Henotheism

Henotheism is a term used to refer to religious systems which acknowledge the existence of many gods (as in polytheism) but worship one as the supreme deity assuming primacy over the other gods. The term was constructed from the Greek henos (“one”) combined with theos (“god”). Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling was the first to use the term to describe what he thought to be a precursor to strict monotheism in prehistoric consciousness. Later, linguist Max Muller brought the term into common usage in order to better characterize the nuances of polytheism as it appears in the Vedas of Hinduism. Muller used the term interchangeably with kathenotheism (from the Greek kath’hena, “one by one”), a term closely related to henotheism which refers to the worship of one god (among many) at a particular time. Similarly, henotheism should not be confused with monolatrism, a belief system which asserts that many gods do exist, although these gods can exert their power only on those individuals who worship them. Henotheism is less exclusive than monolatry because a monolator worships only one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the pantheon, depending on circumstances. Anthropologist E.B. Tylor conceived of henotheism as a natural phase in the progression of religious development: after transcending the supposedly primitive polytheism, cultures adopted henotheistic views as a precursor to [[monotheism], the supreme manifestation of religious thought.

Classical Greco-Roman Henotheism

Perhaps the most salient example of henotheism in Western consciousness is that of the classical Greco-Roman culture. While the Greeks believed in multiple gods, each of whom took on specific roles or personalities, it was clear that Zeus, god of the sky and thunder was the superior deity, presiding over the Greek Olympic pantheon and siring many of the other heroes and heroines. In addition, he was also the most telling artifact of Greek culture, with certain forms of Zeus worship and ritual shared across the Greek world. The means by which this position on the throne of the gods was attained and held was of great importance to the Greeks and created much drama in their myth. At first, Uranus was the supreme deity, until he became tyrannical and was usurped by his son Cronus. Cronus ruled during the mythological Golden age, but became somewhat of a tyrant himself, unwilling to give up his own position of supremacy to potential heirs. Paranoid, Cronus to swallowed each of his children by Rhea (Demeter, Hades, Hera, Hestia, Poseidon) whole as soon as they were born. When Zeus was about to be born, however, Rhea sought Uranus and Gaia to devise a plan to save him, so that Cronus would get his retribution for doing away with his father. Rhea gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed. After reaching manhood, Zeus forced Cronus to disgorge the other children in reverse order of swallowing. Together, Zeus along with his brothers and sisters overthrew Cronus and the other Titans so that Zeus could ascend to the throne as supreme god.

Hinduism

Similarly, henotheism seems to be evident in early Vedic Hinduism, which covers the historical period before 1000 B.C.E. It is difficult to classify Hinduism as a whole, as it assumes features of pantheistic monism, as in Vedanta, stricter monotheism, as in Smarta Hinduism, or polytheism, in the case of popular understanding. However, the Rig Veda, one of the formative Hindu texts, was what lead Max Müller to introduce the term henotheism. In the four Vedas, Müller posited that an impulsion towards One divinity was actually being cultivated through the worship of different cosmic principles. These included Agni, god of fire, Indra, god of thunder and the sky, as well as Varuna, keeper of the celestial waters. Each of these gods were hailed as supreme in different sections of the books, and again, as is found in the mythology of the Greeks, the Vedic gods undergo their own battle for supremacy. In pre-Vedic times, Varuna was the supreme lord of the cosmos; however, in the [[Vedas], he is supplanted by Indra as king of the gods, who in turn came into primacy in terms of worship and sacrificial ritual. What further prevents this early Hinduism as being classified simply as polytheistic is the idea of Rita, or the supreme order of the universe which bound all the gods. Other phrases such as Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) provides additional evidence that the Vedic people identified a fundamental oneness beyond the personalities of their many gods. Based on this mixture of monism, monotheism and naturalistic polytheism Max Müller decided that henotheism was the most suitable classification for Vedic Hinduism. Whether the collective term of henotheism adequately addresses these complexities still remains a matter of contention, as it may underestimate the ideas of pure monism which can be identified even in the early Rig Veda Samhita, notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheistic movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the Upanishads.

While the Vedic period of Hinduism most closely corresponds to henotheism as Müller understood it, more subtle manifestations of henotheism can be hypothesized within the later traditions. Classical Hinduism evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into its own in the Puranas, focusing on particular gods such as Shiva and Vishnu, who represented aspects of a greater, undefinable God. Medieval Hinduism saw the emergence of devotional sects with the onset of the essentially monotheistic bhakti (loving devotion) movement. These worshippers, while admitting the existence of other deities, saw the particular deity of their choice as clearly emanating from one principal source. As a result, different devotional traditions have disputed the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and vice-versa. Extreme monists within the Advaita Vedanta movement, Yoga philosophy and certain non-dual Tantra schools of Hinduism seem to preclude a broad categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic. They have developed the concept of Brahman, a formless non-being which is said to be the Divine Ground from which all else that is limited and temporal arises. However, this transcendence subsumes the fundamental Hindu trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva goes which respectively represent creation, preservation and destruction in one cycle of being. This cycle of being is ultimately transcended with the attainment of moksha, which refers to union with the transcendent Brahman. This notion of Brahman, then, could be interpreted as the paramount principle in a henotheistic belief system. Again, "henotheism" is a pliable term which can serve to clarify such ambiguities in multifarious religious systems such as Hinduism.

Christianity

Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as monotheists, some argue that Christianity is properly a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a Christian Godhead consisting of God the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, with God the Father being dominant "actor" and "creator" – though most Christians reject the view that God the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, Trinitarian Christians strongly reject the view that the three persons of the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single "substance", thus counting as one god. The Council of Nicea (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was "One Substance (Greek Ousia) and three Persona (Greek Hypostasis)". In addition, many Christians believe in what some consider to be a "pantheon" of angels, demons, and/or Saints that are inferior to the Trinity. Christians do not label these beings as "gods", although they are attributed with supernatural powers, and are sometimes the object of prayer.

Some non-trinitarian Christian denominations are more clearly henotheistic. In the Gnostic view, there is an ultimate God who or brought forth from within Himself the substance of all worlds. Further, varied Gnostic myths refer to Aeons, intermediate deific beings who exist between the ultimate, True God and humanity. In addition, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormonism, or the LDS Church) views the members of the Christian Godhead as three distinct beings, where God the Father is supreme. Though not explicitly mentioned in cannonical LDS scripture, some Latter Day Saints also infer the existence of numerous other gods and goddesses who have no direct relevance to humanity. Though not explicitly discussed in canonical scripture, some Latter Day Saints also acknowledge a Heavenly Mother in addition to God the Father. However, Mormons worship one God; this view is most easily described as worshipping God the Father through the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons," the LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one God.

Israelite Beliefs and Judaism

It is generally accepted that many of the Iron Age religions found in the land of Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the Moabites worshipped the god, Chemosh, the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherat as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth, and became national gods worshipped within each region. More recently, M.S. Smith's synthesis of the Hebrew religion in the Iron Age has put forward the case that it, like those around it, was also henotheistic. The discovery of artifacts at Kuntillet 'Ajrud and Khirbet El-Qom suggest that in at least some sections of Israelite society, Yahweh and Asherah were believed to coexist as a divine couple. Further evidence of an understanding of Yahweh existing within the Canaanite pantheon derives from syncretistic myths found within the Hebrew Bible itself. Various battles between Yahweh and Leviathan, Mot, the tanninim, and Yamm are already presented in the 14th century B.C.E. texts found at Ugarit (ancient Ras-Shamra). In some cases, Yahweh had replaced Baal, and in others, he had taken El's roles.

According to Genesis, Abraham is revered as the individual who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding people by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with him In addition, he laid the foundations for what has been called by scholars "Ethical Monotheism". The first of the Ten commandments is commonly interpreted to forbid the Israelites from worshiping any god other than the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the Torah. However, it can also be read in scholarly circles as a henotheistic assertion, since the Hebrew God states that the Israelites should have "no other gods before me" and henceforth insinuating the existence of other gods. Unfortunately, as recorded in the Tanakh ("Old Testament" Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god YHWH was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as Baal, Asherah, and El. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. Thus, by the end of the Babylonian captivity of Judah in the Tanakh, Judaism is strictly monotheistic.

Bibliography

1. "Varuna." Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online. <http://www.pantheon.org/articles/v/varuna.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006]. 2. "Indra" Encyclopedia Mythica from Encyclopedia Mythica Online. <http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/indra.html> [Accessed March 10, 2006]. 3. "Henotheism." Encyclopedia of Religion, Mercia Eliade, ed.