Difference between revisions of "Book of Psalms" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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*Judgment Liturgies — Psalms 50, 82;
 
*Judgment Liturgies — Psalms 50, 82;
 
*Mixed Types — 36, 40, 41, 68
 
*Mixed Types — 36, 40, 41, 68
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==Critical views==
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A common critical opinion of the Book of Psalms is that it is basically hymn-book of the congregation of Israel during the existence of the Second Temple.
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Some of the older Psalms bear a strong resemblance to the hymnic traditions of the surrounding nations. Psalm 118, for example, describes God in terms reminiscent of Canaanite descriptions of the storm deity Baal:
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:The earth trembled and quaked, and the foundations of the mountains shook; they trembled because he was angry.
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:Smoke rose from his nostrils; consuming fire came from his mouth, burning coals blazed out of it...
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:Out of the brightness of his presence clouds advanced, with hailstones and bolts of lightning.
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:The Lord thundered from heaven; the voice of the Most High resounded. (15:7-13)
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While some of the Psalms may thus indeed be quite ancient, it is doubtful that many of them could have been composed by King David. Indeed, many of those ascribed to him clearly describe a later period, in which the Temple of Jerusalem has already been built, or in which the Jews have already been taken in exile. Many more describe the attitude not of a king, but of priests devoted to the Temple, using language that relates to the post-exilic period. A number of prominent scholars suggest that most of the Psalms, in their present form, actually date for the second century B.C.E., not the eleventh century of David's era. This does not rule out however, than many of them may have originated much earlier.
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==Psalms in Jewish ritual==
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Some of the titles given to the Psalms in their ascriptions suggest their use in worship:
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* Some bear the Hebrew designation ''shir'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ode'', a song). Thirteen have this title.
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* Fifty-eight Psalms bear the designation ''mizmor'' (Greek ''psalmos''), a lyric [[ode]] or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument.
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* Psalm 145, and several others, have the designation ''tehillah'' (Greek ''hymnos'', a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God.
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* Six Psalms (16, 56-60) have the title (Hebrew) ''michtam''.
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* Psalm 7 bears the unknown title (Hebrew) ''shiggaion''.
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Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from them appear in the morning services. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei"), is read during or before services, three times every day. Psalms 95-99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction ("Kabbalat Shabbat") to the Friday night service.
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Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" is read after the [[Shacharit|morning service]] each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the [[Mishnah]] (the initial codification of the Jewish [[Oral law|oral tradition]]) in the tractate "[[Tamid]]."
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From the beginning of the summer month of [[Elul]] until the last day of the fall festival of [[Sukkot]], Psalm 27 is recited twice daily by traditional Jews.
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When a [[Jew]] dies, a watch is kept over the body and Psalms are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family – usually in shifts – but in contemporary practice, this service is provided by an employ of the funeral home or [[Chevra kadisha]].
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Many observant Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Some also say, each week, a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. On the Sabbath preceding the appearance of the new moon, some Jews (notably Lubavitch and other Hasidic Jews) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service.
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The Psalms are especially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger. In many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the [[State of Israel]].
  
 
==The Psalms in Christian worship==
 
==The Psalms in Christian worship==
 
[[Image:Cantoria Della Robbia OPA Florence 9.jpg|right|thumb| Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum).]]
 
[[Image:Cantoria Della Robbia OPA Florence 9.jpg|right|thumb| Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum).]]
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New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in virtually all Christian Churches. The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglican]] Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for [[bishop]] would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically during their time as monks. Today, new translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. Several conservative denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are the [[Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America]], the [[Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States]] and the [[Free Church of Scotland]].
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The 116 direct quotations from the Psalms in the [[New Testament]] show that they were familiar to the Judean community in the first century of the [[Christian era]]. The Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in virtually all Christian churches.
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The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglican]] Churches have traditionally made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for [[bishop]] would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically during their time as monks. Today, new translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. Several conservative denominations sing only the Psalms in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-biblical hymns. Examples include the [[Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America]], the [[Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States]] and the [[Free Church of Scotland]].
  
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Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of Scripture, with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers. In particular, the 23rd Psalm ("The Lord is My Shepherd," 22nd in the Greek numbering) offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church [[funeral]] services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings; and Psalm 50/51 ("Have mercy on me O God," called the ''Miserere'' from the first word in its Latin version) is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy, in both [[Divine Liturgy]] and ''Hours'', in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings. Psalm 102/103 ("Bless the Lord, O my soul; and all that is within me, bless his holy name!") is one of the best-known prayers of praise. Psalm 136/137 ("By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept") is a moody, yet eventually triumphant, meditation upon living in [[slavery]], and has been used in at least one [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]], as well as one well-known [[reggae]] song; the Orthodox church often uses this hymn during Lent. In popular music, the [[U2]] song [["40" (song)|"40"]] is based on Psalm 40 ("I waited patiently for the Lord; and he inclined unto me, and heard my cry.")
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Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of scripture, in the Christian tradition with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers. In particular, the 23rd Psalm ("The Lord is My Shepherd") offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church [[funeral]] services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings. Psalm 51 ("Have mercy on me O God,") is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy, in both [[Divine Liturgy]] and ''Hours'', in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings. Psalm 103 ("Bless the Lord, O my soul; and all that is within me, bless his holy name!") is one of the best-known prayers of praise. Psalm 137 ("By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept") is a moody, yet eventually triumphant, meditation upon living in captivity.
  
 
=== Eastern Orthodox usage ===
 
=== Eastern Orthodox usage ===
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{{see also|Kathisma}}
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[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians and [[Eastern Catholics]] who follow the [[Byzantine rite]], have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 ''kathismata'', and each ''[[kathisma]]'' is further subdivided into three ''staseis''.
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[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians and [[Eastern Catholics]] who follow the [[Byzantine rite]], have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 ''kathismata'' (Greek: καθισματα; Slavonic: каѳисмы, ''kafismy''; lit. "sittings"), and each ''[[kathisma]]'' (Greek: καθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма, ''kafisma'') is further subdivided into three ''staseis'' (Greek: στασεις, lit. "standings," sing. στασις, ''stasis'').
 
  
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At [[Vespers]] and [[Matins]], different kathismata are read at different times of the [[liturgical year]] and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. In the 20th century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks, three times a day, one kathisma a day.
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At [[vespers]] and [[matins]], different kathismata are read at different times of the [[liturgical year]] and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks, three times a day, one kathisma a day.
  
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Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the [[Canonical hours|services of the Hours]] and the [[Divine Liturgy]]. In particular, the penitential [[Psalm 51|Psalm 50]] is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used as [[Prokimenon|Prokimena]] (introductions to Scriptural readings), and [[Stichera]]. The bulk of [[Vespers]] would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded; [[Psalm 119|Psalm 118]], "The Psalm of the [[Halakha|Law]]," is the centerpiece of [[Matins]] on Saturdays, some Sundays, and the [[Funeral]] service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition.
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Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the [[Canonical hours|services of the Hours]] and the [[Divine Liturgy]]. In particular, the penitential [[Psalm 51|Psalm 50]] is very widely used. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition.
  
 
=== Roman Catholic usage ===
 
=== Roman Catholic usage ===
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The Psalms have always been an important part of [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[liturgy]]. The [[Liturgy of the Hours]] is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as [[psalm tone]]s. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge of Latin (the language of the [[Latin rite]]) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins.
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The Psalms have always been an important part of [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[liturgy]]. The [[Liturgy of the Hours]] is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as [[psalm tone]]s. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also.  
  
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The work of Bishop Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entire of the Lady Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Challoner is also noted for revising the Douai Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work.
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Until the [[Second Vatican Council]] the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or a two-week cycle. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the Psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely.
  
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Until the [[Second Vatican Council]] the Psalms were either recited on a one week or less frequently (as in the case of Ambrosian rite) a two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: all secular clergy followed the Roman distribution, while Monastic Houses almost universally followed that of St Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as the Benedictines of St Maur) following individualistic arrangements. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement.
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Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the [[Mass (liturgy)|liturgy]] declined. After the [[Second Vatican Council]] longer Psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The [[Mass of Paul VI|revision]] of the [[Roman Missal]] reintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture.
  
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Official approval was also given to other arrangements (see [http://kellerbook.com "Short" Breviaries in the 20th and early 21st Century America] for an in-progress study) by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of the [[Trappists]] (see for example [http://newmelleray.org?menu=psalms the Divine Office schedule at New Melleray Abbey]).
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=== Protestant usage ===
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[[Image:Psalm 1 metrical 1628.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle]]
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The ''General Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours'', 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms:
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The Psalms were extremely popular among those who followed the Reformed tradition. Following the [[Protestant Reformation]], [[metrical psalter|verse paraphrases]] of many of the Psalms were set as [[hymn]]s. These were particularly popular in the [[Calvinist]] tradition, where in the past they were typically sung [[exclusive psalmody|to the exclusion of hymns]]. Calvin himself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage. [[Martin Luther]]'s [[A Mighty Fortress is Our God]] is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the settings by [[Isaac Watts]]. The first book printed in [[North America]] was a collection of Psalm settings, the [[Bay Psalm Book]] (1640).
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* directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm);
 
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* [[antiphonal]]ly (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and
 
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* [[responsorial]]ly (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse).
 
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Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed.
 
  
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Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the [[Mass (liturgy)|liturgy]] declined. The [[Tridentine Mass]] preserved only isolated verses that, in some cases, were originally refrains sung during recitation of the whole Psalm from which they were taken. After the [[Second Vatican Council]] (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy) longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The [[Mass of Paul VI|revision]] of the [[Roman Missal]] after the Second Vatican Council reintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called the ''Responsorial Psalm,'' is usually sung or recited responsorially, although the ''General Instruction of the Roman Missal'', 61 permits direct recitation.
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In the Church of England, [[Anglican chant]] is a way of singing the Psalms that remains part of the Anglican choral tradition to this day.  
  
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=== Protestant usage ===
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However, by the twentieth century Psalms were mostly replaced by hymns in mainline church services. In the Black churches of America, however, Psalms such as the 23rd Psalm are often sung by soloists and church choirs. A number of Psalms, or sections of them, have also been set to music in the contemporary "praise music" genre and are used in various settings, from [[megachurches]] to youth camps, and charismatic revivals.  
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[[Image:Psalm 1 metrical 1628.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle]]
 
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The psalms were extremely popular among those who followed the Reformed tradition.
 
  
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Following the [[Protestant Reformation]], [[metrical psalter|verse paraphrases]] of many of the Psalms were set as [[hymn]]s. These were particularly popular in the [[Calvinist]] tradition, where in the past they were typically sung [[exclusive psalmody|to the exclusion of hymns]]. Calvin himself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage. [[Martin Luther]]'s [[A Mighty Fortress is Our God]] is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the settings by [[Isaac Watts]]. The first book printed in [[North America]] was a collection of Psalm settings, the [[Bay Psalm Book]] (1640).
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The Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants. There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of [[Proverbs]] a day, corresponding to the day of the month. The Book of Psalms is also a popular topic for Bible study meetings in private homes.
  
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But by the 20th century they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants; there exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of [[Proverbs]] a day, corresponding to the day of the month.
 
  
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===Anglican usage===
 
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[[Anglican chant]] is a way of singing the Psalms that remains part of the Anglican choral tradition. The version of the Psalter in the American [[Book of Common Prayer]] prior to the 1979 edition is an older translation (sometimes referred to as the Coverdale Psalter) than that included in the [[King James Version of the Bible]]. The American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 however, uses the New Revised Standard Version of the Psalms. Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms. In the early 17th century, however, when the King James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and the version by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article on [[Metrical Psalter]]) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century. Until then prayer books were normally printed with one or the other version bound with them.<br /><br />
 
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In Great Britain the Book of Common Prayer remains the standard usage, along with Coverdale's psalter. Its dominance in Church life was diminished with the introduction of the Alternative Service Book in the 1980s, which was a permitted alternative to the Book of Common Prayer. The Alternative Service Book has now been phased out. The current permitted alternative, Common Worship, allows for both more traditional services, using Coverdale's psalms, and modern services using a newer translation produced especially for the Church of England.
 
  
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===Rastafarian usage===
 
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The Psalms are one of the most popular parts of the Bible among followers of the [[Rastafari movement]] [http://www.crosscurrents.org/murrell.htm]. Rasta singer Prince Fari released an atmospheric spoken version of the psalms, [[Psalms For I|Psalms for I]], set to a [[roots reggae]] backdrop from the Aggrovators.
 
  
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===Psalms set to music===
 
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* [[Old 100th]]
 
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* [[Miserere (Allegri)|Miserere]] by [[Gregorio Allegri]]
 
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* [[Miserere (Górecki)|Miserere]] by [[Henryk Górecki|Henryk Mikołaj Górecki]]
 
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* [[Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610 (Monteverdi)|Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610]] by [[Monteverdi]]
 
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* [[Symphony of Psalms (Stravinsky)|Symphony of Psalms]] by [[Igor Stravinsky]]
 
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* [[Chichester Psalms]] by [[Leonard Bernstein]]
 
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* [[Tehillim (Reich)|Tehillim]] by [[Steve Reich]]
 
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* [[Redemption]] Songs , Shelter, and Light of Life by [[Sons of Korah]]
 
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* Beati quorum via by [[Charles Villiers Stanford]] (V. 1, Psalm 119, Latin)
 
  
 
==Trivia==
 
==Trivia==

Revision as of 05:53, 7 December 2007


Books of the

Hebrew Bible

Psalms (from the Greek: Psalmoi) (originally meaning "songs sung to a harp," from psallein "play on a stringed instrument," Ψαλμοί; Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים) is a book of the Hebrew Bible, Tanakh or Old Testament.

In the Hebrew Bible, the Psalms are counted among the "Writings" or Ketuvim (one of the three main sections into which the books are grouped).

The Book of Psalms, especially if printed separately and set for singing or chanting, is also called the Psalter.

Composition of the Book of Psalms

Books of the

Hebrew Bible

The Book of Psalms is divided into 150 Psalms, each of which constitutes a religious song or chant, though one or two are atypically long and may constitute a set of related chants. When the Bible was divided into chapters, each Psalm was assigned its own chapter.

The organization and numbering of the Psalms differs between the (Masoretic) Hebrew and the (Septuagint) Greek manuscripts of the Book of Psalms. These difference are also reflected in various version of the Christian and Hebrew Bibles:

Hebrew Psalms Greek Psalms
1-8
9-10 9
11-113 10-112
114-115 113
116 114-115
117-146 116-145
147 146-147
148-150

The differences are account for by the following:

  • Psalms 9 and 10 in the Hebrew are together as Psalm 9 in the Greek.
  • Psalms 114 and 115 in the Hebrew are Psalm 113 in the Greek.
  • Psalms 114 and 115 in the Greek appear as Psalm 116 in the Hebrew.
  • Psalms 146 and 147 in the Greek form Psalm 147 in the Hebrew.

Hebrew Bibles generally use the Masoretic, or Hebrew text. Christian traditions vary:

  • Protestant translations are based on the Hebrew numbering;
  • Eastern Orthodox translations are based on the Greek numbering;
  • Roman Catholic official liturgical texts follow the Greek numbering, but modern Catholic translations often use the Hebrew numbering, sometimes adding, in parenthesis, the Greek numbering as well.

Most manuscripts of the Septuagint also include a Psalm 151, present in Eastern Orthodox translations; a Hebrew version of this poem was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Psalms Scroll presents the Psalms in an order different from that found elsewhere, and also contains a number of non-canonical poems and hymns.

For the remainder of this article, the Hebrew Psalm numbers will be used unless otherwise noted.

Authorship and ascriptions

Jewish and Christian tradition maintains that most of the Psalms are the work of David, especially the 73 Psalms which specifically bear David's name. Exceptions include those which are specifically ascribed to others, such as the Psalms of Asaph, etc.

Many modern scholars see the Psalms as the product of several authors or groups of authors, many unknown, and most from a later period than that of David. Most Psalms are prefixed with introductory words ascribing them to a particular author or giving a detail about their function or the circumstances of their composition. Literary scholars believe the Psalms were not written down in Hebrew before the sixth century B.C.E., nearly half a millennium after David's reign (about 1000 B.C.E.). The older Psalms thus depended on oral or hymnic tradition for transmission.

Psalms 39, 62, and 77 are linked with Jeduthun, to be sung after his manner or in his choir. Psalms 50 and 73-83 are associated with Asaph, as the master of his choir, to be sung in the worship of God. The ascriptions of Psalms 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, and 88 assert that the "sons of Korah" were entrusted with arranging and singing them.

Psalm 18 is found, with minor variations, also at 2 Samuel 22, for which reason, in accordance with the naming convention used elsewhere in the historic parts of the Bible, it is known as the Song of David. Several hymns are included in other biblical texts but not found in the Book of Psalms.

Sections of the book

In Jewish usage, the Psalter is divided, after the analogy of the Pentateuch, into five books, each closing with a doxology or benediction:

  1. The first book comprises the first 41 Psalms. All of these are ascribed to David except Psalms 1, 2, 10, and 33, which, though untitled in the Hebrew, were also traditionally ascribed to David. While Davidic authorship cannot be confirmed, many believe this probably is generally the oldest section of the Psalms.
  2. The second book consists of the next 31 Psalms 42-72. Of these, 18 are ascribed to David. Psalm 72 begins "For Solomon," but is traditionally understood as being written by David as a prayer for his son. The rest are anonymous.
  3. The third book contains 17 Psalms 73-89, of which Psalm 86 is ascribed to David, Psalm 88 to Heman the Ezrahite, and Psalm 89 to Ethan the Ezrahite. The others are anonymous.
  4. The fourth book also contains 17 Psalms (90-106), of which Psalm 90 is ascribed to Moses, and Psalms 101 and 103 to David.
  5. The fifth book contains the remaining 44 Psalms. Of these, 15 are ascribed to David, and one (Psalm 127) is a charge to Solomon.

Psalms 113-118 constitute the Hallel (praise or thanksgiving), which is recited on the three great feasts, (Passover, Weeks, and Tabernacles); at the new moon; and on the eight days of Hanukkah. Psalm 136 is generally called "the great Hallel." A version of Psalm 136 with slightly different wording appears in the Dead Sea Scrolls.

Psalms 120-134 are referred to as Songs of Degrees, and are thought to have been used as hymns of approach by pilgrims to the Temple in Jerusalem.

Psalm 119 is the longest Psalm. It is composed of 176 verses, in sets of eight verses, each set beginning with one of the 22 Hebrew letters. Several other Psalms also have alphabetical arrangements. These psalms are believed to be written (rather than oral) compositions when their were composed, and thus of a relatively late date.

Psalm 117 is the shortest Psalm, containing only two verses.

Psalm forms

Psalms can be classified according to their similarities. Such categories may overlap, but the main forms are:

A man reads Psalms at the Western Wall
  1. Hymns
  2. Individual Laments
  3. Community Laments
  4. Songs of Trust
  5. Individual Thanksgiving Psalms
  6. Royal Psalms
  7. Wisdom Psalms
  8. Pilgrimage Psalms
  9. Liturgy Psalms

Additional forms include:

  • Songs of Zion — Psalms 48, 76, 84, 87, 122, 134;
  • Historical Litanies — Psalms 78, 105, 106, 135, 136;
  • Pilgrim Liturgies — Psalms 81, 21;
  • Entrance Liturgies — Psalms 15, 24;
  • Judgment Liturgies — Psalms 50, 82;
  • Mixed Types — 36, 40, 41, 68

Critical views

A common critical opinion of the Book of Psalms is that it is basically hymn-book of the congregation of Israel during the existence of the Second Temple.

Some of the older Psalms bear a strong resemblance to the hymnic traditions of the surrounding nations. Psalm 118, for example, describes God in terms reminiscent of Canaanite descriptions of the storm deity Baal:

The earth trembled and quaked, and the foundations of the mountains shook; they trembled because he was angry.
Smoke rose from his nostrils; consuming fire came from his mouth, burning coals blazed out of it...
Out of the brightness of his presence clouds advanced, with hailstones and bolts of lightning.
The Lord thundered from heaven; the voice of the Most High resounded. (15:7-13)

While some of the Psalms may thus indeed be quite ancient, it is doubtful that many of them could have been composed by King David. Indeed, many of those ascribed to him clearly describe a later period, in which the Temple of Jerusalem has already been built, or in which the Jews have already been taken in exile. Many more describe the attitude not of a king, but of priests devoted to the Temple, using language that relates to the post-exilic period. A number of prominent scholars suggest that most of the Psalms, in their present form, actually date for the second century B.C.E., not the eleventh century of David's era. This does not rule out however, than many of them may have originated much earlier.

Psalms in Jewish ritual

Some of the titles given to the Psalms in their ascriptions suggest their use in worship:

  • Some bear the Hebrew designation shir (Greek ode, a song). Thirteen have this title.
  • Fifty-eight Psalms bear the designation mizmor (Greek psalmos), a lyric ode or a song set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument.
  • Psalm 145, and several others, have the designation tehillah (Greek hymnos, a hymn), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God.
  • Six Psalms (16, 56-60) have the title (Hebrew) michtam.
  • Psalm 7 bears the unknown title (Hebrew) shiggaion.

Psalms are used throughout traditional Jewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from them appear in the morning services. Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei"), is read during or before services, three times every day. Psalms 95-99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction ("Kabbalat Shabbat") to the Friday night service.

Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day" is read after the morning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in the Mishnah (the initial codification of the Jewish oral tradition) in the tractate "Tamid."

From the beginning of the summer month of Elul until the last day of the fall festival of Sukkot, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily by traditional Jews.

When a Jew dies, a watch is kept over the body and Psalms are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family – usually in shifts – but in contemporary practice, this service is provided by an employ of the funeral home or Chevra kadisha.

Many observant Jews complete the Book of Psalms on a weekly or monthly basis. Some also say, each week, a Psalm connected to that week's events or the Torah portion read during that week. On the Sabbath preceding the appearance of the new moon, some Jews (notably Lubavitch and other Hasidic Jews) read the entire Book of Psalms prior to the morning service.

The Psalms are especially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger. In many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of the State of Israel.

The Psalms in Christian worship

File:Cantoria Della Robbia OPA Florence 9.jpg
Children singing and playing music, illustration of Psalm 150 (Laudate Dominum).

The 116 direct quotations from the Psalms in the New Testament show that they were familiar to the Judean community in the first century of the Christian era. The Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part of worship in virtually all Christian churches.

The Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches have traditionally made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate for bishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically during their time as monks. Today, new translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. Several conservative denominations sing only the Psalms in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-biblical hymns. Examples include the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States and the Free Church of Scotland.

Some Psalms are among the best-known and best-loved passages of scripture, in the Christian tradition with a popularity extending well beyond regular church-goers. In particular, the 23rd Psalm ("The Lord is My Shepherd") offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for church funeral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings. Psalm 51 ("Have mercy on me O God,") is by far the most sung Psalm of Orthodoxy, in both Divine Liturgy and Hours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings. Psalm 103 ("Bless the Lord, O my soul; and all that is within me, bless his holy name!") is one of the best-known prayers of praise. Psalm 137 ("By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down and wept") is a moody, yet eventually triumphant, meditation upon living in captivity.

Eastern Orthodox usage

Eastern Orthodox Christians and Eastern Catholics who follow the Byzantine rite, have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20 kathismata, and each kathisma is further subdivided into three staseis.

At vespers and matins, different kathismata are read at different times of the liturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20 kathismata) are read in the course of a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks, three times a day, one kathisma a day.

Aside from kathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including the services of the Hours and the Divine Liturgy. In particular, the penitential Psalm 50 is very widely used. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition.

Roman Catholic usage

The Psalms have always been an important part of Roman Catholic liturgy. The Liturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixed melodic formulas known as psalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also.

Until the Second Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or a two-week cycle. The Breviary introduced in 1974 distributed the Psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely.

Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in the liturgy declined. After the Second Vatican Council longer Psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. The revision of the Roman Missal reintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture.

Protestant usage

Psalm 1 in a form of the Sternhold and Hopkins version widespread in Anglican usage before the English Civil War (1628 printing). It was from this version that the armies sang before going into battle

The Psalms were extremely popular among those who followed the Reformed tradition. Following the Protestant Reformation, verse paraphrases of many of the Psalms were set as hymns. These were particularly popular in the Calvinist tradition, where in the past they were typically sung to the exclusion of hymns. Calvin himself made some French translations of the Psalms for church usage. Martin Luther's A Mighty Fortress is Our God is based on Psalm 46. Among famous hymn settings of the Psalter were the Scottish Psalter and the settings by Isaac Watts. The first book printed in North America was a collection of Psalm settings, the Bay Psalm Book (1640).

In the Church of England, Anglican chant is a way of singing the Psalms that remains part of the Anglican choral tradition to this day.

However, by the twentieth century Psalms were mostly replaced by hymns in mainline church services. In the Black churches of America, however, Psalms such as the 23rd Psalm are often sung by soloists and church choirs. A number of Psalms, or sections of them, have also been set to music in the contemporary "praise music" genre and are used in various settings, from megachurches to youth camps, and charismatic revivals.

The Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants. There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter of Proverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month. The Book of Psalms is also a popular topic for Bible study meetings in private homes.


Trivia

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This article has been tagged since September 2007.
  • Some, most notably David Basch in his book, The Hidden Shakespeare, have claimed that the playwright William Shakespeare was involved in the translation of the Psalms in the King James Version, pointing to Psalm 46 as proof, where, counting 46 words from the beginning, one comes upon the word "shake," and counting 46 words backwards from the end, one comes upon the word "spear." Additionally, Shakespeare was 46 years of age at the time of the translating. Most scholars dismiss claims of Shakespeare's involvement in translating the King James Version, and do not accept this example as evidence of his involvement. Notably, the Geneva Bible and several other earlier translations contained the same coincidence, despite several of them being published before or just shortly after Shakespeare's birth.
  • In the King James Version, Psalm 83:18 is the only verse in the Psalms in which God's name is rendered as "Jehovah." Also, Psalm 68 once calls God "Jah," an abbreviated form of Jehovah. In other instances in which God's name is mentioned, the King James Version renders it "LORD."
  • The U2 song "40" is based on the first three verses of Psalm 40.

See also

  • Benefit of clergy - Psalm 50/51 was used to ascertain eligibility for benefit of clergy.
  • Hallel (Psalms 113-118)
  • Liturgy of the Hours
  • Metrical Psalter
  • Penitential Psalms
  • Psalter
  • Selah
  • Zabur

Footnotes


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Psalms

Translations

Classes in Psalms

Readings of Psalms

Commentary and other

This entry incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897. Partially updated and some additional material added.

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