Difference between revisions of "Paleobotany" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Paleobotany''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''paleon'' = old and ''botanikos'' = of herbs) is the branch of [[paleontology]] dealing with the recovery and identification of [[plant]] remains from [[geology|geological]] contexts, and their use in the reconstruction of past environments and the history of life.  A closely related field is [[palynology]], the study of fossil and extant [[spores]] and [[pollen]].  Paleobotany includes the study of [[terrestrial plant]] [[fossils]] as well as the study of marine [[autotrophs]], such as [[algae]].
+
'''Paleobotany''' (from the words ''paleon'', "old," and ''botanikos'', "of herbs") is the branch of [[paleontology]] dealing with the recovery and identification of ''[[plant]]'' remains from [[geology|geological]] contexts, and their use in the reconstruction of past environments and the history of [[life]].  
  
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Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of prehistoric ecological systems and [[climate]], known as [[paleoecology]] and [[paleoclimatology]] respectively, and is fundamental to the study of plant [[development]] and [[evolution]]. Paleobotany has also become important to the field of [[archaeology]], primarily for the use of [[phytolith|phytoliths]] in [[relative dating]] and in paleo[[ethnobotany]],
+
The parent discipline, paleontology, is the study of the developing history of life on Earth based on the fossil record, with paleobotany dealing with plant remains, paleozoology with animal remains, and micropaleontology with microfossils. Paleobotany includes the study of terrestrial plant [[fossils]] as well as the study of marine autotrophs, such as [[algae]].
  
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==Overview of the Paleobotanical Record==
+
A closely related field to paleobotany is [[pollen|palynology]], the study of fossil and extant [[spores]] and [[pollen]].
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Macroscopic remains of true [[vascular plants]] are first found in the [[fossil]] record during the [[Silurian]] Period. Some dispersed, fragmentary fossils of disputed affinity, primarily [[spores]] and [[cuticles]], have been found in rocks from the [[Ordovician]] Period of [[Oman]] and are thought to derive from [[liverwort]]- or [[moss]]-grade fossil plants (Wellman et. al., 2003).
 
  
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An important early land plant fossil locality is the [[Rhynie chert|Rhynie Chert]], an Early [[Devonian]] sinter ([[hot spring]]) deposit composed primarily of [[silica]] found outside the town of [[Rhynie]] in [[Scotland]]. [[Image:Rhynie_chert.jpg|thumb|An unpolished hand sample of the Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert from Scotland.]]The Rhynie Chert is exceptional due to its preservation of several different clades of plants, from [[mosses]] and [[lycopods]] to more unusual, problematic forms.  Many fossil animals, including [[arthropods]] and [[arachnids]], are also found in the Rhynie Chert, and it offers a unique window on the history of early terrestrial life.
+
Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of prehistoric ecological systems and [[climate]], known as paleoecology and [[paleoclimatology]] respectively, and is fundamental to the study of plant development and [[evolution]].  Paleobotany has also become important to the field of [[archaeology]], primarily for the use of phytoliths ("plant stone") in relative dating and in paleoethnobotany.
  
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Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late [[Devonian]] and include [[tree]] trunks, [[frond]]s, and [[roots]].  The earliest tree is ''[[Archaeopteris]]'', which bears simple, [[fern]]-like [[leaves]] spirally arranged on branches atop a [[conifer]]-like [[trunk]] (Meyer-Berthaud et. al., 1999).
+
==Overview of the paleobotanical record==
 +
Macroscopic remains of true [[vascular plant]]s are first found in the [[fossil]] record during the [[Silurian]] Period. Some dispersed, fragmentary fossils of disputed affinity, primarily [[spore]]s and cuticles, have been found in rocks from the [[Ordovician]] Period of [[Oman]] and are thought to derive from [[liverwort]]- or [[moss]]-grade fossil plants (Wellman et. al. 2003).
  
−
Widespread [[coal]] swamp deposits across North America and Europe during the [[Carboniferous]] Period contain a wealth of fossils containing [[Lepidodendron|arborescent lycopods]] up to 30 meters tall, abundant [[Gymnosperm|seed plants]], such as [[conifers]] and [[Pteridospermatophyta|seed ferns]], and countless smaller, [[herbaceous]] plants.
+
An important early land plant fossil locality is the Rhynie Chert, an Early [[Devonian]] sinter (hot spring) deposit composed primarily of [[silica]] found outside the town of Rhynie in [[Scotland]]. [[Image:Rhynie_chert.jpg|thumb|An unpolished hand sample of the Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert from Scotland.]]The Rhynie Chert is exceptional due to its preservation of several different clades of plants, from [[moss]]es and [[lycopod]]s to more unusual, problematic forms.  Many fossil animals, including [[arthropod]]s and [[arachnid]]s, are also found in the Rhynie Chert, and it offers a unique window on the history of early terrestrial life.
  
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[[Angiosperms]] ([[flowering plants]]) evolved during the [[Mesozoic]], and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appear during the Early [[Cretaceous]], approximately 130 million years ago.  
+
Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late [[Devonian]] and include [[tree]] trunks, [[fern|frond]]s, and [[root]]s. The earliest known tree is ''Archaeopteris'', which bears simple, [[fern]]-like [[leaf|leaves]] spirally arranged on branches atop a [[conifer]]-like trunk (Meyer-Berthaud et. al., 1999).
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'''Palynology''' is the science that studies contemporary and fossil [[palynomorph]]s, including [[pollen]], [[spores]], [[dinoflagellate]] [[cyst]]s, [[acritarchs]], [[chitinozoa]]ns and [[Scolecodonts|scolecodont]]s, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and [[kerogen]] found in [[sedimentary]] rocks and [[sediment]]s.
 
  
−
The term ''palynology'' was introduced by Hyde and Williams in [[1944]], following correspondence with the Swedish [[geologist]] Antevs, in the pages of the Pollen Analysis Circular (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, and produced by Paul Sears in North America). Hyde and Williams chose ''palynology'' on the basis of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''paluno'' meaning to sprinkle, and ''pale'' meaning dust (and thus similar to the [[Latin]] word ''pollen'').
+
Widespread [[coal]] swamp deposits across North America and Europe during the [[Carboniferous]] period contain a wealth of fossils containing arborescent lycopods up to 30 meters tall, abundant [[Gymnosperm|seed plants]], such as [[conifer]]s and seed ferns, and countless smaller, herbaceous plants.
  
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==Paleoecology==
+
[[Angiosperm]]s ([[flowering plant]]s) evolved during the [[Mesozoic]], and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appear during the Early [[Cretaceous]], approximately 130 million years ago.  
−
'''Paleoecology''' uses data from [[fossil]]s and subfossils to reconstruct the [[ecosystem]]s of the past.  It includes the study of [[fossil]] organisms in terms of their [[life cycle]], their living interactions, their [[natural environment]], their manner of [[death]] and burial. '''Paleoecology''''s aim is therefore to build the most detailed model possible of the [[Ecology|life environment]] of those [[Biology|living organisms]] we find today as fossils; such reconstruction work involves complex interactions among environmental factors ([[temperature]], [[food]] supplies, degree of [[Sun|solar illumination]], etc.).  Of course, much of this complex data has been distorted or destroyed by the post-mortem fossilization processes, adding another layer of complexity.
+
 
−
+
==Palynology==
−
The environmental complexity factor is normally tackled through [[statistics|statistical]] analysis of the available numerical data (quantitative [[paleontology]] or [[paleostatistics]]), while post-mortem processes as a source of information are known as the field of taphonomy.  
+
'''Palynology''' is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs; that is, particles of a size between 5 - 500 micrometres, found in rock deposits, and composed of organic material. Such palynomorphs studied include [[pollen]], [[spore]]s, [[dinoflagellate]] cysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans, and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in [[sedimentary]] rocks and sediments.
  
−
Much '''paleoecological''' research focuses on the last two million years (formerly known as the [[Quarternary]] period) because older environments are less well-represented in the fossil [[timeline of evolution]]. Indeed, many studies concentrate on the [[Holocene]] epoch (the last 10,000 years), or the last glacial stage of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch (the [[Wisconsin glaciation|Wisconsin/Weichsel/Devensian/Würm glaciation]] of the [[ice age]], from 50,000 to 10,000 years ago). Such studies are useful for understanding the dynamics of [[ecosystem]] change and for reconstructing pre-industrialization [[ecosystem]]s. Many [[public policy]] decision-makers have pointed to the importance of using paleoecological studies as a basis for choices made in [[conservation ecology]]. Often paleoecologists will use cores from lakes or bogs to reconstruct [[pollen]] assemblages, lithology, and to perform geochemical analysis. These tools aid in determining the species composition and climatic conditions, which can contribute to our understanding of how ecosystems change and have changed with climatic and environmental conditions.
+
Palynology is a branch of earth science ([[geology]] or geological science) and biological science ([[biology]]), particularly plant science ([[botany]]). Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany that studies [[fossil]] palynomorphs from the [[Precambrian]] to the [[Holocene]].
  
−
==Palynology==
+
The term ''palynology'' was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish [[geology|geologist]] Antevs, in the pages of the Pollen Analysis Circular (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, and produced by Paul Sears in North America). Hyde and Williams chose ''palynology'' on the basis of the Greek words ''paluno'' meaning to sprinkle, and ''pale'' meaning dust (and thus similar to the [[Latin]] word ''pollen'').
−
Palynology is a branch of [[earth science]] ([[geology]] or geological science) and biological science ([[biology]]), particularly plant science ([[botany]]). [[stratigraphy|Stratigraphical]] palynology is a branch of [[micropaleontology|micropalaeontology]] and [[paleobotany]] which studies [[fossil]] palynomorphs from the [[Precambrian]] to the [[Holocene]].
 
  
 
=== Methods of study ===
 
=== Methods of study ===
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Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled [[microfossil|microfossils]] between 5 and 500 [[micrometre]]s in size.  They are extracted from rocks and sediments both physically, by wet sieving, often after ultrasonic treatment, and chemically, by using chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction.  For example, palynomorphs may be extracted using [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) to digest [[carbonate]] minerals, and [[hydrofluoric acid]] (HF) to digest [[silicate]] [[mineral|minerals]] in suitable fume cupboards in specialist laboratories.
+
Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled microfossils] between 5 and 500 micrometers in size.  They are extracted from rocks and sediments both physically, by wet sieving, often after ultrasonic treatment, and chemically, by using chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction.  For example, palynomorphs may be extracted using hydrochloric acid (HCl) to digest carbonate minerals, and hydrofluoric acid (HF) to digest silicate minerals in suitable fume cupboards in specialist laboratories.
  
−
Samples are then mounted on [[microscope]] slides and examined using light [[microscopy]] or [[SEM|scanning electron microscopy]].  Once the pollen grains have been identified they can be plotted on a pollen diagram which is then used for interpretation. Pollen diagrams are useful in giving evidence of past human activity (anthropogenic impact), vegetation history and climatic history.   
+
Samples are then mounted on [[microscope]] slides and examined using light microscopy or scanning electron microscopy.  Once the pollen grains have been identified they can be plotted on a pollen diagram which is then used for interpretation. Pollen diagrams are useful in giving evidence of past human activity (anthropogenic impact), vegetation history and climatic history.   
  
−
Palynology uses many techniques from other related fields such as [[geology]], [[botany]], [[paleontology]], [[archaeology]], [[pedology (soil study)|pedology]], and [[geography]].
+
Palynology uses many techniques from other related fields such as [[geology]], [[botany]], [[paleontology]], [[archaeology]], pedology (soil study), and [[geography]].
  
 
=== Applications ===
 
=== Applications ===
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Palynology also allows scientists to infer the climatic conditions from the vegetation present in an area [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years]] ago. This is a fundamental part of research into [climate change.
 
Palynology also allows scientists to infer the climatic conditions from the vegetation present in an area [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years]] ago. This is a fundamental part of research into [climate change.
 +
 +
 +
==Paleoecology==
 +
'''Paleoecology''' uses data from [[fossil]]s and subfossils to reconstruct the [[ecosystem]]s of the past.  It includes the study of [[fossil]] organisms in terms of their [[life cycle]], their living interactions, their [[natural environment]], their manner of [[death]] and burial. '''Paleoecology''''s aim is therefore to build the most detailed model possible of the [[Ecology|life environment]] of those [[Biology|living organisms]] we find today as fossils; such reconstruction work involves complex interactions among environmental factors ([[temperature]], [[food]] supplies, degree of [[Sun|solar illumination]], etc.).  Of course, much of this complex data has been distorted or destroyed by the post-mortem fossilization processes, adding another layer of complexity.
 +
 +
The environmental complexity factor is normally tackled through [[statistics|statistical]] analysis of the available numerical data (quantitative [[paleontology]] or [[paleostatistics]]), while post-mortem processes as a source of information are known as the field of taphonomy.
 +
 +
Much '''paleoecological''' research focuses on the last two million years (formerly known as the [[Quarternary]] period) because older environments are less well-represented in the fossil [[timeline of evolution]]. Indeed, many studies concentrate on the [[Holocene]] epoch (the last 10,000 years), or the last glacial stage of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch (the [[Wisconsin glaciation|Wisconsin/Weichsel/Devensian/Würm glaciation]] of the [[ice age]], from 50,000 to 10,000 years ago).  Such studies are useful for understanding the dynamics of [[ecosystem]] change and for reconstructing pre-industrialization [[ecosystem]]s. Many [[public policy]] decision-makers have pointed to the importance of using paleoecological studies as a basis for choices made in [[conservation ecology]]. Often paleoecologists will use cores from lakes or bogs to reconstruct [[pollen]] assemblages, lithology, and to perform geochemical analysis. These tools aid in determining the species composition and climatic conditions, which can contribute to our understanding of how ecosystems change and have changed with climatic and environmental conditions.
 +
  
 
Literature]
 
Literature]

Revision as of 15:42, 3 September 2006

Paleobotany (from the words paleon, "old," and botanikos, "of herbs") is the branch of paleontology dealing with the recovery and identification of plant remains from geological contexts, and their use in the reconstruction of past environments and the history of life.

The parent discipline, paleontology, is the study of the developing history of life on Earth based on the fossil record, with paleobotany dealing with plant remains, paleozoology with animal remains, and micropaleontology with microfossils. Paleobotany includes the study of terrestrial plant fossils as well as the study of marine autotrophs, such as algae.

A closely related field to paleobotany is palynology, the study of fossil and extant spores and pollen.

Paleobotany is important in the reconstruction of prehistoric ecological systems and climate, known as paleoecology and paleoclimatology respectively, and is fundamental to the study of plant development and evolution. Paleobotany has also become important to the field of archaeology, primarily for the use of phytoliths ("plant stone") in relative dating and in paleoethnobotany.

Overview of the paleobotanical record

Macroscopic remains of true vascular plants are first found in the fossil record during the Silurian Period. Some dispersed, fragmentary fossils of disputed affinity, primarily spores and cuticles, have been found in rocks from the Ordovician Period of Oman and are thought to derive from liverwort- or moss-grade fossil plants (Wellman et. al. 2003).

An important early land plant fossil locality is the Rhynie Chert, an Early Devonian sinter (hot spring) deposit composed primarily of silica found outside the town of Rhynie in Scotland.

An unpolished hand sample of the Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert from Scotland.

The Rhynie Chert is exceptional due to its preservation of several different clades of plants, from mosses and lycopods to more unusual, problematic forms. Many fossil animals, including arthropods and arachnids, are also found in the Rhynie Chert, and it offers a unique window on the history of early terrestrial life.

Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late Devonian and include tree trunks, fronds, and roots. The earliest known tree is Archaeopteris, which bears simple, fern-like leaves spirally arranged on branches atop a conifer-like trunk (Meyer-Berthaud et. al., 1999).

Widespread coal swamp deposits across North America and Europe during the Carboniferous period contain a wealth of fossils containing arborescent lycopods up to 30 meters tall, abundant seed plants, such as conifers and seed ferns, and countless smaller, herbaceous plants.

Angiosperms (flowering plants) evolved during the Mesozoic, and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appear during the Early Cretaceous, approximately 130 million years ago.

Palynology

Palynology is the science that studies contemporary and fossil palynomorphs; that is, particles of a size between 5 - 500 micrometres, found in rock deposits, and composed of organic material. Such palynomorphs studied include pollen, spores, dinoflagellate cysts, acritarchs, chitinozoans, and scolecodonts, together with particulate organic matter (POM) and kerogen found in sedimentary rocks and sediments.

Palynology is a branch of earth science (geology or geological science) and biological science (biology), particularly plant science (botany). Stratigraphical palynology is a branch of micropalaeontology and paleobotany that studies fossil palynomorphs from the Precambrian to the Holocene.

The term palynology was introduced by Hyde and Williams in 1944, following correspondence with the Swedish geologist Antevs, in the pages of the Pollen Analysis Circular (one of the first journals devoted to pollen analysis, and produced by Paul Sears in North America). Hyde and Williams chose palynology on the basis of the Greek words paluno meaning to sprinkle, and pale meaning dust (and thus similar to the Latin word pollen).

Methods of study

Palynomorphs are broadly defined as organic-walled microfossils] between 5 and 500 micrometers in size. They are extracted from rocks and sediments both physically, by wet sieving, often after ultrasonic treatment, and chemically, by using chemical digestion to remove the non-organic fraction. For example, palynomorphs may be extracted using hydrochloric acid (HCl) to digest carbonate minerals, and hydrofluoric acid (HF) to digest silicate minerals in suitable fume cupboards in specialist laboratories.

Samples are then mounted on microscope slides and examined using light microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. Once the pollen grains have been identified they can be plotted on a pollen diagram which is then used for interpretation. Pollen diagrams are useful in giving evidence of past human activity (anthropogenic impact), vegetation history and climatic history.

Palynology uses many techniques from other related fields such as geology, botany, paleontology, archaeology, pedology (soil study), and geography.

Applications

Palynology is used for a diverse range of applications, related to many scientific disciplines:

  • Biostratigraphy and geochronology. Geologists use palynological studies in biostratigraphy to correlate strata and determine the relative age of a given bed, horizon, formation or stratigraphical sequence.
  • Palaeoecology and climate change. Palynology can be used to reconstruct past vegetation (land plants) and marine and freshwater phytoplankton communities, and so infer past environmental (palaeoenvironmental) and palaeoclimatic conditions.
  • Organic palynofacies studies, which examine the preservation of the particulate organic matter and palynomorphs provides information on the depositional environment of sediments and depositional palaeoenvironments of sedimentary rocks.
  • Geothermal alteration studies examine the color of palynomorphs extracted from rocks to give the thermal alteration and maturation of sedimentary sequences, which provides estimates of maximum palaeotemperatures.
  • Limnology studies. Freshwater palynomorphs and animal and plant fragments, including the prasinophytes and desmids (green algae) can be used to study past lake levels and long term climate change.
  • Taxonomy and evolutionary studies.
  • Forensic palynology- the study of pollen and other palynomorphs for evidence at a crime scene.
  • Allergy studies. Studies of the geographic distribution and seasonal production of pollen, can help sufferers of allergies such as hay fever.
  • Melissopalynology - the study of pollen and spores found in honey.

Because the distribution of acritarchs, chitinozoans, dinoflagellate cysts, pollen and spores provides evidence of stratigraphical correlation through biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, one common and lucrative application of palynology is in oil and gas exploration.

Palynology also allows scientists to infer the climatic conditions from the vegetation present in an area thousands or millions of years ago. This is a fundamental part of research into [climate change.


Paleoecology

Paleoecology uses data from fossils and subfossils to reconstruct the ecosystems of the past. It includes the study of fossil organisms in terms of their life cycle, their living interactions, their natural environment, their manner of death and burial. Paleoecology's aim is therefore to build the most detailed model possible of the life environment of those living organisms we find today as fossils; such reconstruction work involves complex interactions among environmental factors (temperature, food supplies, degree of solar illumination, etc.). Of course, much of this complex data has been distorted or destroyed by the post-mortem fossilization processes, adding another layer of complexity.

The environmental complexity factor is normally tackled through statistical analysis of the available numerical data (quantitative paleontology or paleostatistics), while post-mortem processes as a source of information are known as the field of taphonomy.

Much paleoecological research focuses on the last two million years (formerly known as the Quarternary period) because older environments are less well-represented in the fossil timeline of evolution. Indeed, many studies concentrate on the Holocene epoch (the last 10,000 years), or the last glacial stage of the Pleistocene epoch (the Wisconsin/Weichsel/Devensian/Würm glaciation of the ice age, from 50,000 to 10,000 years ago). Such studies are useful for understanding the dynamics of ecosystem change and for reconstructing pre-industrialization ecosystems. Many public policy decision-makers have pointed to the importance of using paleoecological studies as a basis for choices made in conservation ecology. Often paleoecologists will use cores from lakes or bogs to reconstruct pollen assemblages, lithology, and to perform geochemical analysis. These tools aid in determining the species composition and climatic conditions, which can contribute to our understanding of how ecosystems change and have changed with climatic and environmental conditions.


Literature]

Notable Paleobotanists

He established the Bohemian National Museum in Prague and is deemed to be the founder of modern paleobotany. As of 1820 he was on friendly terms with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

The standard botanical author abbreviation Sternb. is applied to species he described.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Brigitte Meyer-Berthaud, S.E. Scheckler, J. Wendt, "Archaeopteris is the Earliest Modern Tree." Nature, 398, 700-701 (22 April 1999) | doi:10.1038/19516
  • Charles H. Wellman, Peter L. Osterloff and Uzma Mohiuddin, "Fragments of the Earliest Land Plants." Nature, 425, 282-285 (18 September 2003) | doi: 10.1038/nature01884
  • Kapp, R.O., Davis, O.K., King, J.E. 2000. Guide to Pollen and Spores. (Second edition). American Association of Stratigraphic Palynologists. ISBN 0931871050
  • Moore, P.D., et al. 1991. Pollen Analysis (Second Edition). Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 0632021764
  • Stewart, W.N. and Rothwell, G.W. 1993. Paleobotany and the evolution of plants, Second edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. ISBN 0-521-38294-7
  • Taylor, T. N. and E. L. Taylor. 1993. The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. ISBN 0-13-651589-4

External links


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Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

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