Difference between revisions of "Materials science" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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[[Image:Materials science tetrahedron;structure, processing, performance, and proprerties.JPG|thumb|The Materials Science Tetrahedron. It often also includes Characterization at the center.]]
 
[[Image:Materials science tetrahedron;structure, processing, performance, and proprerties.JPG|thumb|The Materials Science Tetrahedron. It often also includes Characterization at the center.]]
  
−
'''Materials science''' is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and their applications to various areas of science and engineering. It includes elements of [[applied physics]] and [[chemistry]], as well as [[chemical engineering|chemical]], [[mechanical engineering|mechanical]], [[civil engineering|civil]] and [[electrical engineering|electrical]] engineering. With the recent surge of interest in [[nanoscience]]* and [[nanotechnology]], materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many academic institutions and research facilities.
+
'''Materials science''' is an interdisciplinary field involving the study of different types of materials and the applications of this knowledge to various areas of science and engineering. It includes elements of [[applied physics]] and [[chemistry]], as well as [[chemical engineering|chemical]], [[mechanical engineering|mechanical]], [[civil engineering|civil]] and [[electrical engineering|electrical]] engineering. With the recent surge of interest in [[nanoscience]]* and [[nanotechnology]], materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many academic institutions and research facilities.
  
−
== History ==
+
Besides its importance for industrial applications, materials science has gradually developed into a field that provides tests for condensed matter or solid state theories. New physics emerges because of the diverse new material properties needed to be explained.
 +
 
 +
== Historical overview ==
  
 
Materials science is one of the oldest forms of applied science and engineering. In the development of human civilization, the defining point of each era has often been described in terms of the human ability to work with a new type of material. Examples are the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Steel Age.
 
Materials science is one of the oldest forms of applied science and engineering. In the development of human civilization, the defining point of each era has often been described in terms of the human ability to work with a new type of material. Examples are the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Steel Age.
Line 9: Line 11:
 
Before the 1960s, (and in some cases decades after), many ''materials science'' departments at academic and research institutions were named ''[[metallurgy]]'' departments, because the emphasis was on the study of metals and their uses. The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, such as [[ceramic]]s, [[polymers]], [[semiconductors]], magnetic materials, and biological materials (such as medical implants).
 
Before the 1960s, (and in some cases decades after), many ''materials science'' departments at academic and research institutions were named ''[[metallurgy]]'' departments, because the emphasis was on the study of metals and their uses. The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, such as [[ceramic]]s, [[polymers]], [[semiconductors]], magnetic materials, and biological materials (such as medical implants).
  
−
Important elements of modern materials science resulted from the [[space race]]*. In particular, the understanding and engineering of metallic [[alloys]], [[ceramics]], and other materials were useful for the construction of space vehicles, space suits, and so forth, and the new knowledge was found valuable for various consumer and industrial applications as well.
+
Many important elements of modern materials science have resulted from the [[space race]]*. In particular, the understanding and engineering of metallic [[alloys]], [[ceramics]], and other materials were useful for the construction of space vehicles, space suits, and so forth, and the new knowledge was found valuable for various consumer and industrial applications as well.
 +
 
 +
== Fundamentals of materials science ==
 +
 
 +
In materials science, the researcher conducts a systematic investigation of each material, in terms of its structure, properties, processing, and performance. The research often leads to new applications of known materials and the creation of new materials with desired properties.
  
−
A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late [[19th century]], when [[Willard Gibbs]] demonstrated that [[thermodynamic]] properties relating to [[atoms|atomic structure]] in various [[phase (matter)|phases]] are related to the physical properties of the material.
+
On a fundamental level, this field relates the [[physical property|properties]]* and performance of a material to its atomic-scale structure and the different phases it can go through. The major factors that determine the structure and properties of a material are the nature of its constituent chemical elements and the way in which the material was processed into its final form. These factors, related through the laws of [[thermodynamics]], govern the material’s [[microstructure]], and thus its properties.
  
−
== Fundamentals of Materials Science ==
+
The manufacture of a perfect [[crystal]] of a material is physically impossible. Instead, materials scientists manipulate the [[crystallographic defect|defects]] in crystalline materials, thereby creating a material with the desired properties. On an atomic scale, the defects in a crystal could mean that atoms of one element may be missing or replaced by atoms of other elements.
  
−
In materials science, the researcher conducts a systematic investigation of materials, leading to new applications of known materials and the creation of new materials with desired properties.
+
Furthermore, not all materials have a regular crystalline structure. [[Glass|Glasses]], some [[ceramic]]s, and many natural materials are [[Amorphous solid|amorphous]]—not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. These materials are much harder to engineer than crystalline materials. Polymers are a mixed case, with varying degrees of crystallinity, and their study commonly combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic (rather than mechanical) descriptions of physical properties.
−
On a fundamental level, this field relates the [[physical property|properties]]* and performance of a material to its atomic-scale structure and the different phases it can go through. The major factors that determine the structure and properties of a material are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form. These, taken together and related through the laws of [[thermodynamics]], govern the material’s [[microstructure]], and thus its properties.
 
  
−
An old adage in materials science says: "materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting". The manufacture of a perfect [[crystal]] of a material is physically impossible. Instead materials scientists manipulate the [[crystallographic defect|defects]] in crystalline materials such as [[precipitates]], grain boundaries ([[Hall-Petch|Hall-Petch relationship]]), interstitial atoms, vacancies or substitutional atoms, creating a material with the desired properties.
+
== Materials in Industry ==
  
−
Not all materials have a regular crystal structure. [[Polymers]] display varying degrees of crystallinity. [[glass|Glasses]], some [[ceramic]]s, and many natural materials are [[Amorphous solid|amorphous]], not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. These materials are much harder to engineer than crystalline materials. Polymers are a mixed case, and their study commonly combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamical, rather than mechanical descriptions of physical properties.
+
Radical [[Timeline of materials technology|materials advances]]* drive the creation of new products and even new industries. At the same time, stable industries employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include the design of materials and their cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production.
  
−
In addition to industrial interest, materials science has gradually developed into a field which provides tests for condensed matter or solid state theories. New physics emerges because of the diverse new material properties needed to be explained.
+
Techniques used for processing materials include:
 +
* [[casting]]
 +
* [[rolling]]
 +
* [[welding]]
 +
* [[ion implantation]]
 +
* [[crystal growth]]*
 +
* [[thin-film deposition]]*
 +
* [[sintering]]*
 +
* [[glassblowing]]
  
−
== Materials in Industry ==
+
Techniques used for analyzing (characterizing) materials include:
−
Radical [[Timeline of materials technology|materials advances]] can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials.  Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques ([[casting]], [[rolling]], [[welding]], [[ion implantation]], [[crystal growth]], [[thin-film deposition]], [[sintering]], [[glassblowing]], etc.), and analytical techniques (characterization techniques such as [[electron microscopy]], [[x-ray diffraction]], [[calorimetry]], [[nuclear microscopy (HEFIB)]],  [[Rutherford backscattering]], [[neutron diffraction]], etc.).
+
* [[electron microscopy]]
 +
* [[X-ray diffraction]]*
 +
* [[calorimetry]]*
 +
* [[nuclear microscopy (HEFIB)]]*
 +
* [[Rutherford backscattering]]*
 +
* [[neutron diffraction]]*
 +
 
 +
The overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of ''materials physics'', which is concerned with the physical properties of [[material]]*s. The approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in [[condensed matter physics]].
  
−
The overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of ''materials physics'', which is concerned with the physical properties of [[material]]s. The approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in [[condensed matter physics]].  See the [[list of publications in physics#Materials physics|important publications in materials physics]] for more details on this field of study.
+
== Classes of materials ==
  
−
== Classes of materials (by bond types) ==
+
Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, such as:
−
Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate field. Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms:
+
# [[Ionic bond|Ionic crystals]] (crystals in which the atoms are held together by ionic bonds)
−
# [[Ionic bond|Ionic crystals]]
+
# [[Covalent bond|Covalent crystals]] (crystals in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds)
−
# [[Covalent bond|Covalent crystals]]
 
 
# [[Metal]]s
 
# [[Metal]]s
−
# [[Intermetallics]]
+
# [[Intermetallics]]*
−
# [[Semiconductors]]
+
# [[Semiconductor]]s
 
# [[Polymer]]s
 
# [[Polymer]]s
−
# [[Composite material]]s
+
# [[Composite material]]*s
−
# [[Vitreous materials]]
+
# [[Vitreous material]]*s
 +
Each class of materials may involve a separate field of study.
  
 
==Sub-fields of materials science==
 
==Sub-fields of materials science==
 +
 
* [[Nanotechnology]] --- rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of [[quantum confinement]], the [[Gibbs-Thomson effect]], or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a [[nanometer]] to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered materials.
 
* [[Nanotechnology]] --- rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of [[quantum confinement]], the [[Gibbs-Thomson effect]], or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a [[nanometer]] to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered materials.
 
* [[Crystallography]] --- the study of how atoms in a solid fill space, the [[crystallographic defect|defects]] associated with [[crystal structure]]s such as [[grain boundaries]] and [[dislocations]], and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties.
 
* [[Crystallography]] --- the study of how atoms in a solid fill space, the [[crystallographic defect|defects]] associated with [[crystal structure]]s such as [[grain boundaries]] and [[dislocations]], and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties.
Line 50: Line 71:
 
* [[Surface chemistry|Surface science]] --- interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid interfaces.
 
* [[Surface chemistry|Surface science]] --- interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid interfaces.
 
* [[Ceramic]]s and [[refractory|refractories]] --- high temperature materials including structural ceramics such as [[Reinforced carbon-carbon|RCC]], polycrystalline [[silicon carbide]] and [[transformation toughened ceramics]]
 
* [[Ceramic]]s and [[refractory|refractories]] --- high temperature materials including structural ceramics such as [[Reinforced carbon-carbon|RCC]], polycrystalline [[silicon carbide]] and [[transformation toughened ceramics]]
−
Some practitioners often consider [[rheology]] a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that flows. However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian [[fluid dynamics]], so it is often considered a sub-field of [[continuum mechanics]].  See also [[granular material]].
+
Some practitioners often consider [[rheology]] a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that flows. However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian [[fluid dynamics]], so it is often considered a sub-field of [[continuum mechanics]].
 
* [[Glass Science]] --- any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide glasses.
 
* [[Glass Science]] --- any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide glasses.
  
 
===Topics that form the basis of materials science===
 
===Topics that form the basis of materials science===
 +
 
* [[Thermodynamics]], [[statistical mechanics]], [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]] and [[physical chemistry]], for [[phase (matter)|phase]] stability, transformations (physical and chemical) and diagrams.
 
* [[Thermodynamics]], [[statistical mechanics]], [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]] and [[physical chemistry]], for [[phase (matter)|phase]] stability, transformations (physical and chemical) and diagrams.
 
* [[Crystallography]] and [[chemical bonding]], for understanding how atoms in a material are arranged.
 
* [[Crystallography]] and [[chemical bonding]], for understanding how atoms in a material are arranged.
Line 64: Line 86:
 
* [[Mechanics of materials]], for the study of the relation between the mechanical behavior of materials and their microstructures.
 
* [[Mechanics of materials]], for the study of the relation between the mechanical behavior of materials and their microstructures.
  
−
===A short list of non-academic materials facilities===
+
==Some nonacademic materials science research facilities==
−
* Government labs
+
 
−
** [[Argonne National Laboratory]]
+
'''Government laboratories'''
−
** [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]
+
* [[Argonne National Laboratory]]*
−
** [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]
+
* [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]*
−
** [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]
+
* [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]*
−
** [[Max Planck Institute]]
+
* [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]*
−
** [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]
+
* [[Max Planck Institute]]*
−
* Corporate facilities
+
* [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]*
−
** [[DuPont]]
+
 
−
** GE Global Research
+
'''Corporate facilities'''
−
** IBM [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]]
+
* [[DuPont]]*
−
===Important Journals===
+
* GE Global Research
−
* [[Nature Materials]]
+
* IBM [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]]*
−
* [[Acta Materialia]]
+
 
−
* [[JOM]]
+
==Significant journals==
−
* [[Advanced Materials]]
+
 
−
* [[Computational materials science]]
+
* [[Nature Materials]]*
−
* [[Advanced Functional Materials]]
+
* [[Acta Materialia]]*
 +
* [[JOM]]*
 +
* [[Advanced Materials]]*
 +
* [[Computational materials science]]*
 +
* [[Advanced Functional Materials]]*
 
* [http://www.rsc.org/materials Journal of Materials Chemistry]
 
* [http://www.rsc.org/materials Journal of Materials Chemistry]
 
* [http://www.azom.com/azojomo.asp Journal of Materials Online - Open Access]
 
* [http://www.azom.com/azojomo.asp Journal of Materials Online - Open Access]
−
* [[Metallurgical and Materials Transactions]]
+
* [[Metallurgical and Materials Transactions]]*
 +
 
 +
==References==
  
−
==Bibliography==
 
 
*{{cite book
 
*{{cite book
 
  | last = Askeland
 
  | last = Askeland
Line 126: Line 153:
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
 +
 +
* [[Alloy]]
 +
* [[Ceramic]]
 +
* [[Crystal]]
 +
* [[Glass]]
 +
* [[Metal]]
 +
* [[Plastic]]
 +
* [[Polymer]]
 
* [[Timeline of materials technology]]
 
* [[Timeline of materials technology]]
 
* [[Bio-based material]]s
 
* [[Bio-based material]]s
 
* [[Liquid crystal]]
 
* [[Liquid crystal]]
−
* [[List of publications in chemistry#Materials science|Important publications in materials science]]
 
−
* [[List of scientific journals#Material science|List of scientific journals - Materials science]]
 
−
* [[List of publications in physics#Materials physics|List of publications in physics - Materials physics]]
 
−
* [[List of surface analysis methods]]
 
−
* [[thermal analysis|List of thermal analysis methods]]
 
  
 
{{BranchesofChemistry}}
 
{{BranchesofChemistry}}

Revision as of 19:55, 6 November 2006

The Materials Science Tetrahedron. It often also includes Characterization at the center.

Materials science is an interdisciplinary field involving the study of different types of materials and the applications of this knowledge to various areas of science and engineering. It includes elements of applied physics and chemistry, as well as chemical, mechanical, civil and electrical engineering. With the recent surge of interest in nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many academic institutions and research facilities.

Besides its importance for industrial applications, materials science has gradually developed into a field that provides tests for condensed matter or solid state theories. New physics emerges because of the diverse new material properties needed to be explained.

Historical overview

Materials science is one of the oldest forms of applied science and engineering. In the development of human civilization, the defining point of each era has often been described in terms of the human ability to work with a new type of material. Examples are the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Steel Age.

Before the 1960s, (and in some cases decades after), many materials science departments at academic and research institutions were named metallurgy departments, because the emphasis was on the study of metals and their uses. The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, such as ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic materials, and biological materials (such as medical implants).

Many important elements of modern materials science have resulted from the space race. In particular, the understanding and engineering of metallic alloys, ceramics, and other materials were useful for the construction of space vehicles, space suits, and so forth, and the new knowledge was found valuable for various consumer and industrial applications as well.

Fundamentals of materials science

In materials science, the researcher conducts a systematic investigation of each material, in terms of its structure, properties, processing, and performance. The research often leads to new applications of known materials and the creation of new materials with desired properties.

On a fundamental level, this field relates the properties and performance of a material to its atomic-scale structure and the different phases it can go through. The major factors that determine the structure and properties of a material are the nature of its constituent chemical elements and the way in which the material was processed into its final form. These factors, related through the laws of thermodynamics, govern the material’s microstructure, and thus its properties.

The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is physically impossible. Instead, materials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials, thereby creating a material with the desired properties. On an atomic scale, the defects in a crystal could mean that atoms of one element may be missing or replaced by atoms of other elements.

Furthermore, not all materials have a regular crystalline structure. Glasses, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous—not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. These materials are much harder to engineer than crystalline materials. Polymers are a mixed case, with varying degrees of crystallinity, and their study commonly combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic (rather than mechanical) descriptions of physical properties.

Materials in Industry

Radical materials advances drive the creation of new products and even new industries. At the same time, stable industries employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include the design of materials and their cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production.

Techniques used for processing materials include:

  • casting
  • rolling
  • welding
  • ion implantation
  • crystal growth
  • thin-film deposition
  • sintering
  • glassblowing

Techniques used for analyzing (characterizing) materials include:

  • electron microscopy
  • X-ray diffraction
  • calorimetry
  • nuclear microscopy (HEFIB)
  • Rutherford backscattering
  • neutron diffraction

The overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of materials physics, which is concerned with the physical properties of materials. The approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in condensed matter physics.

Classes of materials

Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, such as:

  1. Ionic crystals (crystals in which the atoms are held together by ionic bonds)
  2. Covalent crystals (crystals in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds)
  3. Metals
  4. Intermetallics
  5. Semiconductors
  6. Polymers
  7. Composite materials
  8. Vitreous materials

Each class of materials may involve a separate field of study.

Sub-fields of materials science

  • Nanotechnology --- rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement, the Gibbs-Thomson effect, or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered materials.
  • Crystallography --- the study of how atoms in a solid fill space, the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations, and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties.
  • Materials Characterization --- such as diffraction with x-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, etc., in order to understand and define the properties of materials. See also List of surface analysis methods
  • Metallurgy --- the study of metals and their alloys, including their extraction, microstructure and processing.
  • Biomaterials --- materials that are derived from and/or used with biological systems.
  • Electronic and magnetic materials --- materials such as semiconductors used to create integrated circuits, storage media, sensors, and other devices.
  • Tribology --- the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other factors.
  • Surface science --- interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid interfaces.
  • Ceramics and refractories --- high temperature materials including structural ceramics such as RCC, polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramics

Some practitioners often consider rheology a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that flows. However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, so it is often considered a sub-field of continuum mechanics.

  • Glass Science --- any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide glasses.

Topics that form the basis of materials science

  • Thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, kinetics and physical chemistry, for phase stability, transformations (physical and chemical) and diagrams.
  • Crystallography and chemical bonding, for understanding how atoms in a material are arranged.
  • Mechanics, to understand the mechanical properties of materials and their structural applications.
  • Solid-state physics and quantum mechanics, for the understanding of the electronic, thermal, magnetic, chemical, structural and optical properties of materials.
  • Diffraction and wave mechanics, for the characterization of materials.
  • Chemistry and polymer science, for the understanding of plastics, colloids, ceramics, liquid crystals, solid state chemistry, and polymers.
  • Biology, for the integration of materials into biological systems.
  • Continuum mechanics and statistics, for the study of fluid flows and ensemble systems.
  • Mechanics of materials, for the study of the relation between the mechanical behavior of materials and their microstructures.

Some nonacademic materials science research facilities

Government laboratories

  • Argonne National Laboratory
  • Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
  • Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
  • Los Alamos National Laboratory
  • Max Planck Institute
  • Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Corporate facilities

  • DuPont
  • GE Global Research
  • IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center

Significant journals

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Askeland, Donald R. and Pradeep P. Phulé (2005). The Science & Engineering of Materials, 5th edition, Thomson-Engineering. ISBN 0-534-55396-6. 
  • Gaskell, David R. (1995). Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Materials, 4th edition, Taylor and Francis Publishing. ISBN 1-56032-992-0. 
  • Eberhart, Mark (2003). Why Things Break : Understanding the World by the Way It Comes Apart. Harmony. ISBN 1-4000-4760-9. 
  • Gordon, James Edward (1984). The New Science of Strong Materials or Why You Don't Fall Through the Floor, eissue edition, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02380-8. 

See also

Chemistry
Analytical chemistry • Biochemistry • Bioinorganic chemistry • Bioorganic chemistry • Chemical biology • Chemistry education • Click chemistry • Cluster chemistry • Computational chemistry • Electrochemistry • Environmental chemistry • Green chemistry • Inorganic chemistry • Materials science • Medicinal chemistry • Nuclear chemistry • Organic chemistry • Organometallic chemistry • Pharmacy • Pharmacology • Physical chemistry • Photochemistry • Polymer chemistry • Solid-state chemistry • Supramolecular chemistry • Theoretical chemistry • Thermochemistry • Wet chemistry
List of biomolecules • List of inorganic compounds • List of organic compounds • Periodic table

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