Vaishnavism

File:Vishnu.jpg

Vishnu as worshipped in the form of Satya Narayana

Vaishnavism (Sanskrit for "belonging to Vishnu") is one of the principal traditions of Hinduism, and is distinguished from other schools by its primary worship of Vishnu and his associated avatars as the supreme divinity. It is mainly monotheistic in its philosophy, whilst incorporating some panentheistic ideas. Its beliefs and practices, are based largely on Vedic and Puranic texts such as Bhagavad Gita, Isha Upanishad, and the Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas. Practice in Vaishnavism is also informed by bhakti, an intense form of devotionalism to a personal god, and its history is largely linked to the development of this type of religiosity in India. The followers of Vaishnavism are referred to as 'Vaishnava(s)', sometimes 'Vaishnavites' in English. According to recent statistics, Vaishnavas make up approximately 70% of the total of all followers of Hinduism with the vast majority of these followers situated in India. In the past fifty years, the Gaudiya Vaishnava branch has increased the worldwide distribution of the tradition, largely through the activities of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON).

History

The Bhakti Movement of Hinduism (loosely translated as devotional love to God) was essentially founded in South India and later spread to Northern India during the late medieval period. A nascent consciousness of what 'Bhakti' constitutes is already to be found in the earliest Vedas, especially in relation to deities such as Varuna. A clearer expression of Bhakti began to be formed during the so-called Epic Period and the Puranic periods of Hindu history. Texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana clearly explore Bhakti Yoga or the Path of Devotion as a means to salvation.

The Bhakti Movement itself is a historical-spiritual phenomenon that crystallized in South India during Late Antiquity. It was spearheaded by devotional mystics (later revered as Hindu saints) who extolled devotion and love to God as the chief means of spiritual perfection. The Bhakti movement in South India was spearheaded by the sixty-three Nayanars (Shaivite devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite devotees).

The Vaishnavaite Bhakti movement was contemporaneous with the Shaiva Bhakti movement. The hymns of the twelve alvars are held together as the 'Nalayira Divya Prabandham' and recited in temple rituals. Whilst all the saints are held in great reverence, Aandaal (or Goda-devi) in particular holds a special place among the Vaishnava saints. Not only is she the only female Vaishnava saint but also her hymns are among the best expressions of bridal mysticism in the Hindu religion.

The twelve Alvars and the sixty-three Nayanars nurtured the incipient bhakti movement in South India under the Pallavas and Pandyas in the fifth to seventh centuries C.E. They constitute South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti and were greatly influential in determining the expression of faith in South India. The path of devotion as expounded by these mystics would later be incorporated into Ramanuja and Madhva philosophical systems.

The late Bhakti movement led to the proliferation of regional poetic literature in the various vernacular languages of India. The Bhakti movement in what is now Karnataka resulted in a burst of poetic Kannada literature in praise of Lord Vishnu. Some of its leaders include Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa, whose contributions were essential to Carnatic music. The later Carnatic Trinity is also no doubt a product of this long Bhakti Movement.

The Bhakti movement began to spread to the North during the late medieval ages when North India was under Muslim domination. There was no grouping of the mystics into Shaiva and Vaishnava devotees as it was in the South. The movement was spontaneous and the various mystics had their own version of devotional expression. Unlike in the South where devotion was centred on both Shiva and Vishnu (in all his forms), the Northern devotional movement was more or less centred on Rama and Krishna, both of whom were incarnations of Vishnu. Though this did not mean that the cult of Shiva or of the Devi went into decline. In fact for all of its history the Bhakti movement co-existed peacefully with the other movements in Hinduism. It was initially considered unorthodox as it rebelled against caste distinctions and made disregarded Brahmanic rituals which according to Bhakti saints not necessary for salvation. In the course of time however, owing to its immense popularity among the masses (and even royal patronage) it became 'orthodox' and continues to be one of the most important modes of religious expression in modern India.

In the period between the 14-17th centuries, a great bhakti movement swept through Northern India initiated by a loosely associated group of teachers or 'Sants'. Caitanya, Vallabha, Meera Bai, Kabir, Tulsi Das, Tukaram and other mystics spearheaded the Bhakti movement in the North. Their teachings were that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual and caste and the subtle complexities of philosophy and simply express their overwhelming love for God. This period was also characterised by a spate of devotional literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the various Indian states or provinces.

Rama bhakti

The leader of the bhakti movement focusing on the Lord as Rama was Ramananda. Very little is known about him, but he is believed to have lived in the first half of the 15th century. He taught that Lord Rama is the supreme Lord, and that salvation could be attained only through love for and devotion to him, and through the repetition of his sacred name.

Ramananda's ashram in Varanasi became a powerful centre of religious influence, from which his ideas spread far and wide among all classes of Indians. One of the reasons for his great popularity was that he renounced Sanskrit and used the language of the people for the composition of his hymns. This paved the way for the modern tendency in northern India to write literary texts in local languages.

Devotees of Krishna worship Him in different mellows, known as rasas. Two major systems of Krishna worship developed, each with its own philosophical system. These two moods as called aishwaryamaya bhakti and madhuryamaya bhakti. Aishwaryamaya bhakti is revealed in the abode of queens and kingdom of Krishna in Dwaraka. Madhuryamaya Bhakti is revealed in the abode of braja. Thus krishna is variously worshipped according to the development of devotee's taste in worshipping the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Sri Krishna, as father, friend, master, beloved and many different varieties which are all extraordinary. Krishna is famous as Makhanchor, or butterthief. He loved to eat butter and is the beloved of his little village in Gokul. These are all transcendental descriptions. Thus they are revealed to the sincere devotees in proportion to the development in their love of Godhead.

Shri Madhvacharya (1238-1317) identified God with Vishnu. His view of reality is purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. Madhva is considered one of the influential theologians in Hindu history. His influence was profound, and he is one of the fathers of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. Great leaders of the Vaishnava Bhakti movement in Karnataka like Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa, Raghavendra Swami and many others were influenced by Dvaita traditions.

Vallabhacharya (1479 - 1531) called his system of thought Shuddhadvaita (pure monism). According to him, it is by God's grace alone that one can obtain release from bondage and attain Krishna's heaven. This heaven is far above the "heavens" of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, for Krishna is himself the eternal Brahman.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 - 1534) defined his system of philosophy as Achintya Bheda Abheda (inconceivable and simultaneous oneness and difference). It synthesizes elements of monism and dualism into a single system. Chaitanya's philosophy is taught by the contemporary International Society for Krishna Consciousness, better known as the Hare Krishna movement.

Srimanta Sankardeva (1449-1568) named his religion ek sarana naam dharma and propagated it in Assam. An example of dasa bhakti, in this form there was no place for Radha. The most important symbol of this religion is the naamghor or prayer hall, which dot Assam's landscape. This form of worship is very strong in Assam today, and much of the traditions are maintained by the monasteries called Satras.

Important Figures

Prominent historical personalities include:

• Ramanuja
• Nimbarka
• Madhva
• Vallabha
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
• Bhakti Tirtha Swami

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Present-day Murtis of the twelve Alvar saints

With the help of Alvars, a set of twelve people who with their devotional hymns spread the sect to the common people, Vaishnavism flourished in South India. Some of the prominent Alvars are:

1. Poigai Alvar
2. Bhoothathalvar
3. Peyalvar
4. Thirumalisai Alvar
5. Madhurakavi Alvar
6. Nammalvar
7. Periyalvar
8. Andal
9. Kulasekara Alvar
10. Thondaradippodi Alvar
11. Thiruppaana Alvar
12. Thirumangai Alvar

Temple dedicated to the worship of Vishnu as Venkateswara.

Vaishnavism is still particularly commonplace throughout South India as a result of the Alvars, especially in Tamil Nadu. The temples which the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu in Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira (Divya Prabandha).

In later years Vaishnava pracitices increased in popularity due to the influence of sages like Ramanuja, Vedantha Desikar, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tyagaraja, etc...

Theology

Vishnu: The Supreme

The principal belief of Vaishnavism is the supremacy of Vishnu or Narayana as the one Supreme God. This principle is also applicable to the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu as listed within the Puranas but excludes all other personalities referred in the Vedas or similar texts, (i.e Ganesh, Surya or Durga etc...) which are instead classified as 'demi-gods' or devas. Shiva is also viewed as subservient to Vishnu, although with the understanding that he is also above the category of an ordinary living being (jiva) . Some Vaishnava schools also identify the God of the Abrahamic religions with Vishnu, although it is not an essential tenet of Vaishnava belief, being outside of the scope of Vedic evidence.

Bhakti Worship

Bhakti movements are Hindu religious movements in which the main spiritual practice is the fostering of loving devotion to God, called bhakti. They are monotheistic movements generally devoted to worship of Shiva or Vishnu or Shakti. Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hindusim such as reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan) and performing deity worship (puja). Within their worship Vaishnava devotees will always see themselves as (at least partially) separate or distinct from their lord, Vishnu. Unlike other schools of Hinduism whose goal is liberation (moksha), or union with the Supreme Brahman, the ultimate goal of Vaishnava practice is an eternal life of bliss (ananda) in service to Vishnu, or one of his many avatars, in the spiritual realm of 'Vaikuntha', which lies beyond the temporary world of illusion (maya). The three features of the Supreme as described in the Bhagavata Purana—Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan—are viewed as the Universal Vishnu, Vishnu within the heart, and Vishnu the personality respectively.

Initiation

Vaishnavas commonly follow a process of initiation (diksha), given by a guru, under whom they are trained in order to understand Vaishnava practices. At the time of initiation the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra, which they will then repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa. The system of receiving initiation and training from a spiritual master is based on injunctions throughout scriptures held as sacred within the Vaishnava traditions:

"Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render service unto him. The self-realized souls can impart knowledge unto you because they have seen the truth".(Bhagavad Gita)

"One who is initiated into the Vaishnava mantra and who is devoted to worshiping Lord Vishnu is a Vaishnava. One who is devoid of these practices is not a Vaishnava."(Padma Purana)

Attitude to scriptures

Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous acharyas in their respective lineage or sampradya (see below) as authoritive interpretations of scripture. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage interpretation of the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Goswami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27).

Orders- Lineages

Within traditional Vaishnavism there are four main disciplic lineages (sampradayas), each of which traces its roots back to a specific Vedic personality. The four sampradayas follow subtly different philosophical systems regarding the relationship between the soul (jiva) and God (Vishnu), although the majority of other core beliefs are identical.

• Rudra-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Shuddhadvaita ("pure nondualism"), espoused by Vallabhacharya.

• Brahma-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Dvaita ("dualism"), espoused by Madhvacharya, and also -

Achintya Bheda Abheda ("inconceivable oneness and difference"), espoused by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (See Gaudiya Vaishnavism).

• Lakshmi-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Vishishtadvaita ("qualified nondualism"), espoused by Ramanuja (See Sri Vaishnavism).

• Kumara-Sampradaya

Philosophy: Dvaitad belowvaita ("duality in unity"), espoused by Nimbarka. (See Nimbarka Sampradaya)

• Gaudiya Vaishnavism is a Vaishnava religious movement founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534) in India in the 16th Century. 'Gaudiya' refers to Gauda-desh (present day Bengal/Bangladesh) with Vaishnavism meaning the worship of Vishnu. Its philosophical basis is primarily that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana, as well as other Puranic scriptures and Upanishads such as the Isha Upanishad.

The focus of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is the devotional worship (bhakti) of Radha and Krishna, and their many divine incarnations as the supreme forms of God. Most popularly this worship takes the form of singing Radha and Krishna's holy names, such as 'Hare', 'Krishna' and 'Rama', (most commonly in the form of the Hare Krishna mantra) which is known as kirtan. The movement is sometimes referred to as the Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya sampradaya referring to its traditional origins in the disciplic succession of spiritual masters (gurus) believed to originate from Brahma. It classifies itself as a monotheistic tradition, seeing the many forms of Vishnu as expansions or incarnations of the one Supreme God.

• The Ramanandi movement, begun by Ramananda.

• Mahapuruxiya Dharma, espoused by Sankardeva.

Scriptures

Divya Prabandha

The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira(4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed before 8th century AD, by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The work is the beginning of the canonization of the twelve Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively sung even today. The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamunigal.

The Prabandha sings the praise of Sriman Narayana (or Vishnu) and his many forms. The Alvars sung these songs at various sacred shrines. These shrines are are known as the Divya Desams.

In South India, especially in Tamil Nadu, the Divya Prabhandha is considered as equal to the Vedas, hence the epithet Dravida Veda. In many temples, Srirangam, for example, the chanting of the Divya Prabhandham forms a major part of the daily service. Prominent among the 4,000 verses are the 1,100+ verses known as the Thiru Vaaymozhi, composed by Nammalvar (Kaaril Maaran Sadagopan) of Thiruk Kurugoor.

These 4000 hymns were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamunigal.

Swami Natha Munigal was born in Veera Naarayanapuram (Veeranam) or present day Kaattu Mannaar Koil. There is a lot of gap in time between Thirumangai aazhwar (the last aazhwar) and Natha Munigal. In this dark period, nobody knew what happened to the 4000.

Legend has it that once Natha Munigal heard some people reciting the decad of 'Aaraavamude' of Swami Nammaazhvaar at Kumbakonam. Natha Munigal was captivated by these paasurams that he wanted to know more about them. One of the verses also mentioned 'aayiraththul ippaththu' (meaning: these 10 out of the 1000). So Natha Munigal wondered where the remaining 990 were? The people who sang this 10 did not know anything about the remaining 990. But the song mentioned the name and place of the aazhwar (kurugoor satakopan). So Natha Munigal proceeded to Thirukurugoor and asked the people there about Swami Nammazhwar's 1000 verses.

The people did not know the 1000 that Natha Munigal wanted, but they told him about 11 pasurams of our Madhura Kavi aazhwar, who was the sishya of Swami Nammaazhvaar (Kanninun Siruthaambu) and asked him to go to the Thiruppuliaazhwar, the place were Nammaazhvaar lived, and recite this 11 pasurams for 12000 times. Swami Natha Munigal did as advised, and pleased with his penance, Swami Nammaazhvaar granted him not only his 1000 pasurams, but the entire 4000 parsurams of all the aazhwars.

The following table shows the details of the 4000 pasurams.

Sl no	Name of the prabandham	Starting from	Ending with	Number of pasurams	Sung by
1	periazhvar thirumozhi	1	473	473	Periyalvar
2	thiruppavai	474	503	30	Aandaal
3	Nachiar Tirumozhi	504	646	143	Aandaal
4	perumal thirumozhi	647	751	105	Kulasekara Alvar
5	thiruchchanda viruththam	752	871	120	Thirumalisai Alvar
6	thirumalai	872	916	45	Thondaradippodi Alvar
7	thiruppalliyezhuchchi	917	926	10	Thondaradippodi Alvar
8	amalanadhi piran	927	936	10	Thiruppaan Alvar
9	kanni nun siruththambu	937	947	11	Madhurakavi Alvar
10	peria thirumozhi	948	2031	1084	Thirumangai Alvar
11	kurun thandagam	2032	2051	20	Thirumangai Alvar
12	nedum thandagam	2052	2081	30	Thirumangai Alvar
13	mudhal thiruvandhadhi	2082	2181	100	Poigai Alvar
14	irandam thiruvandhadhi	2182	2281	100	Bhoothathalvar
15	moonram thiruvandhadhi	2282	2381	100	Peyalvar
16	naanmugan thiruvandhadhi	2382	2477	96	Thirumalisai Alvar
17	thiruviruththam	2478	2577	100	Nammalvar
18	thiruvasiriyam	2578	2584	7	Nammalvar
19	peria thiruvandhadhi	2585	2671	87	Nammalvar
20	thiruvezhukkurrirukkai	2672	2672	1	Thirumangai Alvar
21	siriya thirumadal	2673	2712	40	Thirumangai Alvar
22	peria thiru madal	2713	2790	78	Thirumangai Alvar
23	thiruvay mozhi	2791	3892	1102	Nammalvar
24	ramanusa noorandhadhi	3893	4000	108	Thiruvarangathamudhanar
	Total number of pasurams				4000

Puranas

The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. Traditionally they are said to narrate five subjects, called pañcalakṣaṇa ("five distinguishing marks"), which are:

1. Sarga - The creation of the universe.
2. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
3. Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.
4. Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
5. Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.

Most Mahapuranas and Upapuranas deal with these subject matters, although the bulk of their text consists of historical and religious narratives. Some scholars have suggested that these 'distinguishing marks' are shared by other traditional religious scriptures of the world (e.g. the Bible). A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient. Most use an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts in their narration, from Bhakti to Samkhya. Their composition marks the emergence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism, the division that is still prevalent in contemporary Hinduism.

Traditionally it is said that there are 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas. Each Mahapurana lists eighteen canonical puranas, but the contents of each list vary reflecting differences in time and place. Combining the lists, Dimmitt and van Buitenen have collated twenty names:

1. Agni (15,400 verses)
2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas. It is concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of Vishnu's Avataras. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and, probably for the first time in Sanskrit, tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
3. Bhavishya (14,500 verses)
4. Brahma (24,000 verses)
5. Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)
6. Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
7. Garuda (19,000 verses)
8. Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa)
9. Kurma (17,000 verses)
10. Linga (11,000 verses)
11. Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
12. Matsya (14,000 verses)
13. Narada (25,000 verses)
14. Padma (55,000 verses)
15. Shiva (24,000 verses)
16. Skanda (81,100 verses), probably the longest of all, containing parables, legends and stories, with multiple versions and recensions. Many untraced quotes from a Purana are conveniently attributed to this Purana.
17. Vamana (10,000 verses)
18. Varaha (10,000 verses)
19. Vayu (24,000 verses)
20. Vishnu (23,000 verses)

The Mahapuranas are also classified by the three aspects of Trimurti,

• Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmānda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vāmana Purana
• Vishnu Puranas: Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
• Shiva Puranas: Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Kūrma Purana, Matsya Purana, Vāyu Purana

The corpus of Upapuranas is less clearly defined. Some Upapuranas are: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa, Mudgala, and Hamsa. The Ganesa and Mudgala Puranas are sectarian Upapuranas devoted to Ganesha..

Epics

The two great Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, are essential to Vaishnava philosophy and culture:

The Ramayana describes the story of the avatar known as Rama or Ramachandra, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', based around the principles of dharma, morality and ethics. Rama's wife Sita, his brother Lakshman and servant Hanuman all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. As does the evil king Ravana who plays the opposite role of how not to behave.

The Mahabharata is centered around the popular avatar Krishna, and details the story of a dynastic war between two sets of cousins, with Krishna and his close the Pandavas playing pivotal roles in the drama. The philosophical highlight of the work is the chapter covering a conversation between Arjuna and Krishna prior to the final battle, individually known as the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, though influential in most philosophies of Hinduism, is of particular importance to Vaishnavas because it is believed to be an accurate record of the very words spoken by Krishna himself. Vaishnavas regard Krishna either as an avatar of Vishnu, or as the source of all avatars, including Vishnu himself (this is a view held especially by Gaudiya Vaishnavas). Thus, there is no higher source of information within Vaishnava theology than that of Krishna himself.

Both works are often re-enacted in part as dramas by followers of Vaishnavism, especially on festival days concerning each of the specific avatars. The Bhagavad Gita is widely studied as a theological textbook.

Upanishads

Of the 108 Upanishads of the Muktika, 13 are considered Vaishnava Upanishads. They are listed with their associated Veda (SV, ŚYV, KYV, AV):

1. Nṛsiṃhatāpanī (AV)
2. Mahānārāyaṇa (AV)
3. Rāmarahasya (AV)
4. Rāmatāpaṇi (AV)
5. Vāsudeva (SV)
6. Avyakta (SV)
7. Tārasāra (SYV)
8. Gopālatāpani (AV)
9. Kṛṣṇa (AV)
10. Hayagrīva (AV)
11. Dattātreya (AV)
12. Gāruḍa (AV)
13. Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa (Kali) (KYV)

Symbols

File:Prabhupada 03.jpg

The yellow forehead marking known as tilak is the symbol of Gaudiya Vaishnavas.

The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive style of Tilak which depict the siddhanta of their particular lineage:

In the Vallabha, Rudra-sampradaya the tilak worn is generally a single vertical red line. This line represents Yamuna devi. The form of Krishna worshiped in the Vallabha line is Sri Nathji or Govardhana. The consort of the Govardhana hill is the river Yamuna. Their process of surrender goes through Yamuna devi.

The Madhva sampradaya mark two vertical lines representing Krishna's 'lotus feet'. In between a vertical black line is made from the daily coal of the yajna-kunda (fire sacrifice). In their sampradaya, the process of worship involves 'nitya-homa', or daily fire sacrifices to Narayana or Krishna. The remnant coal of the puja (worship) is used each day to mark the forehead. Underneath the black line, a yellow or red dot is added to indicate either Lakshmi or Radharani. Those who did not perform daily fire sacrifice wear the simple two line tilak only.

In the Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya the tilak is usually made out of mud from Vrindavan. The main tilak is basically identical to the Madhva tilak. The slight difference arose due to the emphasis on the chanting (japa and kirtan) in the Gaudiya tradition. In Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's line, chanting is given as the essential devotional (bhakti) activity to be performed in Kali yuga in preference to fire sacrifices. As such, the black line made from the ash of the fire sacrifice is not included. The second difference arose due to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's process of approaching Krishna. In the Gaudiya line devotees do not approach Radha and Krishna directly, but always indirectly through their servant. To indicate this, the red dot representing Radha is replaced with a tulsi leaf offered at the base of Krishna's feet. In Gaudiya belief only through the mercy of Tulsi Devi (or another pure devotee) can pure devotion to Radha & Krishna or Krishna & Balarama be awakened.

Members of the Sri Vaishnava tradition form tilak with two lines representing the feet of Narayana, with a red line in the middle which representing Lakshmidevi. Because the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya begins with Lakshmi, and because they approach Narayana through Lakshmi, their tilak reflects this process of surrender. A variant to this is found within the Ramanandi sect, begun by Ramananda, who wear a similar tilak design but in reference to Sita and Rama (whom their devotion is focused upon) rather than Lakshmi and Narayana.

In Nimbarka Sampradaya, the tilak is made of Gopi-Chandana (the clay from Gopi Kunda lake in Dwarka, Gujarat), as described in the Vasudeva Upanishad. It starts at the bridge of the nose and continues as two vertical lines to the top of the forehead. This is said to represent the temple of God. Within these lines, between the eyebrows is a black dot, made from the slate found in Barsana, Uttar Pradesh, the sacred birthplace of Radha. This is said to represent God as Radha and Krishna together. This tilak personifies the tenets of the Sampradaya, that God is Radha and Krishna together, none else. It is supposed to have been first given to Nimbarka at the time of his initiation to the Sage, Narada. The tilak is first given to an initiate by their guru at the time of initiation, and after this, daily the devotee will remember his guru before he adorns the tilaka on his head.

Academic study

Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others.

Founded in 1992 by Steven J. Rosen the Journal of Vaishnava Studies (JVS) is an academic journal of Hindu studies, and Vaishnava studies in particular. Dedicated to scholarly research associated with all Vishnu-related traditions. The course has received praise from Indological entities for bringing Vaishnava studies into the Western academic environment. In the year 2002 the Journal affiliated with Christopher-Newport University, in Virginia.

Notes

1. Schouten, pages 11-26
2. Karavelane Kareikkalammeiyar, oeuvres editees et traduites, institut francais d'indologie, Pondicherry (1956)
3. Jagadeesan, N The Life and Mission of Karaikkal Ammaiyar Bhattacharya, N.N. [ed] Medieval Bhakti Movements in India Munishiram Manoharlal, New Delhi, (1989), pages 149-161

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Schouten, Jan Peter (Dutch) Goddelijke vergezichten - mystiek uit India voor westerse lezers, Ten Have b.v., Baarn, the Netherlands, (1996), ISBN 90-259-4644-5
• Bhargava, P.L. 1971. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.

• Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J.A.B. van Buitenen. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978. Pages 4 to 5.

• Doniger, Wendy (editor) (1993). Purāṇa Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany, New York: State University of New York. ISBN 0-7914-1382-9. 

• Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. 

• Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor). Folklore in Modern India. ISBN 81-7342-055-6

• Hardy, Friedhelm. Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India. ISBN 0-19-564916-8

• Kaushal, Molly (editor). Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition. ISBN 81-246-0182-8

• Mackenzie, Brwon. The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7

• Majumdar, R. C. and Pusalker, A. D. (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 (esp. ch. XIV - XV by A. D. Pusalker)

• Moghe, S. G. (editor). Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature. 1997, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0075-9

• Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. 

• Pargiter, F.E. 1922. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London. Oxford University Press.

• Shulman, David Dean. Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition. ISBN 0-691-06415-6

• Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaņapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. 

• Thurston Edgar. Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Vols I-V). Cosmo Publication, Delhi.

External links

• Vaishnavism (Heart of Hinduism)
• Hinduism & Vaishnavism (veda.harekrsna.cz)
• Who is Vishnu? Vaishnava FAQ (dvaita.org)
• Ramanuja and Srivaishnavism (srivaishnavan.com)
• The Basic Premises of Vaishnavism (krishna.com)
• An Overview of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Tradition (gaudiya.com)
• Online library of articles on Vaishnavism and the Ramanuja Sampradaya (sadagopan.org)
• Path of Devotion
• International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON)
• Krishna.com All about Krishna. Info, books, MP3s, images, radio...
• The full text of the Bhagavata Purana (Srimad-Bhagavatam)
• Waves of Devotion - Dhanurdhara Swami's Companion to A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada's Nectar of Devotion (Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu)
• Pure Bhakti.com
• The Puranas (bharatadesam.com)
• Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam Full text of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, with the original Sanskrit, word-for-word meanings, translation, and commentary.
• The Vishnu Purana Full text of the H.H. Wilson translation at sacred-texts.com
• Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dallapiccola
• A comprehensive translation of Naalayira (4000) Divya Prabhandham
• Hymns of the Azhwars

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