Difference between revisions of "Silicate" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 22:04, 29 January 2023

Crystals of kyanite, a blue silicate mineral

This sample of plagioclase feldspar, a silicate mineral, was collected by Apollo 16 from the Lunar Highlands

In chemistry, a silicate is a compound containing an anion in which one or more central silicon atoms are surrounded by electronegative ligands. Most often, the ligands are oxygen atoms (to produce anions such as [SiO₄]⁴⁻), but in some cases, the ligands are fluorine atoms (to produce anions such as hexafluorosilicate, [SiF₆]²⁻). In each compound, the net negative electrical charge on the anions is balanced by the positive charge on cations, so that the compound is electrically neutral.

In mineralogy, the silicate class constitutes the largest and most important group of rock-forming minerals. According to some estimates, silicates make up 90 percent of the Earth's crust, and about 30 percent of all minerals are silicates.

Silica, or silicon dioxide, SiO₂, is sometimes considered a silicate, although it is the special case with no negative charge and no need for counter-ions. Silica is found in nature as the mineral quartz and its polymorphs.

Notable characteristics

In the vast majority of silicates, including silicate minerals, silicon shows tetrahedral coordination, in which each silicon atom is directly attached to four oxygen atoms. The tetrahedra in different minerals have different degrees of polymerization: they may occur singly or joined together in pairs or larger clusters, including rings, single chains, double chains, sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The minerals are classified based on the structures of these anions, as noted below.

At very high pressures, silicon may adopt octahedral coordination, in which each silicon atom is directly attached to six oxygen atoms. This structure occurs in the dense stishovite polymorph of silica found in the lower mantle of the Earth, and it is also formed by shock during meteorite impacts. Lack of space around the oxygen atoms makes this coordination for Si very rare at ordinary pressures, but it is known in the hexahydroxysilicate anion, [Si(OH)₆]²⁻, as found in the mineral thaumasite.

Silicate rock

In geology and astronomy, the term silicate is used to denote rock types that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. Silicate rocks may belong to any of the three major classes: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock. Most of the mantle and crust are made up of silicate rocks.

Silicates are also major constituents of the Moon and the other rocky planets. Recently, they have been observed around evolved stars and planetary nebulae.

Formation on Earth

On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations. They are produced by processes that form and rework the crust. These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering, and diagenesis. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons, known as tests, from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean sediments.

Silicate minerals

A sample of kaolin, a phyllosilicate

Among minerals, silicates form the largest and most important group. These minerals are classified according to the structures of their silicate anions, as given below.

Nesosilicates (also known as isosilicates or orthosilicates): They contain the anion [SiO₄]⁴⁻ that has a tetrahedral shape. The tetrahedra are isolated but held together by interstitial cations. Examples are members of the olivine and garnet mineral groups.

Sorosilicates: They are characterized by anions with the formula (Si₂O₇)⁶⁻, in which the ratio of silicon atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:7. Each anion is a double tetrahedron. Examples are members of the epidote group of minerals.

Cyclosilicates (or ring silicates): These silicates are characterized by ring structures of different sizes, but the ratio of silicon atoms to oxygen atoms is generally 1:3. They have linked tetrahedra, and their general chemical formula is (Si_xO_3x)^2n-. The anions can be 3-member, 4-member, or 6-member rings.

3-member rings, with the formula (Si₃O₉)^6-, are found in benitoite.
4-member rings, with the formula (Si₄O₁₂)^8-, are found in axinite.
6-member rings, with the formula (Si₆O₁₈)^12-, are present in beryl and tourmaline.

Inosilicates (or chain silicates): They contain interlocking chains of silicate tetrahedra. They may consist of:

single chains, with the chemical formula (Si_nO_3n)²ⁿ⁻ (1:3 ratio of Si to O atoms); or
double chains, with the formula (Si_4nO_11n)⁶ⁿ⁻ (4:11 ratio of Si to O atoms).

The pyroxene group of minerals are examples of single-chain inosilicates; the amphibole group are examples of double-chain inosilicates.

Phyllosilicates (or sheet silicates): These minerals form parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra. The general chemical formula of the anion is (Si_2nO_5n)²ⁿ⁻ (2:5 ratio of Si to O atoms). Examples are the mica and clay groups of minerals.

Tectosilicates (or framework silicates): This is the largest group of silicates, constituting nearly 75 percent of the Earth's crust. They are characterized by a three-dimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra. Examples are members of the quartz, feldspar, and zeolite groups of minerals. Except for the quartz group, they are aluminosilicates, with the general chemical formula (Al_xSi_yO_2(x+y))^x− (1:2 ratio of Si to O atoms).

The tectosilicates can have additional cations only if some of the silicon is replaced by a lower-charge cation such as aluminum, to give a negative charge overall. This substitution can also take place in other types of silicates.

Some rare minerals have more than one type of anion coexisting in their crystal structures, or they may contain complex anions that are intermediate between the types noted above.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Cotton, F. Albert, Geoffrey Wilkinson, Carlos A. Murillo, and Manfred Bochmann. 1999. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 6th ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0471199575

Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie, and J. Zussman. 1996. An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0582300940

Farndon, John. 2006. The Practical Encyclopedia of Rocks & Minerals: How to Find, Identify, Collect and Maintain the World's best Specimens, with over 1000 Photographs and Artworks. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 0754815412

Klein, Cornelis, and Barbara Dutrow. 2007. Manual of Mineral Science, 23rd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0471721574

Pellant, Chris. 2002. Rocks and Minerals. Smithsonian Handbooks. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0789491060

Shaffer, Paul R., Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. 2001. Rocks, Gems and Minerals. Revised ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 1582381321

External links

All links retrieved January 29, 2023.

The Silicate Class – Amethyst Galleries
Definition of silicate at Mindat.org
INFO 01-2000: “The crystalline revolution: ISO's finding opens a new research field, 'astro-mineralogy'” – ESA Science and Technology

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Claimed}}
+{{Copyedited}}{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}
-[[Image:Kyanite crystals.jpg|thumb|300px|Crystals of kyanite, a blue silicate mineral.]]
+[[Image:Kyanite crystals.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Crystal]]s of [[kyanite]], a blue '''silicate''' [[mineral]]]]
+[[Image:Lunar Ferroan Anorthosite 60025.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This sample of plagioclase [[feldspar]], a silicate mineral, was collected by Apollo 16 from the [[Geology_of_the_Moon#Highlands_and_craters|Lunar Highlands]]]]
-In [[chemistry]], a '''silicate''' is a compound containing an [[anion]] in which one or more central [[silicon]] atoms are surrounded by electronegative [[ligand]]s. This definition is broad enough to include species such as hexafluorosilicate ("fluorosilicate"), [SiF<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>, but the silicate species that are encountered most often consist of [[silicon]] with [[oxygen]] as the ligand. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound. In [[mineralogy]], '''silicate minerals''' constitute the largest and most important class of rock-forming [[mineral]]s.
+In [[chemistry]], a '''silicate''' is a compound containing an [[anion]] in which one or more central [[silicon]] atoms are surrounded by electronegative [[ligand]]s. Most often, the ligands are [[oxygen]] atoms (to produce anions such as [SiO<sub>4</sub>]<sup>4−</sup>), but in some cases, the ligands are [[fluorine]] atoms (to produce anions such as hexafluorosilicate, [SiF<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>). In each compound, the net negative electrical charge on the anions is balanced by the positive charge on cations, so that the compound is electrically neutral.
-Silica, or [[silicon dioxide]], SiO<sub>2</sub>, is sometimes considered a silicate, although it is the special case with no negative charge and no need for counter-ions.  Silica is found in nature as the [[mineral]] [[quartz]] and its [[polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]].
+In [[mineralogy]], the silicate class constitutes the largest and most important group of rock-forming [[mineral]]s. According to some estimates, silicates make up 90 percent of the [[Earth]]'s crust, and about 30 percent of all minerals are silicates.
+{{toc}}
+Silica, or [[silicon dioxide]], SiO<sub>2</sub>, is sometimes considered a silicate, although it is the special case with no negative charge and no need for counter-ions. Silica is found in nature as the [[mineral]] [[quartz]] and its [[polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]].
 == Notable characteristics ==
-In the vast majority of silicates, including [[silicate minerals]], the Si atom shows [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] coordination by 4 oxygens. In different [[mineral]]s the tetrahedra show different degrees of [[polymer|polymerization]]: they occur singly, joined together in pairs, in larger finite clusters including rings, in chains, double chains, sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The minerals are classified into groups based on these anion structures; a list is given below.
+In the vast majority of silicates, including silicate minerals, silicon shows [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] coordination, in which each silicon atom is directly attached to four oxygen atoms. The tetrahedra in different minerals have different degrees of [[polymer|polymerization]]: they may occur singly or joined together in pairs or larger clusters, including rings, single chains, double chains, sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The minerals are classified based on the structures of these anions, as noted below.
-Silicon may adopt [[octahedron|octahedral]] coordination by 6 oxygens at very high pressure, as in the dense [[stishovite]] polymorph of [[silica]] that is found in the [[lower mantle]] of the Earth, and which is also formed by shock during [[meteorite]] impacts. Lack of space around the oxygen atoms makes this coordination for Si very rare at normal pressure, but it is known in the hexahydroxysilicate anion, [Si(OH)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>, as found in the mineral [[thaumasite]].
+At very high pressures, silicon may adopt [[octahedron|octahedral]] coordination, in which each silicon atom is directly attached to six oxygen atoms. This structure occurs in the dense [[stishovite]] polymorph of [[silica]] found in the lower [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] of the Earth, and it is also formed by shock during [[meteorite]] impacts. Lack of space around the oxygen atoms makes this coordination for Si very rare at ordinary pressures, but it is known in the hexahydroxysilicate anion, [Si(OH)<sub>6</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>, as found in the mineral [[thaumasite]].
 ==Silicate rock==
-In [[geology]] and [[astronomy]], the term '''silicate''' is used to denote types of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] that consist predominantly of [[silicate minerals]]. Such rocks include a wide range of [[igneous]], [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] and [[sedimentary]] types. Most of the [[Earth's mantle]] and [[crust (geology)|crust]] are made up of silicate rocks. The same is true of the [[Moon]] and the other rocky [[planet]]s.
+In [[geology]] and [[astronomy]], the term ''silicate'' is used to denote [[Rock (geology)|rock]] types that consist predominantly of silicate minerals. Silicate rocks may belong to any of the three major classes: [[igneous]], [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] and [[sedimentary rock]]. Most of the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] and [[crust (geology)|crust]] are made up of silicate rocks.
-On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form and re-work the crust. These processes include partial [[melting]], [[crystallization]], [[fractionation]], [[metamorphism]], [[weathering]] and [[diagenesis]]. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of [[plankton]] known as [[diatom]]s construct their [[exoskeleton]]s, known as tests, from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of [[deep ocean]] [[sediment]]
+Silicates are also major constituents of the [[Moon]] and the other rocky [[planet]]s. Recently, they have been observed around evolved stars and [[planetary nebulae]].
-Silicates have been observed in space, around evolved stars and [[Planetary Nebulae]] such as [[NGC 6302]]. They are found in both amorphous form and crystalline form, though the range of types that have been found is far smaller than those found on Earth.
+== Formation on Earth ==
+On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations. They are produced by processes that form and rework the crust. These processes include partial [[melting]], [[crystallization]], [[fractionation]], [[metamorphism]], [[weathering]], and [[diagenesis]]. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of [[plankton]] known as [[diatom]]s construct their [[exoskeleton]]s, known as ''tests'', from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep [[ocean]] [[sediment]]s.
 == Silicate minerals ==
+[[Image:KaolinUSGOV.jpg|thumb|250px|A sample of kaolin, a phyllosilicate]]
-In [[mineralogy]], '''silicate minerals''' constitute the largest and most important class of rock-forming [[mineral]]s. They are classified according to the structures of their silicate [[anion]]s, as given below.
+Among [[mineral]]s, silicates form the largest and most important group. These minerals are classified according to the structures of their silicate [[anion]]s, as given below.
 '''Nesosilicates''' (also known as '''isosilicates''' or '''orthosilicates'''): They contain the anion [SiO<sub>4</sub>]<sup>4−</sup> that has a [[Tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] shape. The tetrahedra are isolated but held together by interstitial cations. Examples are members of the [[olivine]] and [[garnet]] mineral groups.
@@ Line 28: / Line 34: @@
 '''Sorosilicates''': They are characterized by anions with the formula (Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>)<sup>6−</sup>, in which the ratio of silicon atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:7. Each anion is a double tetrahedron. Examples are members of the [[epidote]] group of minerals.
-'''Cyclosilicates''' (or '''ring silicates'''): These silicates are characterized by ring structures of different sizes, but the ratio of silicon atoms to oxygen atoms is generally 1:3. They have linked tetrahedra, and their general chemical formula is (Si<sub>n</sub>O<sub>3n</sub>)<sup>2n-</sup>. They are found as 3-member rings (Si<sub>3</sub>O<sub>9</sub>)<sup>6-</sup>, 4-member rings (Si<sub>4</sub>O<sub>12</sub>)<sup>8-</sup>, and 6-member rings (Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>18</sub>)<sup>12-</sup>. Examples are members of the [[tourmaline]] group.
+'''Cyclosilicates''' (or '''ring silicates'''): These silicates are characterized by ring structures of different sizes, but the ratio of silicon atoms to oxygen atoms is generally 1:3. They have linked tetrahedra, and their general chemical formula is (Si<sub>x</sub>O<sub>3x</sub>)<sup>2n-</sup>. The anions can be 3-member, 4-member, or 6-member rings.
+* 3-member rings, with the formula (Si<sub>3</sub>O<sub>9</sub>)<sup>6-</sup>, are found in [[benitoite]].
+* 4-member rings, with the formula (Si<sub>4</sub>O<sub>12</sub>)<sup>8-</sup>, are found in [[axinite]].
+* 6-member rings, with the formula (Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>18</sub>)<sup>12-</sup>, are present in [[beryl]] and [[tourmaline]].
 '''Inosilicates''' (or '''chain silicates'''): They contain interlocking chains of silicate tetrahedra. They may consist of:
@@ Line 37: / Line 46: @@
 '''Phyllosilicates''' (or '''sheet silicates'''): These minerals form parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra. The general chemical formula of the anion is (Si<sub>2n</sub>O<sub>5n</sub>)<sup>2n−</sup> (2:5 ratio of Si to O atoms). Examples are the [[mica]] and [[clay]] groups of minerals.
-[[Image:KaolinUSGOV.jpg|thumb|A sample of kaolin, a phyllosilicate.]]
+'''Tectosilicates''' (or '''framework silicates'''): This is the largest group of silicates, constituting nearly 75 percent of the [[Earth]]'s [[crust (geology)|crust]]. They are characterized by a three-dimensional framework of silicate tetrahedra. Examples are members of the [[quartz]], [[feldspar]], and [[zeolite]] groups of minerals. Except for the quartz group, they are [[aluminosilicate]]s, with the general chemical formula (Al<sub>x</sub>Si<sub>y</sub>O<sub>2(x+y)</sub>)<sup>x−</sup> (1:2 ratio of Si to O atoms).
+The tectosilicates can have additional cations only if some of the silicon is replaced by a lower-charge cation such as [[aluminum]], to give a negative charge overall. This substitution can also take place in other types of silicates.
-*Tectosilicates (3D framework) - [Al<sub>x</sub>Si<sub>y</sub>O<sub>2(x+y)</sub>]<sup>x−</sup>, eg [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[zeolite]]s.
+Some rare minerals have more than one type of anion coexisting in their crystal structures, or they may contain complex anions that are intermediate between the types noted above.
-Note that tectosilicates can only have additional cations if some of the silicon is replaced by a lower-charge cation such as [[aluminium]], to give a negative charge overall. This substitution can also take place in other types of silicate.
-Some rare minerals have more than one type of anion coexisting in their crystal structures, or complex-shaped anions that are intermediate between the simple types above.
 == See also ==
@@ Line 59: / Line 65: @@
 == References ==
-<<Needs 3 refs>>
+* Cotton, F. Albert, Geoffrey Wilkinson, Carlos A. Murillo, and Manfred Bochmann. 1999. ''Advanced Inorganic Chemistry'', 6th ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 0471199575
+* Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie, and J. Zussman. 1996. ''An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals'', 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0582300940
+* Farndon, John. 2006. ''The Practical Encyclopedia of Rocks & Minerals: How to Find, Identify, Collect and Maintain the World's best Specimens, with over 1000 Photographs and Artworks''. London: Lorenz Books. ISBN 0754815412
+* Klein, Cornelis, and Barbara Dutrow. 2007. ''Manual of Mineral Science'', 23rd ed. New York: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0471721574
+* Pellant, Chris. 2002. ''Rocks and Minerals''. Smithsonian Handbooks. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 0789491060
+* Shaffer, Paul R., Herbert S. Zim, and Raymond Perlman. 2001. ''Rocks, Gems and Minerals''. Revised ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 1582381321
 == External links ==
+All links retrieved January 29, 2023.
+* [http://www.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/class.htm The Silicate Class] &ndash; Amethyst Galleries
+* [http://www.mindat.org/glossary/silicate Definition of silicate] at Mindat.org
+* [http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=12856 INFO 01-2000: “The crystalline revolution: ISO's finding opens a new research field, 'astro-mineralogy'”] &ndash; ''ESA Science and Technology''
 [[Category:Physical sciences]]
 [[Category:Chemistry]]
 [[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]
+[[Category:Earth sciences]]
+[[Category:Geology]]
+[[Category:Minerals]]
 {{credits|Silicate|130476838|Silicate_minerals|106023071}}