–arthropod invertebrates, microorganisms, and plants. The commercial use of virus insecticides has been limited by their high specificity and slow action.

Fungi are pathogenic agents to various organisms including the pests and the weeds. This feature is intensively used in biocontrol. The entomopathogenic fungi, like Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, and so forth cause death to the host by the secretion of toxins. A biological control being developed for use in the treatment of plant disease is the fungus Trichoderma viride. This has been used against Dutch Elm disease, and to treat the spread of fungal and bacterial growth on tree wounds. It may also have potential as a means of combating silver leaf disease.

Significance of biological control

Biological control proves to be very successful economically, and even when the method has been less successful, it still produces a benefit–to–cost ratio of 11:1. The benefit–to–cost ratios for several successful biological controls have been found to range from 1:1 to 250:1. Further, net economic advantage for biological control without scouting vs. conventional insecticide control ranged from $ 7.43 to $ 0.12 per hectare in some places. It means that even if the yield produce under biological control be below that for insecticidal control by as much as 29.3 kilos per hectare, the biological control would not lose its economic advantage (CNR 2007).

Biological control agents are non–polluting and thus environmentally safe and acceptable. Usually they are species specific to targeted pest and weeds. The biological control discourages the use of environmentally and ecologically unsuitable chemicals, so it always leads to the establishment of natural balance. The problems of increased resistance in the pest will not arise, as both biological control agents and the pests are in complex race of evolutionary dynamism. Because of chemical resistance developed by the Colorado potato beetle (CPB), its control has been achieved by the use of bugs and beetles (Hein).

Negative results of biological control

Biological control tends to be naturally self–regulating, but as ecosystems are so complex, it is difficult to predict all the consequences of introducing a biological controlling agent (HP 2007). In some cases, biological pest control can have unforeseen negative results, that could outweigh all benefits. For example, when the mongoose was introduced to Hawaii in order to control the rat population, it predated on the endemic birds of Hawaii, especially their eggs, more often than it ate the rats. Similarly, the introduction of the cane toad to Australia 50 years ago to eradicate a beetle that was destroying sugar beet has been spreading as a pest throughout eastern and northern Australia at a rate of 35 km/22 mi a year. Since the cane toad is poisonous, it has few Australian predators to control its population (HP 2007).

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• CNR. 2007. Economics of biological control. College of Natural Resources, University of California, Berkeley.
• DigGood. Notes on natural pest control for an organic garden. DigGood.com. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
• Hein, Gary L. Use of predators to control insect pests in potato. University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
• Hoddle, M. S., J. Grandgirard, J. Petit, G. K. Roderick, and N. Davies. 2006. Glassy-winged sharpshooter Ko'ed—First round—in French Polynesia. Biocontrol News and Information 27(3): 47N–62N
• HP. 2007. Biological control. Helicon Publishing, Research Machines plc. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
• Lawrence, L. 2005. Biocontrol: An overview of biological control research in CSIRO Entomology. CSIRO Australia. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
• LUBILOSA. 2004 Biological control. GreenMuscle, Lubilosa, IITA Project A—Developing Biological Control Option. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
• Metcalf, C. L., W. P. Flint, and R. L. Metcalf. 1973. Destructive and Useful Insects, Their Habitats, and Control. New Delhi: Tata McGraw–Hill Publishing Company.
• Shanks, C. H., and F. Agudelo–Silva. 1990. Field pathogenicity and persistence of heterorhabditid and steinernematid nematodes (Nematoda) infecting black vine weevil larvae (Coteoptera: Curculionidae) in cranberry bogs. Journal of Economical Entomology 83: 107.
• Smart, G. C. 1995. Entomopathogenic nematodes for the biological control of insects. Journal of Nematology 27(4S): 529–534.
• UN–LN. 2003. Nematodes as biological control agents of insects. Plant and Insect Parasitic Nematodes. University of Nebraska–Lincoln Nematology. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
• Weeden, C. R., A. M. Shelton, and M. P. Hoffman. 2007. Biological control: A guide to natural enemies in North America. Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. Retrieved December 7, 2007.

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