Hinduism
Italic text Hinduism ; known as Sanātana Dharma, (सनातन धर्म) and Vaidika-Dharma by most Hindus is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on teachings of the Veda scriptures. The name Hinduism is an English term, probably first used in the 1829 Oxford English Dictionary and derived from the Persian for the people who lived beyond the Indus river. It has been argued that Hindusim as decribed in many textbooks and as taught at Universities results from the work of the theosophist, Annie Besant (1847-1933) who designed a syllabus for teaching the sanatana dharma at her Hindu Central College (founded 1898) which systematized the religion into the four classes, four stages of life, four aims, four ages. While derived from the scriptures, this particular way of presenting the relligion as a coherent, unified system may not have existed previously (see Bennett, 2001: 294). Others criticize the Westerern tendency to elevate an abstract, classical or 'Great Tradition' over-and-above the myriad 'small' (or local) traditions that inform the lives of most Hindus. Hinduism encompasses many religious traditions that widely vary by culture, as well as many diverse beliefs and schools. The estimates of Hinduism's origin vary from 3102 B.C.E. to 1300 B.C.E. It is also the third largest religion with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Some Hindus dislike the name 'Hinduism', although many now use the term. Ninety-eight percent of Hinduism's practitioners can be found on the Indian subcontinent, chiefly in Bharat (India). Some argue that Hinduism as such is a Western invention and that there is no singular or unitary religion of India at all. Hinduism may best be regarded as an umbrella term for a multitude of related beliefs and practices, known as margas. Hinduism enjoys close family ties with Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism and is considered to be a cultural sphere in its own right. One definition of a Hindu is anyone who reveres the Vedas. Another says that a Hindu is someone who other Hindus recognize as Hindu, regardless of how different their belief or practice (Weightman, 1997: 262). There are Hindu minorities in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, South Africa and a substantial diaspora presence in Europe and in North America. The relatively small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the modern world with Hinduism as its state religion. Many Princely states in India had Hinduism as their state religion prior to the creation of the modern Indian state.
Many see much ancient wisdom in its foundational texts, the Vedas and Upanishads, which Hindus believe were 'breathed out' by the Gods and represent knowledge. Many people believe that God was revealing God's-self through the ancient laws and ethical principles contained in Hindu scriptures, which speak of a cosmic struggle between order (dharma) and chaos (adharma). Hinduism's inclusive tendency bodes well for the creation of a unified world of peace in which difference and diversity is valued and accepted and no one culture tries to dominate all others. The diversity of Hinduism is such that it embraces theists and non-theists, those who believe in a personal God and those for whom the Absolute is non or trans personal. Hinduism has helped billions of people to make sense of life, and to live orderly lives centered on belief in the existence of universal moral principles for thousands of years. Lipner (1998) points out that for 'well over 3,000 years' Hinduism, or the 'plural reality named as such' has 'regularly produced men and women down the ages who have made outstanding contributions across the range of the civilised human endeavour' (1). The world would be much the poorer if Hinduism, however defined, was absent from human experience. From a providential perspective, Hinduism represents one of the great civilizational streams that has helped to unify humanity and to engender respect for creation and recognition that the physical and material aspects of life are not the only or even the ultimate reality.
Towards a Definition of Hinduism
Traditionally, Hindu was understood to refer to anyone born in India of Indian parents. Hinduism was not a missionary religion that aimed to convert non-Indians. The Government of the Republic of India still defines any Indian who does not claim membership of another faith as a Hindu. However, it is not quite true to say that Hinduism lacked a universal worldview. Its stories of 'creation' and its concepts of the meaning and purpose of life were believed to be universal truths but as a system and way of life Hindu belief was so deeply embedded in Indian culture that no one really thought of exporting Hinduism. Indeed, conviction that travel oustside of India's sacred soil was polluting made this impossible. In the nineteenth century, new interpretations of Hinduism (arguably nonetheless drawing on implicitly universal values) resulted in evangelism and some contemporary Hindu movements accept non-Indians as full members (including induction to priestly functions). Hinduism has been described as a sponge, able to absorb ideas and beliefs into itself. Although it has sometimes been interpreted narrowly, and internal rivalries have not always been absent, it has an inclusive tendency that has more often than not informed tolerance and respect for diversity. Sometimes, though, the Hindu tendency to include you as Hindu when you regard yourself as Buddhist or Sikh, for example, can be unwelcome. The difficulty of identifying a single definition of Hinduism may not be accidental. Hindus themselves speak of 'certain things as having an inner proper form (surupa) - hard to know if not unknowable) which may be experienced under different forms' (Lipner, 1998: 3). Thus, Hinduism is itself experienced under different forms. The term for 'form' here is 'bahurupa) and Lipner continues that 'It is experienced as so many things by Hindus and non-Hindus alike that one may very well ask if it has a bahurupa at all'.
A Critique of Western Study of Hinduism
Contemporary Hindus are critical of many Western, non-Hindu accounts of Hinduism, suggesting that they set out to make Hinduism seem exotic, mysterious, erotic and often somewhat irrational, even magical, demanding a suspension of reason. It is made to appear chaotic alongside the assumed orderliness of Western religion. Even such a renowned scholar as Wendy Doniger, who has served as President of the American Academy of Religion and is a member of the editorial board of the Encylopedia Brittanica, has been criticised for focusing on obscure aspects of Hindu ritual, including sexual elements, blood and fringe elements instead of philosophical and theological aspects. Her translation work has been described as merely paraphrasing earlier work and her competency in Sanskrit has been both questioned and defended. Some call it rudimentary, others claim that she is as fluent in Sankskrit as she is in English! Her article on Hinduism in Encarta has been dropped. Western scholars are also criticized for inventing the Aryan invasion theory (see article on the Indus Valley Civilization which serves to claim European ownership of India's cultures and achievements. This theory, that the Aryans migrated into India from somewhere near Iran, also migrating West into Europe, is in part based on similarity between some of the Vedic deities, and those of ancient Iran, such as of Mithra with Mitra, the day counterpart of the night God Varuna.
On the other hand, the traditional Western account of Hinduism that presents the 'four aims in life', the 'four stages of life' and the duties of the four classes, can be said to reduce the complexity of Hinduism to a formula that has meaning for many Hindus but which is of little relevance for many others. The focus on scriptures, ritual, festivals, beliefs, on the deities and their functions that usually accompanies this approach can have the opposite effect - that is, it can present Hinduism as too similar to say Christianity or Islam as a 'coherent system'. The secret of understanding Hinduism may be that it cannot be reduced to a single, orderly system yet that is does have its own integrity that defies easy description, challenging the Western proclivity towards controlling by knowing. An alternative approach to Hinduism sees it as a many-layed religion, with different strands responding to different needs, which sometimes react to previous layers and to their particular emphasis. This process serves always to include more people rather than to exclude people and to open up new ways of understanding and of relating to the ultimate reality that recedes from us the closer we get to any definitive definition. Each strand caters for particular needs and fulfils a particular function - thus there is a priestly strand, a philosophical strand and a devotional strand, among others. Resisting a single definition of the essence of Hinduism may be as central to what it really is as resisting a single definition of the Ultimate, since once defined the Ultimate ceases to be Ultimate.
The Vedic Heritage: The founding layer
The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and of relevant Hindu texts. The Vedas (literally Knowledge) are considered as shruti(revelation) by Hindus. They were breathed out by the Gods and thus have no beginning in time. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this abstract notion of eternal knowledge. The four Vedas (the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda were preserved by various shakhas or schools. Depending on the school, various commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The oldest of these are the Brahmanas (priests). The Shrautasutras and Grhyasutras form a younger stratum dealing with domestic ritual. This founding layer of Hinduism does establish the four classes (varnas) (brahmins, ksatriya, Vaishya, sudra) as a social system that distributed tasks and responsibilities, and seems to privilege the higest varna, the priests although this has never tranbslated into economic privilege, since the members of the second highest class, the warrior-class, are often wealthier but the merchant Vaishya class may be even richer. Even Sudras, the servants, could rise up the economic scale, and in practice class was never as rigid as has been suggested. In a Rig Veda hymn, these classes emerge from the head, shoulders, thighs and feet of the sacrificial primordial, cosmic Purusha (man)(Embree, 1998: 18). The main Vedic deities include Varuna (sky), Mitra (sun), Indra (war) and Yama (death).
The Vedas contain many different types of material. There are stories of the gods and demons, of the rishis (neither quite gods nor human) and creation narratives. Creation may not be the best translation, because one characteristic of these narratives is that the cosmos emanates from and is therefore a aspect of, the Unfathomable One that stands behind all. The gods, it is implied in the Rig Veda, do not really know how the world began because they are on 'this side' but an unknown, unnamed One 'breathed without wind through its independent power ... There was nothing other than it' (Embree, 1998: 21). The Vedas contain numerous sacrifical formulas, and pit adharma (chaos) against the need for cosmic order (dharma). Dharma is also a God and the term refers both to the sacrificial and other rituals of the Brahmins (properly, Brahman but rendered Brahmin to distinguish from Brahman as ultimate reality) and to that moral conduct that is appropriate to a person's gender, class and stage in life. Originally, Brahman appears to have denoted the prayers of the priests but was eventually adopted to designate the priests themselves. Soma (an intoxixting wine and also a God) and agni (fire, also a God)are essential to the sacrificial system. Medical knowledge is also contained in the Vedas which continues to inform the practice of what is sometimes referred to as 'alternative medicine' in India, that is, alternative to Western medicine. It is also known as Ayurvedic medicine, said to be the oldest system in the world. It was revealed by Brahma to the sage, Atreya. Dance and music were similarly revealed.
The idea of appeasing the gods is not absent from the Vedas but the real purpose of the sacrifices are to maintain cosmic balance. In the Brahmanas (priests' manuals) that were written to accompany the Vedas, Vac (speech, which is feminine) is also said to have created the Vedas. The Brahmins also maintain reigurous purity rules that separate them socially from other classes but especially from the Sudras and from those who are considered to be outside the class system.
The Vedantic Literature: the philosophical strand
The Aranyakas and the Upanishads (which are known as Vedantic, or the end of the Vedas)were originally esoteric, mystical teachings related in secrecy. The Upanishads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each man's soul, seen by some as an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upanishads which represent the 'end of the Vedas'. These are usually dated from the ninth or eight centuries B.C.E. This literature was also 'revealed'. Sometimes, the Upanishads seem to scoff at those who place their faith in sacrifices performed by someone else, 'Regrading sacrifice and merit as most important, the deluded ones do not know of any other igher spiritual good', Munkara Upanishad, Embree: 31). Instead of a physical, an inner, spiritual sacrifice is enjoined, 'sacrifice in knowledge is better than sacrifice with material objects' (Gita, 4: 33, Miller, 1986: 53). The object of religious observance is no longer primarilly the maintenance of cosmic order but especate (moksa) from the endless cycle (samsara) of existences, of multiple births, deaths and rebirths. In the Upanishads, sat (truth or essence)or Brahman, is the All-in-All, or the Universal Soul from which the many emanates: "Being thought to itself: 'May I be many, may I procreate' (Chandogya Upanishad, Embree: 37). Although the word srshti is here translated as 'preocreate', a better rendering is 'the projection of that which already is'.
Brahman is ultimate bliss (ananda). Only Brahman is uncontingent. The many Gods, Vedic and post-Vedic, are usually said to be various manifestations of the attributes or qualities of the single and ultimately transcendant reality. For some, that reality is non-personal, without attributes (nirguna)but at a lower level manifests its attributes in the form of a personal god (Isvara)which take over some of the function of Brahman in relation to the universe and to the atman (soul, or spark) within sentient beings. As a spark of Brahman, the atman is also eternal and uncreated. Ananda (joy, or bliss)results when people realize their oneness with Brahman, which is the condition of samadhi (absorption)and its fruit is moksa (or moksha), liberation from rebirth. Meanwhile, our karma (action) good or bad determineour status, punishment and rewards in future existences. While Brahmanism, or the priestly strand, did not leave non-Brahmins very much to do religiosuly, except to behave ethically, Vedanta opened up the possibility of philosophical speculation (sankhya) and of yogic practice for almost anyone, except that shudras were forbidden from reading the sacred texts. Yoga aims to achieve samadhi. Two great thinkers, Shankara (788-820C.E.) and Ramanuja (1017-1137) contributed significantly to the development of Vendanta. Shankara taught that plurality is an illusion (maya) and that moksa results from realization (cit, awareness) of absolute identification of atman with Brahman. Brahman is beyond space and time. When the knowledge that 'everything is indeed the absolute' (sarvan khalu ilam brahman) is achieved by deep meditation and mental discipline (yoga), the atman is freed of ignorance (avidya) and is forever liberated from samsara. Shankara taught that worship of an Isvara (or personal savior) represented a low level of religious practice. Ramanuja disagreed. For him, Brahman is both the self without and the self-within, the essence of the universe and a personal deity. Plurality is real, not an illusion; the many really exist but only exist fully when aware of their absolute dependemce on Brahman. The reaized self participates in God's being, yet is not to be confused with the totality of God. For Ramanuja, it is God's dominant characteristic of love that enables us to gain true knowledge of God. God remains the only self-illumniated being; we can only enter a true relationship with God with the aid of divine grace (prasada). Individuality (ahamkara), for Shankara, must perish; for Ramanuja,it continues but in communion with all other selves. Vedanta's primary concern in right knowledge (jnana), although right action is always important.
The Puranas and the Devotional Strand (Bhakti)
Around 300B.C.E., the great epics known as the Puranas, which include the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were 'remembered' (smriti). These stories are more familiar to the vast majority of Hindus than the contents of the Vedic and Vedantic literature. The Mahabharata is also a story of origins, a sacred history of India. The strand of religious practice represented by the Puranas is devotion, devotion to a 'personal God' chosen by each individual, who, in return for worship and servive, will aid the individual in their quest for moksha. this is known as the bhakti tradition, or way (marga). By the time that the Puranas were written, the main deities of the Vedas had been supplanted in popular devotion by a pantheon of three, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, respectively creator, preserver and destroyer (then a new cycle of existence begins). The image of the trimurti is very popular in India, which represents the unity of the three aspects of God. Each has a consost: Saraswati (associated with education and speech); Lakshmi (prosperity) and Parvati (creativity, the arts). The qualities of fame, fortune, memory, speech, intelligence and resolve are all listed as feminine (Gita, 10: 34). Each of the three have their own Puranas, and in these texts there is a tendency to regard the subject as the most important deity, assuming the functions of all three. In popular Hindusim, Brahma is less important that Vishnu and Shiva. As preserver, Vichnu manifests or appears in human form whenever humanity is in peril. These manifestations, or Avatars include Ram and Krishna, whose stories are told in the Ramayana and Mahabharata respectively. One of the most widely read and important Hindu scriptures, the Bhagavadgita, is actually chapter 11 of the Mahabharata. Although part of a Purana, it is widely considered to be Vedantic. In this text, which is said to summarize Vedanta, Krishna reveals himself to his charioteer, Arjuna. While technically the Gita is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive single Hindu text. Unlike the Vedas that are that are more esoteric and intricate, the Gita is read by many practising Hindus on a largely daily basis. Krishna reveals that He is all-in-all. He is the sacred syllable, Om (associated with the act of creation), He is Shiva and Brahma. He is Vyasa among the sages (Vyasa is the rishi who narrates the Mahabharata). He creates and destroys, thus making both Brahma and Shiva redundant. Whoever worship God in any form, though, be they women or men high born or low born with love and sincerity, really worship Krishna, who will gracefully accept their worship as if it were direcet at Himself. Krishna says, in The Gita:
Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, I make his faith steady. However, their wishes are only granted by Me (Gita: 7:21-22)
O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other lesser deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, but in an improper way because I am the Supreme Being. I alone am the enjoyer of all sacrificial services (Seva, Yajna) and Lord of the universe (Gita: 9:23). The Vishnu- tardition is often referred to as Vaishnavism.
Shiva's Purana also depicts Him as the all-in-all. Shiva is both the God of ascetic practic and of sexual prowess. His consort, too, has two forms - benign and beautiful (to lure him away from his meditation) and powerful and destructive of evil to protext Shiva when he is unaware of danger. Their son, Ganesh (the elephant headed God) is also a popular deity. Known as the remover of obstacles, his Temples are often found on street corners. Tantric Hinduism uses sex and sexual energy to release innert powers that can help us to overcome duality by embracing what is dark and forbidden. The Bhakti tradition, which focuses on personal devotion to one's chosen Isvara tends to disregard gender and class. It is not uncommon, in a bhakti Temple in India, to see a non-Brahmin women dressing the murti (image) of the deity, and placing this in the inner-chamber, a task that Brahmanism reserves for male priests. Bahkti services are often informal, consisting of singing led by whoever is gifted musically, sometimes with spontaneous homilies and devotional prayers. Bhakti Hindus may not see themselves as in need of Brahmins but this does not mean that they do not respect the Brahmin's way of life. Images (murtis) of the deities are believed to contain the 'presence' of the God's but they are not objects of worship for Hindus, who worship the reality behind the symbol. Hinduism was often taken to be a form of idolatry by Westerners. The cave images at Elephanta Island were damaged by the Portugese.
Another accusation was that Hindus were polytheist but most Hindus beleive in one ultimate reality which manifests itself plurally. Although Western fascination for sexual aspects of Hindusim has been criticised, Temple images do depict Gods and goddesses sensually and seem to celebrate rather than shy away from sex as a legitimate and enjoyable part of life, within the bond of marriage. The 4th century CE text, the Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, has become popular in the West. The Shiva-tradition is often referred to as Shaivism. Devotees of Vishnu or Shiva can be identified by distinctive tilaka markings.
Core Concepts
The Eternal Way
"The Eternal Way" (in Sanskrit सनातन धर्म, Sanātana Dharma), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", its traditional name, speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a supramental soul-state that exists within and beyond our existence, the unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was lost, only hidden.
Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following sutra (thread, or verse of scripture):
- OM Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam gamaya
- "OM Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."
Basic beliefs
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in Dharma (natural principles), Reincarnation (rebirth), Karma (cause and effect relationship) , and Moksha (liberation from earthly matters) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative yogas. Reincarnation or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Moksha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the atman. These actions affect the course of life and the form and life path sought by the soul in its next cycle of life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the divine supreme and lead to a birth with higher-consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the divine supreme and mislead the soul to seek knowledge through material experiences in various forms of worldly life. All existence, per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma, which is the natural harmony or law of the entity. Liberation from this material existance and cycle of birth and death, to join or reach the Universal spirit or God (depending on belief), is known as moksha, which is the ultimate goal of Hindus.
Still more fundamental principles include the guru/chela (teacher-pupil) dynamic, the Divinity of Word of Aum or OM and the power of mantras (religious word or phrase), love of Truth in many manifestations as Gods and Goddesses, and an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine (Atman/Brahman) is in every living being. It allows for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary Truth. Gurus may function, for their devotees or followers, as channels of communication between God and often mystical or miraculous gifts and abilities are associated with them. For example, they may heal the sick, lie on birniung coals, become invisible or hover above the ground. Some may also be regarded as Avatars. Millions venerate Satya Sai Baba as the embodiment of all aspects of the Godhead. Sophisticated organization often surround Gurus, such as the Swaminarayan Sampradaay, founded by Swami Narayan (1781-1830) believed to be a manifestation of Vishnu. He taught that individual lives (jibas) do not merge with the Ultimate but exist to offer praise and devotion to God. The movement is led by Acharyas, who represent the Guru on earth but who are not regarded as possessing any special powers or authority. They are really administrators. The Swaminarayan Temple in Neasden, UK was built according to traditional design, with many segments being carved in India and exported for assembly. Traditionally, high caste Hindus were relcutant to travel outside India because they believed they would lose ritual purity. Also, the very soil of India is so sacred for Hindus that many felt they could not be content with life elsewhere. In fact, however, Hinduism reached what is now Indonesia between 400 and 600C.E. (93% of the island of Bali). Two of the four Vedas are used. Places in Bali and elsewhere in the world where Hindus have settled eventually acquired their own sanctity. Some Temples in the Western Diaspora are now also reconized as especially sacred.
Rituals
Many Hindus practice rituals (Samskaras) based on their ancient texts marking the cycle of life events, including birth, marriage, death and for the twice-born classes (which excludes Shudras) the sacred thread ceremony (Upanayana). On their marriage day, all Hindus represent the ideal couple, Ram and his consort, Sita. Marriage repays debts to one's ancestors.
Murtis (images) of the deities are washed, bathed and treated with great reverence. They are housed in the inner sanctuary of Mandirs, or Temple. Mandirs are regarded as sacred places. There are many ancient Temples in India. The basic design followed the pattern of the mandala, which leads the devotees from the temporal spehere into eternity. Temples are entered through porches which face the east, that is, the rising sun. Several halls or Mandapas may lead off the porch but the main route through the temple, from east to west, leads towards the inner sanctuary, or womb (garbgriha), over which towers the garbagriha, often ornately carved with image of the deities. In addition to ancient Temples, rivers (such as the Ganges) and places, such as Varanasi, are also sacred. Ganga is said to flow from Shiva's matted hair. Nature is herself holy, a reminder that the whole world emanates from the divine. Puja (worship), popularly often consisting of singing and sometimes dance, are offered in Temples but many Hindus visit the Temple porimarilly to 'see' the deity (darshan, also used to describe a hearing or audience with the treaditional princely rulers of India).
Hindu festivals are also popular forms of devotion in which many Hindus participate, regardless of class. Holi is the spring and harvest festival. Everyone has great fun covering each other in paint - which symbolises the equality of all people. Diwali, often called the festival of lights, celbrates among other events the triumphant homecoming to Ayodhia of the ideal couple, Ram and Sita after Sita's rescure from the clutches of the evil demon-king, Ravana. Raksha Bandhan is a ceremony in which brothers, who are symbolically tied to their sister, pledge to protect them.
Practice (Yoga Dharma)
Hinduism is practised through a variety of spiritual practices, primarily loving devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jnana or Raja Yoga) . These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism. The yogas provide a sort of taxonomy of paths (or faiths) that links together various hindu beliefs and can also be used to categorize non-hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to moksha, or nirvana.
The four goals of life
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of purushartha, the "four goals of life". They are kama, artha, dharma and moksha. It is said that all humans seek kama (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of dharma, or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is moksha (liberation), (a.k.a. Mukti, Samadhi, Nirvana, etc.) from Samsara (a.k.a. Reincarnation), the material existence.
The four stages of life
Ideally, the human life is divided into four Ashramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are Brahmacharya, Grihasthya, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya (literally "grazing in Brahma") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a Guru, building up body and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully shed the body for the next life. The sacred texts set out duties appropriate for one's stage of life, gender and class.
Nature of God
The Vedas depict the monad Brahman as the one source or God, with all other deities emanating therefrom. Brahman (not to be confused with Brahma) is seen as the universal spirit. Brahman is the ultimate, both transcendent and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Additionally, like Abrahamic religions which believe in angels, Hindus also believe in more powerful entities, emanating from Brahman, such as devas.
Brahman or God is viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguna Brahman) or with attributes (Saguna Brahman). In the monotheistic faiths of Vaishnavism and Shaivism, (Saguna Brahman) is God viewed as mostly male as in Vishnu or Shiva. God's power (or energy) is personified as female or Shakti. However, God and God's energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents God and the actual heat Shakti. According to Smarta views, God can be with form, Saguna Brahman, and with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female God) a devotee conceives.
Though all the different paths of Moksha (salvation, liberation) are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and his nature is what differentiates them. "... in the Rig Veda: `To the Seers, our ancestors, the first path-finders!' These Vedic hymns have been described by Rabindranath Tagore as `a poetic testament of a people's collective reaction to the wonder and awe of existence. A people of vigorous ..." (Nehru, 79) .
Paths or Margas (schools)
Each of Hinduisms four denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (moksa, liberation) and on their concept of God (Brahman). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare.
Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions of Him, Hindus all believe in one God but differ in their conceptions. The two primary form of differences are between the two monotheistic religions of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Vishnu and Shaivism, which conceives God as Shiva. Shaktism worships the Goddess Devi as Brahman or alternatively (where it is viewed as a subsect of Shaivism) as the energy of Shiva, the impersonal Brahman. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all paths being true and leading to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the Ultimate Truth. The Trimurti concept (also called the Hindu trinity) of Smartism denotes the three aspects of God in His forms as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer.
It should be noted however that the majority of Hindus do not fall under any of these denominations and tend to hold the most inclusive, the Smarta, viewpoint.
Smartism
The Smarta perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West. Smarta monists, seeing in multiple manifestations the one God or source of being, are often confused by non-Hindus as being polytheists. It is seen as one unity, with the personal gods being different aspects of only one Supreme Being, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and are valid to worship. Some of the Hindu aspects of God include Devi, Vishnu, Ganesh, and Siva. Smarta Hindus believe that God, in whatever form they prefer, (or as monists prefer to call, "Ishta Devata,", i.e., the preferred form of God) can grant worshippers grace to bring them closer to Moksha, end of the cycle of rebirth. The Hindu saint, Ramakrishna, a monist, was a prominent advocate of this traditional Hindu view. He achieved the spiritual high of other religions besides Hinduism, such as Christianity and Islam, and came to the same conclusion proclaimed by the Vedas, "Truth is one, the wise call it by different names." Smartism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly.
A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu as the one true God, worthy of worship and other forms as subordinate. Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that only Vishnu can grant the ultimate aim for mankind, moksha. However, even Vaisnavites, like other Hindus, have tolerance for other beliefs because Lord Krishna, avatar of Vishnu, and God in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, says in the Gita :
Shaivism
Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that the ascetic Lord Shiva is the Supreme Brahman and all other deities sprung forth from him. It has both monistic and dualistic traditions.
Shaktism
Shaktas worship Shakti (or Devi) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity. The "History of the Shakta Religion" explains that The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature. It is associated with Vedanta, Samkhya and Tantra philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of Bhakti yoga associated with it.
Shaivite views often consider Shaktism to be sub-denomination of Saivism, arguing that Devi is worshipped in order to attain union with Siva, who in Saivism is the impersonal unmanifest Absolute. This remains a minority view in Shaktism proper.
Origins, definition and society
Origins of Hinduism
Hinduism is the world's oldest major religion in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanatana Dharma is eternal, Universal principles with no beginning or end. Current historical thinking suggests that Hinduism was formed somewhere between 1500-1300 B.C.E. An earlier date of approximately 3102 B.C.E. comes from a closer examination of the Mahabharata epic, where the exact positions of the stars were recorded at Lord Krishna's birth. The date of 1500-1300 B.C.E. comes from the linguistic and literary dating of the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu spiritual texts. Hindu beliefs place Lord Krishna's birth at a date 5000 years ago. Lord Krishna is believed to have been an incarnation of the majestic Lord Vishnu. This incarnation was preceded by an incarnation as Lord Rama which is dated at over 7000 years ago. It is believed by many Hindus that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rama's incarnation, which was believed to be the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. If this is true, this makes the religion much older than previously thought, though no texts exist from those times to confirm this.
The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a single time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was written by enlightened beings over a long period of time. The term 'Hinduism' itself is a corrupt form of the word 'Sindhu', which literally means 'dweller in the Indus Valley'. The religion is often named (more appropriately) as Sanatana Dharma in all of its books.
Hinduism is non-organisational and does not seek or encourage collectivism.
Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the religion described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda centres on worship of the gods Indra and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The Ashvamedha was the most important sacrifice described in the Yajurveda, possibly performed for the last time by Samudragupta in the 4th century. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta, which are sometimes traced back to either the influence of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. Indus Valley Civilisation, or to a 2nd millennium B.C.E. Indo-Iranian migration (see Aryan invasion theory), or to a combination of these.
Caste system
The four Hindu varnas (literally, 'colors') or castes are Brahmins (priests, learned men), Kshtriyas (warriors & royalty), Vysyas (merchants) and Sudras (workers). These divisions are based upon the duties to society and the different varnas are meant to work together towards the welfare of the society.
The hereditary nature of caste and whether it is sanctioned by the scriptures is the subject of much discussion and controversy. In spite of centuries of numerous reform movements, notably within Vedanta, bhakti yoga and Hindu streams of Tantra, and reformers, with recent stalwarts like Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi, caste based discrimination is so deeply ensconced in the Indian consciousness that even Christian converts have been known to separate church meetings for different castes. A number of Muslim communities have retained caste practices as well.
Caste still plays a significant role in Hindu society. However, post Independence, caste is losing favour in India and caste-based discrimination has been illegitimised. There is provision for reverse discrimination and measures such as backward caste quotas in collegiate admissions and jobs have been taken by the government. [1]. Caste-based quotas have been controversial with various political parties exploiting these divisions for electoral gain.
Hindutva
Main Articles: Hindutva, Hindu Rashtra,
In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasise Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva ("Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that "no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage." Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by Savarkar in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement. It has come to symbolise the rising bi-polarisation of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same period.
Temples
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other deities associated with the main deity. (In the US though, most mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities.) Most major temples are constructed per the aagama shastras.
Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), puja, meditation, and religious congregation among other religious activities. Puja, or ritual devotion, frequently uses the aid of a murti (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kirtan (praise), and arti (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium.
The temple culture has been undergone dramatic changes, partly due to the deteriorating social status and influence of brahmins. Similarly, the unique institute of sacred temple dancers and artists, devadasis, has gone through many upheavals.
Most practising Hindus maintain a mandir (temple) in their homes for daily worship and meditation.
Current geographic distribution
Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in Bharat (India). Other countries with a significant number of Hindu communities include:
- Nepal (23 million)
- Bangladesh (14.4 million)
- Indonesia (4.3 million)
- Pakistan (2.5 million)
- Sri Lanka (3 million)
- Malaysia (1.5 million)
- The United States (1.5 million)
- South Africa (1.1 million)
- Middle East (1 million)
- The United Kingdom (800,000)
- Russia (700,000)
- Mauritius (600,000)
- Bhutan (560,000)
- Trinidad and Tobago (330,000)
- Canada (320,000)
- Fiji (340,000)
- Guyana (300,000)
- Netherlands (250,000)
- Singapore (160,000)
- Suriname (110,000)
- Kenya (100,000)
- Germany (100,000)
- Australia (60,000)
- France (50,000)
- Switzerland (50,000)
The Indonesian islands of Bali, Java, Sulawesi, Sumatra, and Borneo have significant native Hindu populations. Bali's major religion is Hinduism and is still reflected on the traditional Balinese culture and architecture.
Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought
- Main article: Hindu philosophy
The six Astika or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and Uttara Mimamsa (also called 'Vedanta'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nastika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. The schools that continue to affect Hinduism today are Purva Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta. See Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika.
Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. This empirical and eminently sensible manner of religious application is key to the Sanatana/Hindu Dharma and was especially championed by rationalists like Adi Sankara and Swami Vivekananda.
Yoga
The Yoga system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. The yoga referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on the sage Patanjali's extremely influential text entitled the Yoga Sutra, which is essentially a compilation and systematisation of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before. Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.
The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical world view but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of purusha (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also utilises the Brahman/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth in the Upanishads, adopting Vedantic monist concepts. Realisation of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha or samadhi. It, like the Upanishads, seeks realisation of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.'
Uttara Mimamsa: the three schools of Vedanta
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the Upanishads and their commentary by Badarayana, the Vedanta Sutras, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought, which focused on meditation, morality and focus on the one Self rather than on rituals and societal distinctions like caste. The great debate between followers among the major Hindu philosophical school, Vedanta, from followers of Advaita philosophy on one hand and the strict theistic schools such as those of Ramanuja and Madhva on the other, focused on the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman was essentially attributeless or with attributes, i.e., a personal Supreme Being.
Pure monism: Advaita
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was Sankara (788?-820?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and his own guru Govinda Bhagavadpada. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in which Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced caste and meaningless ritual as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth.
To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Truth is best expressed as Nirguna Brahman, or God without form, or God without personal attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God such as Vishnu or Shiva are different aspects of God in personal form or God with attributes, Saguna Brahman. God's energy is personified as Devi, the Divine Mother. For Vaishnvaites who follow Ramanuja's philosophy, Devi is Lakshmi, who is the Mother of all and who pleads with Vishnu for mankind who is entrenched in sin. For Shaivites, Devi is Parvati. For Shaktas, who worship Devi, Devi is the personal form of God to attain the impersonal Absolute, God, i.e., Shiva. For them, Shiva is personified as God without attributes. See Advaita for more.
Qualified monism: Vishistadvaita
Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.
Dualism: Dvaita
Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.
Alternative cultures of worship
The Bhakti schools
The Bhakti (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form. Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realisation.
Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The Bhakti movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries.
Tantra
Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. Tantra can be concisely described as the black sheep of Hindu yoga.
- For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given, said Shiva on the Kuala school of Tantrism.
The word "tantra" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and Yoga.
Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism
Tika (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows)
The laltika (or bindi) (seen left) is a religious symbol sometimes denoting marriage. It is also believed to symbolise the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye."
Hindus stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god Shiva. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent tika (tilaka) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for Vishnu, a group of three horizontal lines for Shiva. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).
Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow
Ahimsa is a concept which advocates non-violence and a respect for all life. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads and in Raja Yoga, it is the first of the five yamas, or eternal vows/restraints of yoga.
A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. While vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, in certain northerly states like Gujarat, and in many Brahmin enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian.
Those Hindus who do eat meat predominantly abstain from beef, some even avoid the usage of leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied so heavily on the cow for dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (so the term gau mata). While most Hindus do not worship the cow, it still holds an honoured place in Hindu society. It is said that Krishna is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and Shiva's attendant is Nandi, the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling beef.
Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, two are quintessentially a part of its culture and representative of its general ethos:
Aum (ॐ) is the standard sign of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu mantras and prayers. It contains an enormous and diverse amount of symbolism; Hindus consider its sound and vibration to be the divine representation of existence, encompassing all of manifold nature into the One eternal truth. ; see Aum for more detail. The swastika (卐) is an Arya, or noble symbol. It stands for satya, truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions and their harmonious whole. It has been used in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture and is still widespread in the Indian subcontinent. Many Eastern cultures still hold it to be sacred, especially in India, in spite of the recent association with Nazism which perverted the original meaning of this universal symbol. .
Murtis (icons)
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.
Worship of deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (murti) which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to be the concept or entity itself.
In a Mandir, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at their installation. Worship of such Murtis is done everyday in a temple. Most practising Hindus also maintain a temple in their homes for worship and meditation.
Some of deities worshipped are Vishnu (as Krishna or Rama), Swaminarayan, Shiva, Devi (the Mother as many female deities, such as Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Durga), Ganesha, Skanda and Hanuman. Also, the puranas list twenty-five avatara of Vishnu : Catursana, Narad, Varaha, Matsya, Yajna, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Dattatreya, Hayasirsa, Hamsa, Prsnigarbha, Rsabha, Prithu, Narasimha , Kurma, Dhanvantari, Mohini, Vamana, Parasurama, Raghavendra, Vyasa, Balarama, Krishna, Buddha (Buddhists do not regard Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu). Some Hindus regard Jesus as another avatar of Vishnu.
Mantra
Reciting mantras is a fundamental practice in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the murti. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi's dying words were a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: "Hai Ram!"'.
The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed Gayatri Mantra (see Sanskrit for pronunciation):
- Devanagari: ॐ भूर्भुवस्वः | तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात्
- Transliteration: OM bhūr bhuva svaḥ | tat savitūr vareṇyam | bhargo devasya dhīmahi | dhiyo yo naḥ pra-codayāt
- Translation: "May we attain that excellent glory of Savitar the God / so May he stimulate our prayers."
It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal Brahman as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga/Ganges).
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. Hinduism: A Religion to Live By. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
- Weightman, Simon "Hinduism" 261-309 in Hinnells, John A New Handbook of Living Religions, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1997 ISBN 0140514805
- Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
- "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online
See also
| Part of a series on Hindu scriptures | |
| |
| Vedas | |
|---|---|
| Rigveda · Yajurveda | |
| Samaveda · Atharvaveda | |
| Vedic divisions | |
| Samhita · Brahmana | |
| Aranyaka · Upanishad | |
| Upanishad | |
| Aitareya · Brihadaranyaka | |
| Isha · Taittiriya · Chandogya | |
| Kena · Mundaka | |
| Mandukya · Prashna | |
| Shvetashvatara | |
| Vedanga | |
| Shiksha · Chandas | |
| Vyakarana · Nirukta | |
| Jyotisha · Kalpa | |
| Itihasa | |
| Mahabharata · Ramayana | |
| Other scriptures | |
| Smriti · Śruti | |
| Bhagavad Gita · Purana | |
| Agama · Darshana | |
| Pancharatra · Tantra | |
| Sutra · Stotra ·Dharmashastra | |
| Divya Prabandha | |
| Tevaram · Akhilathirattu | |
| Ramacharitamanas | |
| Shikshapatri · Vachanamrut | |
| Bibliography | |
Hinduism
- Contemporary Hindu movements
- Hinduism by country
- Hindu temples
- Hindu deities
- Hindu Calendar
- List of Hindu denominations
- List of Hindus
- List of Hinduism-related articles
- Sanskrit
- Vedic science
- Puja
Related systems
External links
- ISKCON A Vaishnava Bhakti movement
- Swaminarayan Sampraday Infomation on the Swaminarayan faith
- Heart of Hinduism Produced by practitioners, he Heart of Hinduism, in the spirit of the tradition, aims to be non-sectarian, even-handed, and respectful in its description of all the Hindu traditions
- A Tribute To Hinduism - On Hindu culture's achievements in various fields.
- Atma Jyoti Ashram Articles on aspects of Hindu spirituality.
- BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism
- Authentic Hinduism Encyclopedia
- Hinduism.co.za
- Hindu.org
- Hindunet.org
- Hinduism and Hinduism resources
- Sarve Samachar - Hindu news
- VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online
Hindu Texts
- Hindubooks.org
- Krishna.com - The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Bhagavad-gita online and extensive other resources
- Hindu Poets - Collection of Hindu Poetry
- Sacred-Texts: Hinduism
Hinduism by country
- www.afghanhindu.info
- Hindu Students Council (primarily in the Americas, but with international chapters)
Links to themes in Hinduism
- Common Questions about Hinduism
- What is Hinduism? by Ed Viswanathan
- Indian Philosophy and Religion by Gokulmuthu
- The Six Systems of Hindu Philosophy by Raghavan Iyer
- Hinduism and views on various topics.
- Dancing with Siva, Himalayan Academy's book on Hinduism for Westerners and has a strong overview of Shaivism.
- Swami Sivananda's book on Hinduism, also available on PDF.
- Hindu Dharma, another book on Hinduism, also available on PDF.
- Dvaita.org on the oneness of God, stressing Vishnu as the one God and source of all manifestations
- Ten common questions by outsiders and pertinent answers.
- Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism
- Overview of the four divisions of Hinduism
- (oneness of God from an Advaita perspective); also see chapter 10.
- see only one God, expressed for Shaivites as Shiva
- Hinduism for the next Generation - A detailed presentation for the beginner & the neophyte
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