Difference between revisions of "Lebanon" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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Although the country is well watered and there are many rivers and streams, there are no [[navigable river]]s, nor is any one river the sole source of irrigation water. The Biqa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the Orontes flowing north, and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in [[southern Lebanon]] and is thereafter called the Al Qasmiyah River.
 
Although the country is well watered and there are many rivers and streams, there are no [[navigable river]]s, nor is any one river the sole source of irrigation water. The Biqa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the Orontes flowing north, and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in [[southern Lebanon]] and is thereafter called the Al Qasmiyah River.
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[[Image:Beirut-Sannine.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Beirut, the Mediterranean, and snow-capped Mount Sannine]]
 
In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Lebanon cedar, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.
 
In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Lebanon cedar, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.
  
 
Natural hazards include dust storms and sandstorms. Environmental issues include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.
 
Natural hazards include dust storms and sandstorms. Environmental issues include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.
  
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[[Image:Beirut-Sannine.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Beirut, the Mediterranean, and snow-capped Mount Sannine]]
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Beirut is the capital, largest city, and chief seaport of [[Lebanon]]. It is sometimes referred to by its [[French]] name, ''Beyrouth''. There are wide-ranging estimates of Beirut's population, from as low as 938,940 people to 1,303,129 people. Other cities are Tyre, an ancient Phoenician city in the south (population 117,100), and Sidon, another ancient city.
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==History==
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The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 b.c.e.. Archaeologists have discovered in [[Byblos]], which is believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7000 years ago.
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===The Phoenicians===
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[[Image:Anthropoid sarcophagus discovered at Cadiz - Project Gutenberg eText 15052.png|thumb|180px|right|Phoenician sarcophagus found in [[Cadiz]], [[Spain]]; now in Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. The sarcophagus is thought to have been designed and paid for by a Phoenician merchant, and made in Greece with Egyptian influence.]]
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The coastal plain of [[Lebanon]] is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic culture, which the Greeks termed [[Phoenicia]], whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2000 years (c. 2700 B.C.E.– 450 B.C.E.). Ancient ruins in [[Byblos]], Berytus ([[Beirut]]), [[Sidon]], [[Sarepta]], and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts. The territory was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures. Its people roamed the Mediterranean seas, skilled in trade and in art, and founded trading colonies. They were also the creators of the oldest known 24-letter [[alphabet]], a shortening of earlier 30-letter alphabets such as [[Proto-Sinaitic]] and [[Ugaritic]].
  
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Beirut is the capital, largest city, and chief seaport of [[Lebanon]]. It is sometimes referred to by its [[French]] name, ''Beyrouth''. There are wide-ranging estimates of Beirut's population, from as low as 938,940 people to 1,303,129 people. Other cities are Tyre, an ancient Phoenician city in the south (population 117,100), and Sidon, another ancient city.
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Phoenicia maintained an uneasy tributary relationship with the neo-[[Assyria]]n and neo-[[Babylon]]ian empires. [[Cyrus the Great]] conquered Phoenicia in [[530s B.C.E.|539 B.C.E.]]. Phoenicia was divided into four vassal kingdoms by the Persians: [[Sidon]], [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Arwad]], and [[Byblos]], and prospered, furnishing fleets for the Persian kings.
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===Greeks and Romans===
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[[Image:Tyre Triumphal Arch.jpg|250px|The Triumphal Arch]]
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It was added to the empire of [[Alexander the Great]], who notably conquered [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] (332 B.C.E.) by extending a still-extant causeway from the mainland in a seven-month effort. It fell to the [[Seleucid Empire]] (323 B.C.E. to 60 B.C.E.) after Alexander's death. The area was conquered by the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[first century B.C.E.]], was dominated by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], then the Greek-speaking [[Roman Empire]] centered around its capital of [[Constantinople]] (306 C.E. – 1095 C.E.).  [[Christianity]] was introduced to Phoenicia from neighboring [[Galilee]] soon after the time of [[Jesus of Nazareth]].
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===Arab rule and the Middle Ages===
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The Arab advances brought [[Islam]] soon after the death of Islam's Prophet [[Muhammad]]. Muslim influence increased greatly in the seventh century when the [[Umayyad]] capital was established at nearby [[Damascus]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], Lebanon was heavily involved in the [[Crusades]]. Lebanon was in the main path of the [[First Crusade]]'s advance on [[Jerusalem]]. Later, Frankish nobles occupied present-day Lebanon as part of the southeastern [[Crusader States]]. The southern half of present-day Lebanon formed the northern march of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]; the northern half was the heartland of the [[County of Tripoli]]. Although [[Saladin]] eliminated Christian control of the [[Holy Land]] around [[1190]], the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended.
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===Mamluks and Ottomans===
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Muslim control of Lebanon was re-established in the late 13th century under the [[Mamluk]] sultans of Egypt. Lebanon was later contested between Muslim rulers until the [[Ottoman Empire]] solidified authority over the eastern Mediterranean. Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast became important for its contacts and trades with [[Venice]] and other [[Italy|Italian]] city-states.
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Lebanon was part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] for over 400 years, in a region known as [[Greater Syria]], until 1916
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The mountainous territory of [[Mount Lebanon]] has long been a shelter for minority and persecuted groups, including its historic [[Maronite]] Christian majority along with [[Druze]], and local [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] Muslims. It was an autonomous Maronite region of the Ottoman empire.
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===French mandate===
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The area became a part of the [[French Mandate of Syria]] following [[World War I]]. On [[September 1]], [[1920]], France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within [[Syria]]. Lebanon was a largely [[Christian]] (mainly [[Maronite]]) enclave but also included areas containing many [[Muslims]] and [[Druzes]]. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria.
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===World War II===
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[[Image:Lebanese French flag.svg|thumb|200px|right|The flag of [[Greater Lebanon]] (1920-1943)]]
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The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through [[Syria]] to [[Iraq]] where they were used against British forces. The [[United Kingdom]], fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and [[Syria]] by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
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===Independence===
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After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General [[Charles de Gaulle]] visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On [[26 November]] [[1941]] General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the [[Free French]] government. Elections were held in 1943 and on [[November 8]], [[1943]] the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943, and accepted the independence of Lebanon.
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The [[Allies of World War II|allies]] kept the region under control until the end of [[World War II]]. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten [[National Pact]] of 1943 required that its [[president]] be Christian and its [[prime minister]] be Muslim.
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Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a [[Lebanon crisis of 1958|civil conflict in 1958]]) interspersed with prosperity built on [[Beirut|Beirut's]] position as a regional center for finance and trade.
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===1948 Arab-Israeli war===
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[[Image:1948 arab israeli war - May15-June10.jpg|300px|Attacks 15 May–10 June, 1948.]]
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Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and invaded [[Israel]] during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. It took over logistical support of the [[Arab Liberation Army]] after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed [[Jewish State]]. After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in [[Operation Hiram]], Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel and the subsequent war. The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the [[Six Day War]] in 1967.
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===Civil war===
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[[Image:beirut_old.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Building damaged during the 1975-1990 civil war]]
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In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The [[Lebanese Civil War]] lasted 15 years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the [[Taif Agreement]] and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.
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During the civil war, Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) in 1978 and 1982. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Barak]], to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|blue line]] was in accordance with [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]], although a border region called the [[Shebaa Farms]] is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.
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After the end of the civil war, Lebanon saw a period of relative calm until the [[2006 Lebanon War]].
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===Assassinations===
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[[Image:Hariri2002.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Rafik Hariri (1944-2005)]]
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On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]] was assassinated in a car bomb explosion. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused [[Syria]] of the attack, due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and [[Damascus]] over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President [[Émile Lahoud|Lahoud's]] term in office. Syria denied any involvement. Others, namely the Forces of March 8 and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American [[CIA]] or the Israeli [[Mossad]] in an attempt to destabilize the country. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of a number of  prominent Lebanese figures.
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===Investigation===
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The [[United Nations Security Council]] unanimously adopted [[Resolution 1595]] on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the [[Mehlis report]]. The report suggested the assassination was carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s movements.
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The vehicle used for the explosion was a Mitsubishi Fuso Canter stolen in Japan, and was most likely detonated by a suicide bomber. The [[United Nations Security Council]] and the Lebanese cabinet have approved a [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]] that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's death. 
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===Cedar Revolution===
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The Cedar Revolution was a chain of demonstrations and popular civic action, especially in Beirut, triggered by the [[assassin]]ation of former |Lebanese Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]] on February 14, 2005.
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On February 28, 2005, with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister [[Omar Karami]] and his Cabinet resigned. In response, [[Hezbollah]] organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of people, which was staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting [[Syria]] and accusing [[Israel]] and the [[United States]] of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.
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On March 14, 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around one million people. Protesters marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.
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In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damage was mostly material, these acts threatened to drag Lebanon back into sectarian strife.
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Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. On April 27, 2005, the Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal.
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===Elections===
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During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of [[Sunni]] Muslim, [[Druze]] and [[Christian]] parties led by [[Saad Hariri]], son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]], won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The [[Free Patriotic Movement]] (FPM), though not allied with the [[Rafik Hariri Martyr List]] during the elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.
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The anti-Syrian coalition did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General [[Michel Aoun]]'s [[Free Patriotic Movement]] party in [[Mount Lebanon Governorate|Mount Lebanon]].
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After the elections, Hariri's [[Future Movement]] party, the country's dominant political force, nominated [[Fouad Siniora]], a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister. On July 18, 2005, Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free [[Samir Geagea]], leader of the Christian [[Lebanese Forces]], who had spent most of the past 11 years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President [[Émile Lahoud]] the next day.
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===2006 Lebanon War===
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[[Image:Locations bombed Aug13 no fact box.jpg|rihght|thumb|250px|Areas in Lebanon targeted by Israeli bombing ([[12 July]] to [[13 August]] [[2006]])]]
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The conflict began with a cross-border Hezbollah raid and shelling of Israel, which resulted in the capture of two and killing of eight Israeli soldiers. Israel held the Lebanese government responsible for the attack, as it was carried out from Lebanese territory, and initiated an air and naval [[blockade]], [[airstrike]]s across much of the country on July 12, 2006,, and ground incursions into [[southern Lebanon]]. The fighting quickly escalated into 33 days of "open war" and ultimately led to the death of 1191 Lebanese and 44 Israeli civilians.
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Fighting came to end on August 14, three days after [[UN Security Council Resolution 1701]]—which called for an immediate cessation of hostilities—was passed.  Israel, however, maintained a naval and aerial blockade on Lebanon in a measure meant to prevent Hezbollah from [[smuggling]] arms. The blockade was lifted on September 8, and by early December, all Israeli troops had withdrawn from Lebanon.
  
 
==Administrative divisions==
 
==Administrative divisions==
Line 227: Line 307:
 
Lebanon's judicial system is based on the [[Napoleonic Code]]. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for [[Civil marriage]] (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former [[List of Presidents of Lebanon|President]] [[Elias Hrawi]] to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from [[Muslim]] clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.<ref>US Department of State (2006). [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61693.html "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005: Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 17, 2006.</ref> These military courts have been criticized by [[human rights]] organizations such as [[Amnesty International]] for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".<ref>Amnesty International (2005). [http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engmde180052005 "A Human Rights Agenda for the Parliamentary Elections, Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 17, 2006.</ref>
 
Lebanon's judicial system is based on the [[Napoleonic Code]]. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for [[Civil marriage]] (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former [[List of Presidents of Lebanon|President]] [[Elias Hrawi]] to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from [[Muslim]] clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.<ref>US Department of State (2006). [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2005/61693.html "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005: Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 17, 2006.</ref> These military courts have been criticized by [[human rights]] organizations such as [[Amnesty International]] for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".<ref>Amnesty International (2005). [http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engmde180052005 "A Human Rights Agenda for the Parliamentary Elections, Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 17, 2006.</ref>
  
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==History==
 
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{{main|History of Lebanon}}
 
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<!--Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Alexander_Causeway_in_Tyre.jpg|thumb|Ruins in the ancient Phoenician city of Tyre]]—>
 
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[[Image:Tomb_in_Tyre_(small).JPG|frame|right|Inscription in Greek on one of the tombs found in the Roman-Byzantine necropolis in Tyre]]
 
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===Ancient history===
 
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{{main|History of ancient Lebanon}}
 
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The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 B.C.E. Archaeologists have discovered in [[Byblos]], which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[http://destinationlebanon.gov.lb/eng/Byblos/History.asp]
 
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Lebanon was the homeland of the [[Phoenicians]], a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of [[Cyrus the Great]].<ref>About.com (1987).[http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_lebanonphoenicians.htm "Lebanon in Ancient Times"]. Retrieved December 17, 2006.</ref> After two centuries of Persian rule, [[Alexander the Great]] attacked and burned [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]], the leading Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them [[Persian Empire|Persian]], [[Macedonian Empire|Greco-Macedonian]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Arab Empire|Arab]], [[Crusader States|Crusader]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]].
 
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===French mandate and independence===
 
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{{main|French Mandate of Lebanon}}
 
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{{History of the Levant}}
 
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Lebanon was part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] for over 400 years, in a region known as [[Greater Syria]],<ref>U.S. Library of Congress. [http://countrystudies.us/syria/2.htm "History: Present-Day Syria"]. Retrieved May 2, 2007.</ref> until 1916 when the area became a part of the [[French Mandate of Syria]] following [[World War I]]. On [[September 1]], [[1920]], France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within [[Syria]].<ref>Chorbishop Seely Beggiani (2005). [http://www.stmaron.org/marhist11.html "Aspects of Maronite History (Part Eleven) The twentieth century in the Middle East"]. Retrieved January 24, 2007.</ref> Lebanon was a largely [[Christian]] (mainly [[Maronite]]) enclave but also included areas containing many [[Muslims]] and [[Druzes]]. On [[September 1]], [[1926]], France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria.
 
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Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by [[Germany]].<ref>Lebanese Global Information Center. [http://www.lgic.org/en/history_lebanon1516.php "History of Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 9, 2006.</ref> General [[Henri Dentz]], the [[Vichy]] [[High Commissioner]] for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in [[1941]] allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through [[Syria]] to [[Iraq]] where they were used against British forces. The [[United Kingdom]], fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and [[Syria]] by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
 
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[[Image:Lebanese French flag.svg|thumb|200px|left|The flag of [[Greater Lebanon]] (1920-1943)]]
 
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After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General [[Charles de Gaulle]] visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On [[26 November]] [[1941]] General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the [[Free French]] government. Elections were held in 1943 and on [[November 8]], [[1943]] the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on [[22 November]] [[1943]] and accepted the independence of Lebanon.
 
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The [[Allies of World War II|allies]] kept the region under control until the end of [[World War II]]. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten [[National Pact]] of 1943 required that its [[president]] be Christian and its [[prime minister]] be Muslim.
 
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Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a [[Lebanon crisis of 1958|civil conflict in 1958]]) interspersed with prosperity built on [[Beirut|Beirut's]] position as a regional center for finance and trade.
 
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===1948 Arab-Israeli war===
 
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{{main|1948 Arab-Israeli war}}
 
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Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and invaded [[Israel]].<ref name="karsh">Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763721, p. 27</ref>  during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. It took over logistical support of the [[Arab Liberation Army]] after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed [[Jewish State]].<ref name="karsh"/> After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in [[Operation Hiram]],<ref>Avi Shlaim. [http://www.fathom.com/course/72810001/session5.html "Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948"]. Retrieved December 9, 2006.</ref> Lebanon accepted an [[armistice]] with Israel on [[23 March]] [[1949]]. Approximately 100,000 [[Palestinian refugees]] were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel and the subsequent war.<ref>[[Amnesty International]]. [http://web.amnesty.org/pages/369-270306-feature-eng "Palestinian refugees in Lebanon"]. Retrieved November 14, 2006.</ref> The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the [[Six Day War]] in [[1967]].
 
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===Civil war and beyond===
 
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{{main|Lebanese civil war}}
 
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{{seealso|1982 Lebanon war}}
 
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[[Image:beirut_old.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Building damaged during the 1975-1990 civil war]]
 
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In [[1975]], civil war broke out in Lebanon. The [[Lebanese Civil War]] lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed.<ref>''Time'' (1991). [http://www.cedarland.org/time.html#9 "After the War, the Mop-Up"]. Retrieved November 30, 2006.</ref> The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the [[Taif Agreement]] and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.<ref>Council on Foreign Relations (2006). [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20061101faessay85602/paul-salem/the-future-of-lebanon.html "The Future of Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 18, 2006.</ref>
 
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During the civil war, Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) in 1978 and 1982.<ref>People's Daily (2000). [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/english/200008/10/eng20000810_47889.html "Lebanese Troops Patrol Near Fatma Gate Along Border With Israel"]. Retrieved December 18, 2006.</ref> Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Barak]], to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence.<ref>Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000).[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Speeches+by+Israeli+leaders/2000/Withdrawal+from+Lebanon-+Press+Briefing+by+FM+Levy.htm "Withdrawal from Lebanon: Press Briefing by Foreign Minister David Levy"]. Retrieved November 1, 2006.</ref> The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|blue line]] was in accordance with [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]], although a border region called the [[Shebaa Farms]] is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.<ref>[http://english.aljazeera.net/English/archive/archive?ArchiveId=11545 The key to Shebaa], [[Al-Jazeera]] online, retrieved April 1, 2007. </ref><!-- Commenting these out until we can get some clarification – Neither reference says anything about the previous statement. [http://switch3.castup.net/cunet/gm.asp?ai=214&ar=1150wmv&ak=null][http://switch3.castup.net/cunet/gm.asp?ai=214&ar=684wmv&ak=null]—>
 
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After the end of the civil war, Lebanon saw a period of relative calm until the [[2006 Lebanon War]].
 
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==Recent events==
 
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===Cedar Revolution===
 
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{{main|Cedar Revolution}}
 
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====Assassinations====
 
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[[Image:Hariri2002.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Rafik Hariri (1944-2005)]]
 
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On [[14 February]] [[2005]] former Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]] was assassinated in a [[car bomb]] explosion.<ref>Hariri.info (2005). [http://www.hariri.info/ "Rafik Hariri"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref> Leaders of the [[March 14 Alliance]] accused [[Syria]] of the attack,<ref name="Syria-assassin">CBC News Indepth (2006). [http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/lebanon/lebanon_syria.html "Recent background on Syria's presence in Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref> due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and [[Damascus]] over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President [[Émile Lahoud|Lahoud's]] term in office. Syria denied any involvement.<ref name="Syria-assassin" /> Others, namely the Forces of March 8 and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American [[CIA]] or the Israeli [[Mossad]] in an attempt to destabilize the country.<ref> See [http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA21005 this MEMRI bulletin], includes several statements and sources.</ref>
 
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The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures. On [[June 3]], 2005, the journalist and historian [[Samir Kassir]], also a founding member of the [[Democratic Left (Lebanon)|Democratic Left Movement]] was assassinated by a car bomb.<ref>UNESCO-CI. [http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=19265&URL_DO=DO_PRINTPAGE&URL_SECTION=201.html "Samir Kassir"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref> Less than one month later, on [[June 21]], 2005, [[George Hawi]], the former Secretary General of the [[Lebanese Communist Party]] was also assassinated by a car bomb in [[Beirut]].<ref>Nur al-Cubicle (2005). [http://nuralcubicle.blogspot.com/2005/06/biography-of-george-hawi-georges-haoui.html "Biography of George Hawi (Georges Haoui)"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref>
 
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On [[September 25]], 2005, there was a failed assassination attempt on a [[Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation]] news anchor, in which [[May Chidiac]] lost her left leg below the knee and received severe injuries to her left arm, later resulting in the amputation of her left hand.<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4521178.stm "Timeline: Lebanon explosions"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref> She later won the [[UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize]] in 2006.<ref>The Arab Press Network (2006). [http://www.arabpressnetwork.org/articles.php?id=638 "May Chidiac Wins UNESCO Press Freedom Award"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref> Editor-in-chief and CEO of the [[An-Nahar]] newspaper, journalist [[Gebran Tueni]], was assassinated by a car bomb in the suburbs of Beirut on [[December 12]], 2005.<ref> The Daily Star (2005). [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=2&article_id=20719 "Gibran Tueni assassinated by car bomb"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref>
 
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====Investigation and proposed UN tribunal====
 
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The [[United Nations Security Council]] unanimously adopted [[Resolution 1595]] on [[April 7]], 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.<ref>[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8353.doc.htm "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005)"].</ref> The findings of the investigation were officially published on [[20 October]], 2005 in the [[Mehlis report]].<ref>[[United Nations Security Council]] (2005). [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAl.NSF/fd807e46661e3689852570d00069e918/308be5d60f79289b852570a5005d0d00!OpenDocument "Letter dated 20 October 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council"]. Retrieved November 2, 2006.</ref> The report suggested the assassination was carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s movements.<ref>Al Bab (2005). [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/lebanon/mehlis05.htm#Conclusions "The Mehlis report, 2005: full text"]. Retrieved December 10, 2006.</ref>
 
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International forensic teams identified the vehicle used for the explosion as a [[Mitsubishi Fuso Canter|Mitsubishi Canter]] stolen on [[12 October]], 2004 in [[Sagamihara, Kanagawa|Sagamihara]], Japan.<ref name="consort-assassin">Consortiumnews.com (2005). [http://www.consortiumnews.com/2005/102205.html "The Dangerously Incomplete Hariri Report"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> They also concluded that the explosion was most likely detonated by a suicide bomber.<ref name="consort-assassin" /> This investigation into the Hariri assassination is ongoing and has yet to be concluded. On [[17 January]], 2006 the UN appointed [[Serge Brammertz]] to continue the investigation;<ref>FPS Foreign Affairs (2006). [http://www.diplomatie.be/en/press/homedetails.asp?TEXTID=47559 "Serge Brammertz appointed head of the UN International Independent Investigation Commission"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> the report from this investigation has yet to be published.
 
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The [[United Nations Security Council]] and the Lebanese [[cabinet]] have approved a [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]] that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's death.  As of [[6 February]], 2006, however, the Lebanese government has still not ratified the tribunal.<ref>[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21477&Cr=leban&Cr1= ''Hariri murder tribunal awaits approval after UN and Lebanon sign deal'']</ref>
 
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====Demonstrations====
 
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On [[28 February]] [[2005]], with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister [[Omar Karami]] and his Cabinet resigned.<ref>CNN (2005). [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/02/28/lebanon.protests/ "Lebanon's pro-Syrian PM resigns"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> In response, [[Hezbollah]] organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of people,<ref name="protest">A great deal of controversy surrounds the exact numbers of the participants in the March 2005 demonstrations; reported numbers thus vary widely by source.</ref><ref>The Washington Post (2005). [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A16165-2005Mar8.html "Syria Supporters Rally in Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> which was staged on [[March 8]] in Beirut, supporting [[Syria]] and accusing [[Israel]] and the [[United States]] of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.
 
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On [[March 14]], 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around 1 million people.<ref name="protest"/><ref>FOX News (2005). [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,150333,00.html "Up to One Million Lebanese Protesters Mark Hariri Killing"]. Retrieved November 2, 2006.</ref> Protesters marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.
 
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In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut.<ref>BBC News (2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4385265.stm "Bomb hits Beirut's Christian area"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> Although the damage was mostly material, these acts threatened to drag Lebanon back into [[sectarian strife]].
 
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Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.<ref>BBC News (2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4342705.stm "Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> By [[April 26]], 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.<ref>CNN (2005). [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/ "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref> On [[April 27]], 2005, the Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces led by [[Senegalese]] [[Brigadier General|Brig. Gen.]] [[Mouhamadou Kandji]] and [[Lebanese]] [[Brigadier General|Brig. Gen.]] [[Imad Anka]] were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by [[UN Security Council Resolution 1559]].<ref>Guardian Unlimited (2005). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/syria/story/0,13031,1470641,00.html#article_continue "Ceremony marks departure of last Syrian troops"]. Retrieved December 11, 2006.</ref>
 
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====Elections====
 
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During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of [[Sunni]] Muslim, [[Druze]] and [[Christian]] parties led by [[Saad Hariri]], son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister [[Rafik Hariri]], won a majority of seats in the new Parliament.<ref>The Jerusalem Post (2005). [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-110222424.html "Opposition sweeps Lebanon's elections"]. Retrieved December 12, 2006.</ref> The [[Free Patriotic Movement]] (FPM), though not allied with the [[Rafik Hariri Martyr List]] during the elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.<ref>International Herald Tribune (2005). [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/06/13/africa/web.0613lebanon.php "Aoun scores upset win in Lebanese elections"]. Retrieved December 12, 2006.</ref>
 
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The political alliances were interesting in that in some areas the anti-Syrian coalition allied with [[Hezbollah]] and in others with [[Amal Party (Lebanon)|Amal]]. They did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General [[Michel Aoun]]'s [[Free Patriotic Movement]] party in [[Mount Lebanon Governorate|Mount Lebanon]]. Despite being staunchly anti-Syrian during his 15-year exile, upon his return Aoun aligned himself with politicians who were friendly to the Syrians in the past decade: [[Soleiman Franjieh Jr]] and [[Michel Murr]]. Their alliance dominated the north and the [[Matn District]] of Mount Lebanon. Saad Hariri and [[Walid Jumblatt]] joined forces with the two staunchly pro-Syrian Shiite movements, Hezbollah and Amal, to secure major wins in the South, Beqaa, as well as the Baabda and Aley districts of Mount Lebanon. This alliance proved temporary. On [[6 February]] [[2006]] Hezbollah signed an [[understanding of disarmament]] with Michel Aoun, the leader of the Free Patriotic Movement.
 
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After the elections, Hariri's [[Future Movement]] party, now the country's dominant political force, nominated [[Fouad Siniora]], a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister.<ref>BBC News (2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4641865.stm "Profile: Fouad Siniora"]. Retrieved December 21, 2006.</ref> His newly formed representative government has obtained the vote of confidence from the parliament.
 
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On [[July 18]], [[2005]], Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free [[Samir Geagea]], leader of the Christian [[Lebanese Forces]],<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4716701.stm "Lebanese ex-warlord is released"]. Retrieved December 21, 2006.</ref> who had spent most of the past eleven years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news.<ref>MSNBC (July 26, 2005). [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8708058/ "Lebanon ex-warlord freed after 11 years"]. Retrieved December 21, 2006.</ref> The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President [[Émile Lahoud]] the next day.<ref>Iran Daily (2005). [http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2334/html/politic.htm#s79338 "Geagea Free"]. Retrieved December 21, 2006.</ref>
 
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===2006 Lebanon War===
 
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{{main|2006 Lebanon War}}
 
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[[Image:Locations bombed Aug13 no fact box.jpg|rihght|thumb|250px|Areas in Lebanon targeted by Israeli bombing ([[12 July]] to [[13 August]] [[2006]])]]
 
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On [[July 12]], 2006, following an operation executed by [[Hezbollah]] militants on Israeli territory, Israel launched a massive [[military operation]] against the Lebanon-based Hezbollah. The fighting quickly escalated into 33 days of "open war" and ultimately led to the death of 1,191 Lebanese and 44 Israeli civilians.<ref name=NasrallahDeclaresOpenWar>{{cite news|title=Israel, Hezbollah Vow Wider War|publisher=The Washington Post|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/14/AR2006071400385.html}}</ref><ref name="toll">{{cite web
 
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|url = http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia_near_east/middle_east/
 
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|title = Humanitarian Assistance to Lebanon
 
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|accessdate = 2006-11-18
 
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|date = [[November 3]] [[2006]]
 
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|publisher = [[United States Agency for International Development]] Disaster Assistance
 
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}}</ref> Over the course of the war 4,409 were injured in Lebanon and nearly a million were displaced.<ref name="toll" />
 
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Fighting came to end on [[August 14]], three days after [[UN Security Council Resolution 1701]]&mdash;which called for an immediate cessation of hostilities&mdash;was passed.<ref name="ceasefire-news">CNN (2006). [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/meast/08/14/mideast.main/index.html "Lebanon truce holds despite clashes"]. Retrieved December 7, 2006.</ref> Israel, however, maintained a naval and aerial [[blockade]] on Lebanon in a measure meant to prevent Hezbollah from [[smuggling]] arms.<ref name="blockade">New York Times (September 9, 2006). [http://travel2.nytimes.com/2006/09/09/world/middleeast/09lebanon.html "Israel Ends Its Blockade of Lebanon’s Coastline"]. Retrieved January 25, 2007.</ref> The blockade was lifted on [[September 8]], and by early December, all Israeli troops had withdrawn from Lebanon.<ref name="blocakde" /><ref>Reuters (December 3, 2006). [http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L03210046.htm "Israel to quit Lebanon border village -officials"]. Retrieved December 3, 2006.</ref>
 
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==

Revision as of 05:33, 20 May 2007

الجمهورية اللبنانية
Al-Jumhūriyyah al-Lubnāniyyah
Lebanese Republic
Flag of Lebanon Coat of arms of Lebanon
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Kūllūnā li-l-waṭan, li-l-'ula wa-l-'alam (Arabic)
"We are all for the Country, the Sublime and the Flag!"
Anthem: Kulluna lil-watan lil 'ula lil-'alam
Location of Lebanon
Capital  Beirut
33°54′N 35°32′E
Largest city capital
Official languages Arabic
Government Republic
 - President Émile Lahoud
 - Prime Minister Fouad Siniora
Independence  
 - Declared November 26 1941 
 - Recognized November 22 1943 
Area
 - Total 10,452 km² (166th)
4,035 sq mi 
 - Water (%) 1.6
Population
 - July 2007 (estimate) estimate 3,925,502
 - Density 358/km²
948/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2005 estimate
 - Total $24.42 billion
 - Per capita 6,681
HDI  (2006) 0.774 (medium)
Currency Lebanese lira (LL) (LBP)
Time zone EET (UTC+2)
 - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
Internet TLD .lb
Calling code +961

Lebanon (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية), is a small, largely mountainous country in the Middle East, located at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea.

Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon follows a special political system, known as confessionalism, meant to distribute power as evenly as possible among different sects.

Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. It was considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East" due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists, to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."

Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete, and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts.

However, the 2006 Lebanon War brought civilian and military casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement. Since September 2006, the Lebanese government has been implementing an early recovery plan aimed at reconstructing property destroyed by Israeli attacks in Beirut, Tyre, and other villages in southern Lebanon.

Geography

Map of Lebanon

The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnan" or "Lebnèn" in local dialect) is derived from the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as white and milk. This is regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the 12 tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and the Bible.[1] The word Lebanon is also mentioned 71 times in the Old Testament.

Lebanon is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations.

Lebanon is a narrow strip of territory approximately 135 miles (215 kilometres) long from north to south and 20 to 55 miles wide from east to west. The country has a total area of 4035 square miles (10,452 square kilometres) making it the 166th largest country in the world, or nearly the size of Connecticut in the United States.

Faraya, Mount Lebanon. Taken by Youmna Medlej.

The terrain comprises five ribbon-like topographical areas stretching from North to South. The shoreline, which is 210km long, consists mostly of rocks towards the north, and sand in the south, with some headlands, bays, and offshore islands. The coastal plain is surrounded by sea and mountains, and is rather narrow at two or three kilometers wide. There are the West Mountains, the Beqaa valley, an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture, and the East Mountains. The highest point is Qurnat as Sawda' at 10, 131 feet (3088 meters).

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy while summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below 32°F (0°C) during the winter with frequent (sometimes heavy) snow. Summers, on the other hand, are warm at 100° F (38°C) and dry. Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.

Although the country is well watered and there are many rivers and streams, there are no navigable rivers, nor is any one river the sole source of irrigation water. The Biqa Valley is watered by two rivers that rise in the watershed near Baalbek: the Orontes flowing north, and the Litani flowing south into the hill region of the southern Biqa Valley, where it makes an abrupt turn to the west in southern Lebanon and is thereafter called the Al Qasmiyah River.

Beirut, the Mediterranean, and snow-capped Mount Sannine

In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Lebanon cedar, which now serve as the country's national emblem. However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.

Natural hazards include dust storms and sandstorms. Environmental issues include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.

Beirut is the capital, largest city, and chief seaport of Lebanon. It is sometimes referred to by its French name, Beyrouth. There are wide-ranging estimates of Beirut's population, from as low as 938,940 people to 1,303,129 people. Other cities are Tyre, an ancient Phoenician city in the south (population 117,100), and Sidon, another ancient city.

History

The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 b.c.e.. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7000 years ago.

The Phoenicians

Phoenician sarcophagus found in Cadiz, Spain; now in Archaeological Museum of Cádiz. The sarcophagus is thought to have been designed and paid for by a Phoenician merchant, and made in Greece with Egyptian influence.

The coastal plain of Lebanon is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic culture, which the Greeks termed Phoenicia, whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2000 years (c. 2700 B.C.E.– 450 B.C.E.). Ancient ruins in Byblos, Berytus (Beirut), Sidon, Sarepta, and Tyre show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts. The territory was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures. Its people roamed the Mediterranean seas, skilled in trade and in art, and founded trading colonies. They were also the creators of the oldest known 24-letter alphabet, a shortening of earlier 30-letter alphabets such as Proto-Sinaitic and Ugaritic.

Phoenicia maintained an uneasy tributary relationship with the neo-Assyrian and neo-Babylonian empires. Cyrus the Great conquered Phoenicia in 539 B.C.E. Phoenicia was divided into four vassal kingdoms by the Persians: Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos, and prospered, furnishing fleets for the Persian kings.

Greeks and Romans

The Triumphal Arch It was added to the empire of Alexander the Great, who notably conquered Tyre (332 B.C.E.) by extending a still-extant causeway from the mainland in a seven-month effort. It fell to the Seleucid Empire (323 B.C.E. to 60 B.C.E.) after Alexander's death. The area was conquered by the Roman Empire in the first century B.C.E., was dominated by the Byzantine, then the Greek-speaking Roman Empire centered around its capital of Constantinople (306 C.E. – 1095 C.E.). Christianity was introduced to Phoenicia from neighboring Galilee soon after the time of Jesus of Nazareth.

Arab rule and the Middle Ages

The Arab advances brought Islam soon after the death of Islam's Prophet Muhammad. Muslim influence increased greatly in the seventh century when the Umayyad capital was established at nearby Damascus. During the Middle Ages, Lebanon was heavily involved in the Crusades. Lebanon was in the main path of the First Crusade's advance on Jerusalem. Later, Frankish nobles occupied present-day Lebanon as part of the southeastern Crusader States. The southern half of present-day Lebanon formed the northern march of the Kingdom of Jerusalem; the northern half was the heartland of the County of Tripoli. Although Saladin eliminated Christian control of the Holy Land around 1190, the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended.

Mamluks and Ottomans

Muslim control of Lebanon was re-established in the late 13th century under the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. Lebanon was later contested between Muslim rulers until the Ottoman Empire solidified authority over the eastern Mediterranean. Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast became important for its contacts and trades with Venice and other Italian city-states. Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria, until 1916

The mountainous territory of Mount Lebanon has long been a shelter for minority and persecuted groups, including its historic Maronite Christian majority along with Druze, and local Shi'a Muslims. It was an autonomous Maronite region of the Ottoman empire.

French mandate

The area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria. Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria.

World War II

The flag of Greater Lebanon (1920-1943)

The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

Independence

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943, and accepted the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.

1948 Arab-Israeli war

Attacks 15 May–10 June, 1948. Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon joined its fellow Arab states and invaded Israel during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while attempting an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State. After the defeat of the Arab Liberation Army in Operation Hiram, Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel and the subsequent war. The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.

Civil war

Building damaged during the 1975-1990 civil war

In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted 15 years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed. The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.

During the civil war, Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence. The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.

After the end of the civil war, Lebanon saw a period of relative calm until the 2006 Lebanon War.

Assassinations

File:Hariri2002.jpg
Rafik Hariri (1944-2005)

On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion. Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack, due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud's term in office. Syria denied any involvement. Others, namely the Forces of March 8 and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American CIA or the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country. The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of a number of prominent Lebanese figures.

Investigation

The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri. The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report. The report suggested the assassination was carried out by a group with considerable resources, that it had been prepared many months in advance, and that the group had detailed knowledge of Hariri’s movements.

The vehicle used for the explosion was a Mitsubishi Fuso Canter stolen in Japan, and was most likely detonated by a suicide bomber. The United Nations Security Council and the Lebanese cabinet have approved a Special Tribunal for Lebanon that would prosecute those responsible for Hariri's death.

Cedar Revolution

The Cedar Revolution was a chain of demonstrations and popular civic action, especially in Beirut, triggered by the assassination of former |Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on February 14, 2005.

On February 28, 2005, with over 50,000 people demonstrating in Martyrs' Square, Prime Minister Omar Karami and his Cabinet resigned. In response, Hezbollah organized a large counter-demonstration attended by hundreds of thousands of people, which was staged on March 8 in Beirut, supporting Syria and accusing Israel and the United States of meddling in internal Lebanese affairs.

On March 14, 2005, one month after Hariri's assassination, throngs of people rallied in Martyrs' Square in Lebanon with around one million people. Protesters marched demanding the truth about Hariri's murder and independence from Syrian presence in Lebanon. The march reiterated their desire for a sovereign, democratic, and unified country, free of Syria's hegemony.

In the weeks following the demonstrations, bombs were detonated in Christian areas near Beirut. Although the damage was mostly material, these acts threatened to drag Lebanon back into sectarian strife.

Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon. By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria. On April 27, 2005, the Lebanese celebrated their first free-from-Syria day. UN forces were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal.

Elections

During the first parliamentary elections held after Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon in May 2005, the anti-Syrian coalition of Sunni Muslim, Druze and Christian parties led by Saad Hariri, son of assassinated ex-Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, won a majority of seats in the new Parliament. The Free Patriotic Movement (FPM), though not allied with the Rafik Hariri Martyr List during the elections, garnered strong representation in the newly elected Parliament.

The anti-Syrian coalition did not win the two-thirds majority required to force the resignation of Syrian-appointed President Lahoud voted for by Rafik Hariri parliamentary bloc, due to the unexpectedly strong showing of formerly exiled General Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement party in Mount Lebanon.

After the elections, Hariri's Future Movement party, the country's dominant political force, nominated Fouad Siniora, a former Finance Minister, to be Prime Minister. On July 18, 2005, Lebanon elected a new parliament dominated by an anti-Syrian coalition. This parliament approved a motion to free Samir Geagea, leader of the Christian Lebanese Forces, who had spent most of the past 11 years in solitary confinement in an underground cell with no access to news. The motion was endorsed by pro-Syrian Lebanese President Émile Lahoud the next day.

2006 Lebanon War

Areas in Lebanon targeted by Israeli bombing (12 July to 13 August 2006)

The conflict began with a cross-border Hezbollah raid and shelling of Israel, which resulted in the capture of two and killing of eight Israeli soldiers. Israel held the Lebanese government responsible for the attack, as it was carried out from Lebanese territory, and initiated an air and naval blockade, airstrikes across much of the country on July 12, 2006,, and ground incursions into southern Lebanon. The fighting quickly escalated into 33 days of "open war" and ultimately led to the death of 1191 Lebanese and 44 Israeli civilians.

Fighting came to end on August 14, three days after UN Security Council Resolution 1701—which called for an immediate cessation of hostilities—was passed. Israel, however, maintained a naval and aerial blockade on Lebanon in a measure meant to prevent Hezbollah from smuggling arms. The blockade was lifted on September 8, and by early December, all Israeli troops had withdrawn from Lebanon.

Administrative divisions

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[2] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: Template:Lebanon Labelled Map

Beirut Governorate

The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut.

Nabatiyeh Governorate (Jabal Amel) - 4 districts
  • Nabatieh
  • Hasbaya
  • Marjeyoun
  • Bint Jbeil
Beqaa Governorate - 5 districts
  • Hermel
  • Baalbek
  • Zahle
  • Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi)
  • Rashaya
 North Governorate (al-Shamal) - 7 districts
  • Akkar
  • Tripoli
  • Zgharta
  • Bsharri
  • Batroun
  • Koura
  • Miniyeh-Danniyeh
Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan) - 6 districts
  • Jbeil
  • Kesrwan
  • Matn
  • Baabda
  • Aley
  • Chouf
 South Governorate (al-Janoub) - 3 districts
  • Sidon (Saida)
  • Tyre (Sur)
  • Jezzine

Demographics

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance.[3] It is estimated that about 40% are Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite Greek Catholics, Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic), 35% are Shia Muslims, 21% are Sunni Muslims and 5% are Druze.[4] A small minority of Jews live in central Beirut, Byblos, and Bhamdoun. Lebanon has a population of Kurds (also known as Mhallami or Mardinli), of whom are converted Syriacs estimated to be between 75,000 and 100,000 and considered to be part of the Sunni population.[5]

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006.[4] There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese descent spread all over the world, Brazil being the country with the biggest Lebanese community abroad.[6] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela and the USA also have large Lebanese communities.

A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (unrwa) since 1948.[7]

Economy

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[8] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[9] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arab countries.[10]

Agriculture

Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world.[11] Ironically though, Lebanon does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,[12] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors.[13]

Industry

Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[12] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[13]

Services and commerce

The Kadisha Valley is a World Heritage Site

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)[12] have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[13]

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, since this renders the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

Historical development

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepôt and banking hub.[4] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[14]

Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.[15] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon has already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.[15] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag

Beirut International airport re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged),[16] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[17] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[18]

Education

Schools

All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,[19] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are Mathematics, Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Arabic, and French, English or both. Other rotating teachers within the school teach Physical Education, Art, and at times library use. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": Sciences or Humanities, and 12th graders choice between four concentrations: Life Sciences (SV), General Sciences (SG), Sociology and Economics (SE), and Humanities and Literature (LH). The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

  • Elementary : six years.
  • Intermediate: three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
  • Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade.

These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory.[20] Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Higher education

Following high school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies.

While the Lebanese educational system offers a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad. You can find successful Lebanese engineers, doctors, businessmen, etc. practically all over the world.

Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.[21][22] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first English and the first French universities to open in Lebanon respectively.[23][24] The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.[25]

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II.

Culture

File:Phoenician colonies.jpg
Phoenicia and its colonies

Overview

The area including modern Lebanon has been for thousands of years a melting pot of various civilizations and cultures. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine - and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Middle East, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate.[26] Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. Not only is Lebanon a distinctive fusion of Christian and Muslim traditions unequaled in the rest of the region, it also serves as the European gateway to the Middle East as well as the Arab gateway to the Western World.[27]

The Triumphal Arch in Tyre

Languages

Arabic is the official language of Lebanon.[28] French, too, is widely spoken and was an official language during the French mandate (which lasted until 1943). Spoken Lebanese is quite different from the standard written Arabic language which is taught in schools along with the other foreign languages. English has become very popular in recent years as well,[28] especially among university students, as a second or sometimes third language. Armenian is the native tongue of the Armenian Lebanese in Lebanon.[29]

Cuisine

The Lebanese cuisine combines the sophistication of European cuisines with the exotic ingredients of the Middle East.[30] Some of the most popular local dishes include Kibbeh—a lamb-and-cracked-wheat dish, often grilled or fried—and Tabbouleh, a salad made with cracked wheat, finely chopped parsley, tomato, onions and olive oil.[31] The Lebanese also enjoy eating food from many different regions;[31] fast food has also gained widespread popularity, especially among the Lebanese youth.

Arts and literature

Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek

In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.[32]

In art, Moustapha Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Charles Khoury is also a very known artist, and he has been awarded many national and international prizes.

Festivals

Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.

Politics

Template:Politics of Lebanon

Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.[33] This system, meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim.[34][35]

The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'Étoile

This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided in half between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[34] According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right.

The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years.[36] This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.[37]

The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding).[38] Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.[39] These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".[40]


See also

Portal:Lebanon
 Lebanon Portal
  • Cities and villages in Lebanon
  • Communications in Lebanon
  • Military of Lebanon
  • Shebaa Farms
  • South Lebanon conflict
  • Transport in Lebanon
  • List of Lebanese Banks
  • List of Lebanese people
  • List of Lebanon-related topics
  • List of universities in Lebanon
  • Gay rights in Lebanon

References and footnotes

  1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named name-origin
  2. ↑ USAID Lebanon. "USAID Lebanon—Definitions of Terms used". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  3. ↑ Country Studies. "Lebanon Population". Retrieved November 25, 2006.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 7, 2006.
  5. ↑ International Journal of Kurdish Studies, Jan, 2002 by Lokman I. Meho "The Kurds in Lebanon: a social and historical overview"
  6. ↑ Marina Sarruf (2006). "Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon". Retrieved November 30, 2006.
  7. ↑ UNRWA (December 31, 2003). "UNRWA: Palestinian Refugees". Retrieved November 25, 2006.
  8. ↑ U.S. Department of State (1994) Header: People, 4th paragraph. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  9. ↑ Background Note: Lebanon "www.washingtoninstitute.org" Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  10. ↑ United Nations Population Fund."Lebanon - Overview". Retrieved November 9, 2006.
  11. ↑ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, U.S.A. 1986-1988. [1]. Retrieved December 2, 2006.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Jean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11, 110-114. Beirut: Dar Habib.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 1, 2006.
  14. ↑ CIA World Factbook 2001. Retrieved 2006-12-04.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Bank Audi (2006). "Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd Quarter, 2006". Retrieved November 27, 2005.
  16. ↑ Cyprus News (2006). "Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon's Reconstruction". Retrieved November 26, 2006.
  17. ↑ Lebanon Under Siege (2006). "Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon". Retrieved November 26, 2006.
  18. ↑ Ain-Al-Yaqeen (2006). "The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon...". Retrieved November 27, 2006.
  19. ↑ Samidoun (2006). "Aid groups scramble to fix buildings, fill backpacks before school bell rings". Retrieved December 9, 2006.
  20. ↑ US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  21. ↑ Infopro Management. "Lebanon Opportunities - Business Information". Retrieved January 30, 2007.
  22. ↑ (Arabic)Lebanese Directory of Higher Education. "Decrees". Retrieved January 30, 2007.
  23. ↑ eIFL.net Regional Workshop (2005). "Country Report: Lebanon". Retrieved December 14, 2006.
  24. ↑ Université Saint-Joseph. "125 years of history - A timeline". Retrieved December 8, 2006.
  25. ↑ Yalla!. "Yalla! Students". Retrieved December 15, 2006.
  26. ↑ Lebanon CIA World Fact Book. [2]. December 18, 2006.
  27. ↑ Lebanon Culture. [3]. December 18, 2006.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Country Studies. "Lebanon - Languages". December 6, 2006.
  29. ↑ Arda Arsenian – Ekmekji. "Revisiting Artin in Beirut: How Armenians Are Viewed in Lebanon". Retrieved January 26, 2007.
  30. ↑ Joe George. "Lebanon: The Jewel of the Middle East". Retrieved December 3, 2006.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Microsoft Encarta Premium 2006. Customs of Lebanon.
  32. ↑ The Hindu (January 5, 2003). "Called by life";. Retrieved January 8, 2007.
  33. ↑ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2002). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices - 2002: Lebanon". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 United States Institute of Peace (March 2006). "Lebanon's Confessionalism: Problems and Prospects". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  35. ↑ Marie-Joëlle Zahar. "CHAPTER 9 POWER SHARING IN LEBANON: FOREIGN PROTECTORS, DOMESTIC PEACE, AND DEMOCRATIC FAILURE1". (DOC) Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  36. ↑ Middle East Intelligence Bulletin (2004). "The US and France Tip the Scale in Lebanon's Power Struggle". Retrieved January 6, 2007.
  37. ↑ New Age International (November 6, 2006). "Lebanon leaders head for talks amid street protest threats". Retrieved January 3, 2007.
  38. ↑ Lebanon2000.com. "Factbook - Lebanon". Retrieved January 3, 2006.
  39. ↑ US Department of State (2006). "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2005: Lebanon". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  40. ↑ Amnesty International (2005). "A Human Rights Agenda for the Parliamentary Elections, Lebanon". Retrieved December 17, 2006.
  • Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002.
  • Holst, Sanford. Phoenicians: Lebanon's Epic Heritage. Los Angeles: Cambridge and Boston Press, 2005.
  • Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987.
  • Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  • Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  • Abe F. March: author of To Beirut and Back - An American in the Middle East (ISBN 1-4241-3853-1) recounts the years shortly before and including the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990). He is also listed as an Expert on Israeli-Palestinian ProCon.org

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