Difference between revisions of "Sabbath" - New World Encyclopedia
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The [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] observe a Saturday Sabbath, and the primarily Chinese [[True Jesus Church]] also supports a Saturday Sabbath. | The [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] observe a Saturday Sabbath, and the primarily Chinese [[True Jesus Church]] also supports a Saturday Sabbath. | ||
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===Protestant Sunday-observance=== | ===Protestant Sunday-observance=== | ||
Many [[Protestantism|Protestant]]s have historically regarded ''Lord's Day'', ''Sabbath'', and ''Sunday'' as synonymous terms for the Christian day of worship (except in those languages in which the name of the seventh day is literally equivalent to "Sabbath" — such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Modern Greek, [[Amharic]], Arabic, and of course Hebrew). However, it should be noted that relatively few Christians regard first day observance as entailing all of the ordinances of Jewish Shabbat. | Many [[Protestantism|Protestant]]s have historically regarded ''Lord's Day'', ''Sabbath'', and ''Sunday'' as synonymous terms for the Christian day of worship (except in those languages in which the name of the seventh day is literally equivalent to "Sabbath" — such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Modern Greek, [[Amharic]], Arabic, and of course Hebrew). However, it should be noted that relatively few Christians regard first day observance as entailing all of the ordinances of Jewish Shabbat. | ||
| − | A new rigorism was brought into the observance of the Christian Lord's Day with the Protestant reformation, especially among the [[Puritan]]s of England and Scotland, in reaction to the laxity with which Sunday observance was customarily kept. Sabbath ordinances were appealed to, with the idea that only the word of God can bind men's consciences in whether or how they will take a break from work, or to impose an obligation to meet at a particular time. | + | A new rigorism was brought into the observance of the Christian Lord's Day with the Protestant reformation, especially among the [[Puritan]]s of England and Scotland, in reaction to the laxity with which Sunday observance was customarily kept. Sabbath ordinances were appealed to, with the idea that only the word of God can bind men's consciences in whether or how they will take a break from work, or to impose an obligation to meet at a particular time. Their influential reasoning spread to other denominations also, and it is primarily through their influence that "Sabbath" has become the colloquial equivalent of "Lord's Day" or "Sunday." |
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| + | The most mature expression of this influence survives in the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]], Chapter 21, ''"Of Religious Worship, and the Sabbath Day"''. Section 7-8 reads: | ||
: 7. As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord’s day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath. | : 7. As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord’s day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath. | ||
: 8. This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy. | : 8. This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy. | ||
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== Opposition to Christian Sabbatarianism == | == Opposition to Christian Sabbatarianism == | ||
Revision as of 18:13, 2 December 2008
Dan: Uposatha in Buddhism Sabbath (witchcraft) Wheel of the Year or Sabbat in Wicca In popular culture: Black Sabbath, British heavy metal band with vocalist Ozzy Osbourne Sabbat (band), British heavy metal band Sabbat (Japanese band), Japanese black metal band Song/Album of a Russian rock band Alisa Sabbath (Doctor Who), the Doctor Who villain Sabbath Strange, Emily Strange's cat. sabbatical year, regarding a break from the workforce to pursue a personal endeavour
- For the observance of a seventh day of rest in religions other than Judaism see Sabbath.
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Shabbat (Hebrew: שבת, shabbāt, "rest"; Shabbos or Shabbes in Ashkenazic pronunciation), is the weekly day of rest in Judaism. It is observed, from before sundown on Friday until after nightfall on Saturday, by many Jewish people with varying degrees of involvement in Judaism.
Sabbath in Judaism
Etymology and origins
The Hebrew word Shabbat comes from the Hebrew verb shavat, which literally means "to cease." Thus, Shabbat is the day of ceasing from work. It is likewise understood that God "ended" (kalah) his labor on the seventh day of creation after making the universe, all living things, and humankind.
Shabbat is the source for the English term Sabbath and for similar words in many languages, such as the Arabic As-Sabt (السبت), the Armenian Shabat (Շաբաթ), the Persian shambe, Spanish and Portuguese Sábado, the Greek Savato, the Russian "subbota" (суббота) and the Italian word Sabato—all referring to Saturday.
According to the book of Genesis, the first book of the Bible, God created the world in six days, and on the seventh day "he rested from all his labors," and therefore "sanctified" (made holy) the seventh day (Genesis 2:2-3, Exodus 20:11).
At the Exodus, when God freed the Israelites from Egypt by the hand of Moses, he brought them to Mount Sinai and revealed the Law to them. Among the ten commandments given at Sinai was a command to observe the seventh day of the week as the Sabbath, in memorial of creation. Prior to this, the Israelites had been commanded not to gather manna on the seventh day (Exodus 16). In Exodus 31:12ff. the Sabbath is called a "sign" between God Israel, as well as a covenant; breaking the Sabbath would incur the death penalty. The Sabbath command reappears several times in the laws of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. In Deuteronomy chapter 5, the Sabbath commandment is reiterated but instead of commemorating creation it now symbolizes the redemption of Israel from Egypt.
The observance of the Sabbath is considered so important that the punishment given in ancient times for desecrating Shabbat was stoning to death, the most severe punishment within Jewish law. During the Maccabean revolt of the second century B.C.E., some Jews were so strict in their observance of the Sabbath that they allowed themselves to be killed by their enemies rather than fight, although this tradition did not become a permanent one.
The historical origin the Sabbath tradition is much debated. In the Bible, the first Sabbath was observed by God on the seventh day of creation. Observance of Shabbat is mentioned a number of times elsewhere in the Torah, most notably as the fourth of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:8-11 and Deuteronomy 5:12-15). Traditionally these laws were instituted by Moses at God's command. However, critical scholars believe that the Sabbath tradition actually emerged later in Israelite history, not during their nomadic wilderness existence, but after a settled agricultural culture had been established.
Observance
Jewish law defines a day as ending at dusk and nightfall, which is when the next day then begins. Thus, the Jewish Sabbath begins before sundown Friday night and ends at after nightfall Saturday night.
Jewish tradition describes the Sabbath as having three purposes:
- A commemoration of the Israelites' redemption from slavery in Ancient Egypt;
- A commemoration of God's creation of the universe; on the seventh day God rested from (or ceased) his work;
- A foreshadowing of the world in Messianic times.
Judaism accords Shabbat the status of a joyous holy day. It is the first holy day mentioned in the Bible, and God is thought to be the first one to observe it as he rested for his labor on the seventh day (Genesis 2:1-3). Jewish liturgy treats the Sabbath as a "bride" and "queen," to be welcomed with joy by the congregation. On Shabbat the reading of the Torah is divided into seven sections, more than on any other holy day. Following this is a reading from the Hebrew prophets. A talmudic tradition holds that the Messiah will come if every Jew properly observes two consecutive Sabbaths (Shabbat 118).
Shabbat is a day of celebration as well as one of prayer. In most Jewish communities, three sumptuous meals are eaten each Shabbat after synagogue services conclude. One on Friday night, another Saturday around noon, and a third late Saturday afternoon before the conclusion of the Shabbat. However all cooking of these meals must be done prior to the start of the Sabbath. Many more Jews attend services at a synagogue during Shabbat than on weekdays.
With the exception of Yom Kippur, days of public fasting are postponed or advanced if they coincide with Shabbat, and ourners are forbidden to express public signs of grief.
According to Rabbinic literature, Jews are commanded by God to observe (by refraining from forbidden activity) and remember (with words, thoughts, and actions) the Sabbath. These two actions are symbolized by lighting candles late Friday afternoon by Jewish women, usually the mother, although men who live alone are required to do so themselves. At least one candle is required, and two are customary.
Orthodox Shabbat laws include:
- Recitation of kiddush (a prayer of sanctification) over a cup of wine before the first Sabbath meal and after the conclusion of morning prayers.
- Eating three sumptuous meals initiated with two loaves of bread, usually braided challah.
- Recitation of Havdalah, ("separation") at the conclusion on Saturday night over a cup of wine, and with the use of fragrant spices and a candle.
- Enjoying Shabbat (Oneg Shabbat), include activities such as eating tasty food, resting, study, singing, or engaging in sexual relations with one's spouse.
- Honoring Shabbat (Kavod Shabbat) i.e. making an effort during the week to prepare for each upcoming Sabbath, such as taking a shower on Friday, getting a haircut, beautifying the home and wearing special clothes.
Prohibited activities
Jewish law prohibits doing any form of "work" or traveling long distances on Shabbat. Various Jewish denominations view the prohibition on work in different ways. Observant Orthodox and Conservative Jews do not perform the 39 categories of activity prohibited by Mishnah Tractate Shabbat 7:2 in the Talmud. In modern times, debates have arisen over such matters as riding in elevators or turning on light switches (thought to be a form of kindling a fire, which is prohibited). A common solution involves pre-set timers for electric appliances, to turn them on and off automatically, with no human intervention on Shabbat itself.
In the event that a human life is in danger, a Jew is not only allowed, but required, to violate any Sabbath law that stands in the way of saving that person. However in ancient times this exception was not followed by all sects. For example the Essene text known as the Damascus Document specifically prohibits the lowering of a ladder into a cistern to help a drowning person on the Sabbath.
When there is an urgent human need which is not life-threatening, it is possible to perform seemingly "forbidden" acts by modifying the relevant technology to such an extent that no law is actually violated. An example is the "Sabbath elevator." In this mode, an elevator will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without anyone having to press any buttons that activate electrical switches. However, many rabbinical authorities consider the use of such elevators by people who could use the stairs to be as a violation of the Sabbath.
Adherents of Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism, generally speaking, believe that it is up to the individual Jew to determine whether to follow those prohibitions on Shabbat or not. Some Jews in these traditions do not observe Sabbath, as well as "secular Jews," do not observe Sabbath at all, while others, for example, some Jews might find writing, cooking, sports, or driving across town to see relatives to be enjoyable, pious activities that "enhance" Shabbat and its holiness. Many Reform Jews believe that what constitutes "work" is different for each person; thus only what the person considers "work" is forbidden.
Adaptation by other religions
The principle of a weekly day of prayer and rest, derived from Shabbat, was eventually adopted and instituted by other religions as well. Christianity moved observance of the Sabbath from Saturday to Sunday in the process of its theological and historical split from Judaism. The Seventh-day Adventist Church and the True Jesus Church observe the Sabbath from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset as mentioned in Bible. None of these religions currently keep Shabbat in the Jewish way.[citation needed]
Muslims also kept the Sabbath in a manner which closely approximated the Jewish manner, for at least the first two centuries after Muhammad.
Christian sabbaths
In Christianity, the Sabbath is a weekly religious day of rest as ordained by one of the Ten Commandments: the third commandment by Roman Catholic and Lutheran numbering, and the fourth by Eastern Orthodox and other Protestant numbering. Early Christians kept the Sabbath as first-century Jews did. However, in Christian-based cultures today, the term "sabbath" can mean one of several things:
- Saturday as above, in reference to the Jewish day of rest, also observed by some contemporary Christian groups
- Sunday, as a synonym for "the Lord's Day" in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ, for most Christian groups
- Any day of rest, prayer, worship or ritual, as in "Friday is the Muslim Sabbath"
In the New Testament, the Sabbath was a point of controversy in the ministry of Jesus Christ. Although an observant Jew who stressed the importance of fulfilling the Law Matthew 5:17-20, Jesus took a relatively liberal attitude toward what was permissible on the Sabbath. Accused of breaking the Sabbath by allowing his disciples to pick an eat grain as the walked through a field, he responded that "the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath" (Mark 2:27). Like other rabbis of his day, he also taught that it was right to do good—specifically referring to healing—on the Sabbath (Mark 3:4, Luke 6:9).
In the early church, the Sabbath continued to be a time of communal gathering for Jewish Christians at the synagogue (Acts 15:21). Christians, both Jew and Gentile, observed the seventh day as the Sabbath for some time into the Christian Era. At the same time, worship on the first day of the week, or Sunday (also called the Lord's Day referring to the day of Jesus' resurrection) appeared quite early. After the Jerusalem church was scattered and the Gentile churches came to the fore after 70 C.E., Jewish-style Sabbath-keeping began to wane. In Rome, Carthage, Alexandria and other churches, the observance of the Saturday Sabbath gradually ceased. Eventually, keeping the Jewish Sabbath was condemned as a Judaizing practice. By the early fourth century, Sunday worship was the norm, and the Council of Laodicea around 365 C.E. attempted to put a stop to the practice of Saturday Sabbath observance for Christians. It decreed that Christians must not rest on the Jewish Sabbath but should work on that day and then, if possible, rest on the Lord's Day. However, in the late fourth century, Bishop John Chrysostom felt felt compelled to preach vehemently against the Christians of Antioch observing the Jewish Sabbath and other Jewish customs.
In the fifth century, the church historian Socrates Scholasticus indicated that seventh-day Sabbath observance was the norm in Eastern Roman Empire: "Although almost all churches throughout the world celebrate the sacred mysteries on the Sabbath of every week, yet the Christians of Alexandria and at Rome, on account of some ancient tradition, have ceased to do this." (Church History, 5) Sozomen's Church History likewise states: "Assemblies are not held in all churches on the same time or manner. The people of Constantinople, and almost everywhere, assemble together on the Sabbath, as well as on the first day of the week, which custom is never observed at Rome or at Alexandria."
By the Middle Ages, however, Sunday had, in effect become the nearly universal Christian Sabbath, and would remain so until after the Protestant Reformation, when several Christian denominations would return to Saturday Sabbath observance in accordance with their interpretation of the Bible.
Seventh-day sabbatarianism did not initially become prevalent to any degree among European Protestants, seventh day leaders and churches were persecuted as heretics in England. The Seventh Day Baptists arrived at the height of their direct influence on other sects, especially in the middle of the nineteenth century, in the United States, when their doctrines were instrumental in founding the Seventh-day Adventist Church and the Seventh-day Church of God. Seventh-day Adventists have traditionally taught that the seventh-day Sabbath constitutes a providential a test, leading to the sealing of God's people during the end times.
The Worldwide Church of God, which was founded after a schism in the Seventh-day Church of God in 1934, was founded as a seventh-day Sabbath-keeping church. However, in 1995 it renounced sabbatarianism and moved toward the Evangelical "mainstream." Its move from sabbatarianism, and other doctrines, caused more schism, with large groups splitting off to continue to observe the Sabbath as new church organizations. See the list of Sabbath keeping Church of God.
The Ethiopian Orthodox observe a Saturday Sabbath, and the primarily Chinese True Jesus Church also supports a Saturday Sabbath.
Protestant Sunday-observance
Many Protestants have historically regarded Lord's Day, Sabbath, and Sunday as synonymous terms for the Christian day of worship (except in those languages in which the name of the seventh day is literally equivalent to "Sabbath" — such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Modern Greek, Amharic, Arabic, and of course Hebrew). However, it should be noted that relatively few Christians regard first day observance as entailing all of the ordinances of Jewish Shabbat.
A new rigorism was brought into the observance of the Christian Lord's Day with the Protestant reformation, especially among the Puritans of England and Scotland, in reaction to the laxity with which Sunday observance was customarily kept. Sabbath ordinances were appealed to, with the idea that only the word of God can bind men's consciences in whether or how they will take a break from work, or to impose an obligation to meet at a particular time. Their influential reasoning spread to other denominations also, and it is primarily through their influence that "Sabbath" has become the colloquial equivalent of "Lord's Day" or "Sunday."
The most mature expression of this influence survives in the Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 21, "Of Religious Worship, and the Sabbath Day". Section 7-8 reads:
- 7. As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord’s day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath.
- 8. This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy.
Opposition to Christian Sabbatarianism
Many Protestant Christians today consider that they are not required to observe a day of rest either on Saturday or Sunday [1]. It is generally argued by these Christians that the Ten Commandments, along with the entire Law of Moses, was fulfilled by Christ and is therefore no longer binding as moral law. While Sunday is observed as the day of Christian assembly and worship, in accordance with church tradition, the sabbath commandment is dissociated from this practice.
New Testament arguments
Some Christian theologians use Colossians 2:14-17 to show that Sabbath observance for Christians has been abolished — "Let no man therefore judge you in meat, or in drink, or in respect of an holyday, or of the new moon, or of the sabbath days: Which are a shadow of things to come; but the body is of Christ." This is often cited as a direct parallel to Numbers 28-29, where the Sabbath is described alongside burnt offerings and new moons; all things which are claimed to have been made obsolete with the coming of Christ.
In conjunction with this, a second Pauline epistle is often quoted, namely Romans 14:5-6, which states "One man esteemeth one day above another: another esteemeth every day [alike]. Let every man be fully persuaded in his own mind. He that regardeth the day, regardeth [it] unto the Lord; and he that regardeth not the day, to the Lord he doth not regard [it]." Ritual observance of a weekly Sabbath is thus not required, but is optional according to the conscience of each individual Christian.
Galatians 4:9-11 is used as further justification that a Sabbath is no longer in effect under the New Covenant: "But now, after that ye have known God, or rather are known of God, how turn ye again to the weak and beggarly elements, whereunto ye desire again to be in bondage? Ye observe days, and months, and times, and years. I am afraid of you, lest I have bestowed upon you labour in vain." Essentially, non-Sabbatarians suggest Paul's claim here is that ritual observance of days, including the weekly Sabbath, is no longer prescribed under the New Covenant. (Sabbatarians often counter-argue that Paul may have been referring to the Jewish festivals rather than the weekly Sabbath, or that perhaps Paul was targeting Gnostic heresy which had infiltrated the church.)
To further support these ideas, 2 Corinthians 3:2-3 is often used, "Ye are our epistle written in our hearts, known and read of all men: Forasmuch as ye are manifestly declared to be the epistle of Christ ministered by us, written not with ink, but with the Spirit of the living God; not in tables of stone, but in fleshy tables of the heart." Hence, Christians no longer follow a law written "in tables of stone" (that is, the Ten Commandments), but follow a law written upon "fleshy tables of the heart." The argument continues with 2 Corinthians 3:7, 3:11, "But if the ministration of death, written and engraven in stones, was glorious,...which glory was to be done away... For if that which is done away was glorious, much more that which remaineth is glorious." Non-sabbatarians claim this is a direct reference to the 10 Commandments; therefore New Covenant Christians are no longer under the Mosaic law, and thus Sabbath-keeping is no longer required. The New Covenant "law" is based entirely upon love, and love is considered the fulfillment of the law (Romans 13:10).
In addition to the Pauline teachings which appear to rescind the Sabbath, Jesus himself is recorded as redefining the Sabbath law. Some examples of this include Luke 13:10-17, John 5:16-18, and John 9:13-16. As Jesus proclaimed Himself to be "Lord of the Sabbath" who has "fulfilled the Law," this has been interpreted by many Christians to mean that those who follow Him are no longer bound by the Sabbath.
Finally, non-Sabbatarians frequently use the epistle to the Hebrews 3:7-4:11 to argue that the seventh-day Sabbath is no longer relevant as a regular, literal day of rest, but instead is a symbolic metaphor for the eternal "rest" that Christians enjoy in Christ, which was in turn prefigured by the promised land of Canaan.
To be non-sabbatarian doesn't necessarily equate to making all days alike. A member of a non-sabbatarian church may nevertheless be very conscientious about avoiding certain kinds of activities, and doing others, because it is the day for the church to gather, a day for prayer and for works of mercy.
Sunday vs Saturday debate
Acts 20:7 says that, "On the first day of the week we came together to break bread," where Paul preached until midnight. One must remember, however, that according to Jewish tradition (and as described in Leviticus 23:32), a day begins when the sun goes down and this meeting apparently gathered in the evening. So, those who have believed that the Christians kept the Sabbath on the seventh day argue that this meeting (Acts 20:7) would have begun on Saturday night. Paul would have been preaching on Saturday night until midnight and then walked eighteen miles from Traos to Assos on Sunday. He would not have done so, if he had regarded Sunday as the Sabbath, much less boarded a boat and continued to travel to Mitylene and finally on to Chios. Sabbatarians often claim that Biblical evidence suggests that Paul was a lifelong Sabbath keeper for the sake of the Jews, and if Sunday was now the Sabbath, then this journey would have been contrary to his character. Those opposed to a Sabbath claim that the practice had been abolished by this time, and thus would have no impact on Paul's actions.
Some doubt that this is an instance of Paul keeping the Sabbath, although it may be if it shows him waiting until the morning of the first day to continue his work. The focus of the story is about Eutychus, his accident, and his resurrection, not the changing of the Sabbath from the seventh day to the first day of the week.
Also in Acts 2:45, they went to the Temple in Jerusalem and broke bread from house to house "daily." There is no mention of the Sabbath, and it is debatable whether this is a reference to Communion. There are many instances of the Gospel being taught and preached on non-specific days as well as daily. One example is in Mark 2:1-2 another is Luke 19:47-20:1, where it clearly indicates that Jesus himself taught and preached daily.
The majority of Christians, who accept the practice of worship on Sunday, suggest these actions are indicative of a new reverence for God's acts in Christ, in connection with the first day of the week; and the majority of these believe that Sunday is a Sabbatical day, a resting day set aside for worship of God through Jesus Christ, and see no continuing obligation to keep the Saturday ordinances in their Jewish form.
Christians who reject the religious observance of the first day argue, based on the reasons given above, that there is no significance given to the first day, the breaking of bread, nor the preaching; they are merely mentioned as events that might take place on any day of the week. It is often argued that the loss of special reverence for Saturday was due to a Great Apostasy in connection with the Constantinian shift; and most of the groups holding this belief see seventh day sabbatarianism as a mark of the restored church.
The issue over the name of the seventh day is really a cultural question. Canada, the United States, and England are actually a minority in calling Sunday the first day and Saturday the last. In most of Europe, Monday is the first day, and Sunday indeed the seventh (see Days of the week). In fact, the majority of the countries who call Sunday the seventh day of the week are those who speak Romantic languages (Italy, France, Spain) are Roman Catholic.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
External links
- Online Shabbat Guide
- FAQ about Shabbat shamash.org
- FAQ about Shabbat askmoses.com
- Candle Lighting Times for Shabbat World Wide
- Molad - Freeware Jewish Calendar with Shabbat candle lighting times for Mobiles.
- Information on Shabbat from the Union of Orthodox Congregations
- a more detailed summary of the laws of Shabbat from Torah.org, based on the Shulchan Aruch
- The Laws of Shabbat A 37-part self study course) by Rabbi Daniel Schloss
- Honoring Shabbat
- The Sabbath Directory, which lists a large number of Sabbath-keeping organizations
- Transcript Of A Debate For And Against Sabbath Observance
- The SABBATH or Sunday – which?
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