Difference between revisions of "Saint Peter" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Infobox Saint
 
{{Infobox Saint
 
|name= Saint Peter
 
|name= Saint Peter
 
|image= Pope-peter pprubens.jpg
 
|image= Pope-peter pprubens.jpg
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|caption=''Saint Peter'', by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]
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|caption=''Saint Peter,'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]
 
|image_size= 160px
 
|image_size= 160px
 
|birth_date=Unknown
 
|birth_date=Unknown
 
|death_date=~64
 
|death_date=~64
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|feast_day=[[February 22]], [[June 29]], [[November 18]]
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|feast_day=February 22, June 29, November 18
 
|canonized_by=
 
|canonized_by=
 
|venerated_into= [[Catholic Church]]
 
|venerated_into= [[Catholic Church]]
 
|attributes=man crucified head downwards |patronage=See [[Saint Peter#Patronage|St. Peter's Patronage]]
 
|attributes=man crucified head downwards |patronage=See [[Saint Peter#Patronage|St. Peter's Patronage]]
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|major_shrine= [[St. Peter's Basilica]]
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|major_shrine= [[Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome]]
 
|suppressed_date=
 
|suppressed_date=
 
|issues=
 
|issues=
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Controversy exists depending on denomination as to whether Peter was a [[pope]]. Most Protestant denominations deny that Peter held this office.
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Controversy exists as to whether Peter was truly a [[pope]], and the veracity of the many miracles attributed to him
 
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The Apostle '''Peter''', also known as '''Saint Peter''', and '''Cephas'''—original name [[Simeon]] son of Jonah—was one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] of [[Jesus]]. His life is prominently featured in the [[New Testament]] [[Gospel]]s and the [[Acts of the Apostles]].
  
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The Apostle '''Peter''', also known as '''Saint Peter,''' '''Shimon "Keipha" Ben-Yonah/Bar-Yonah''', '''Simon Peter''', '''Cephas''' and '''Keipha'''—original name '''[[Shimon]]''' or '''[[Simeon]]''' ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15:14)—was one of the [[Twelve Apostles]] whom [[Jesus]] chose as his original [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]]. His life is prominently featured in the [[New Testament]] [[Gospel]]s and the [[Acts of the Apostles]].
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Peter was a [[Galilee|Galilean]] [[fisherman]] assigned a leadership role by Jesus, who reportedly gave him the keys of heaven and called him the "rock" on whom the church would be built. Although later failing in his discipleship at several crucial moments during Jesus' lifetime, Peter went on to became an effective leader of the [[early church]]. Thousands were converted by his sermons, and many miracles were attributed to him. His relations with [[Saint Paul]], however, were stormy, as the two leaders disagreed about fellowship between [[Jewish Christians|Jewish and Gentile Christans]].
  
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According to the [[New Testament]] Peter was a [[Galilee|Galilean]] [[fisherman]] assigned a leadership role by Jesus ({{bibleverse||Matthew|16:18|KJV}}; {{bibleverse||John|21:15–16|KJV}}). Many within the [[Early Christianity|early Church]], such as [[Pope Clement I|St. Clement of Rome]]<ref>1st Epistle to the Corinthians, 1,59:1.</ref> and St. [[Irenaeus]]<ref>''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Adversus Haereses]]'' 3:3:20.</ref>, mention his primacy.
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In Catholic tradition, Peter was the first [[pope]]. The ancient [[Christianity|Christian]] churches all consider him a major [[saint]] and associate him with the foundation of the [[Christian Church|church]] in Rome, but differ about the authority the Roman patriarch in present-day Christianity. A large body of literature was attributed to Peter after his death, including two letters included in the [[New Testament]].
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Tradition holds that the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] authorities sentenced Peter to death by [[crucifixion]]. According to a story recorded in the [[apocryphal]] [[Acts of Peter]], he was crucified head down. The [[Martyrology#The Roman Martyrology|Roman Martyrology]] assigns June 29 as the [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] of both Peter and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]. Tradition locates his burial place where the [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica of Saint Peter]] was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar.
  
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The ancient [[Christianity|Christian]] Churches, [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Anglican Communion]], consider Simon Peter a [[saint]] and associate him with the foundation of the [[Christian Church|Church]] in Rome, even if they differ on the significance of this and of the [[Pope]] in present-day [[Christianity]].
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==Jesus' chief disciple==
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The [[New Testament]] portrays Peter as Jesus' chief [[disciple]], a man of simple faith who was far from perfect in his discipleship but could be trusted in the long run as a "rock" upon whom the later church could stand.
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Some who recognize his office as [[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Bishop of Antioch]] and, later, as [[Holy See|shop of Rome]] or [[Pope]], hold that his [[Episcopal polity|episcopacy]] held a primacy only of honour, as a first among equals. Some propose that his primacy was not intended to pass to his successors. Still others view Peter as not having held the office of [[bishop]] or overseer, on the grounds that this office was a development of later Christianity.{{fact}} Some [[Protestantism|Protestants]] do not use the title of "saint" in reference to him.
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According to the [[Gospel of John]], Peter was born in [[Bethsaida]] ({{bibleverse||John|1:44}}). His father's name is given as Jonah {{bibleverse||Matthew|16:17}}). Each of the [[synoptic gospels]] recounts how Peter's mother-in-law [[miracles of Jesus|was healed by Jesus]] at their home in [[Capernaum]] ({{bibleverse||Matthew|8:14–17}}), implying that Peter was married. Saint Paul likewise mentions Peter having a wife, who accompanied him on his missionary journeys (1 Corinthians 9:5).
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The [[Martyrology#The Roman Martyrology|Roman Martyrology]] assigns [[29 June]] as the [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] of both Peter and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], without thereby declaring that to be the day of their deaths. St. [[Augustine of Hippo]] says in his Sermon 295: "One day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of the two apostles. But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred on different days, they were one." The ''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' gives the year of Peter's death as C.E. [[64]] or A.D. [[67]]. Some scholars believe that he died on [[October 13]] A.D. [[64]]. It is traditionally believed that the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] authorities sentenced him to death by [[crucifixion]]. According to a tradition recorded or perhaps initiated in the [[apocryphal]] [[Acts of Peter]], he was crucified head down. Tradition also locates his burial place where the [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica of Saint Peter]] was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar. In art, he is often depicted holding the keys to the [[Kingdom of God|kingdom of heaven]] (the sign of his primacy over the Church), a reference to [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 16:19.
 
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==New Testament account==
 
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[[Image:Ancient_capernum_is.JPG|thumb|300px|Ruins of ancient [[Capernaum]] on north side of the [[Sea of Galilee]]. An Orthodox church is built on top of traditional site of Saint Peter's house.]]
 
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According to the Gospel of John, Peter was born in [[Bethsaida]] ({{bibleverse||John|1:44}}). His father's name is given as Jonah ({{bibleverse||John|1:42}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|16:17}}), although some ancient manuscripts of John say John. Each of the [[synoptic gospels]] recounts how Peter's mother-in-law [[miracles of Jesus|was healed by Jesus]] at their home in [[Capernaum]] ({{bibleverse||Matthew|8:14–17}}); {{bibleverse||Mark|1:29–31}}; {{bibleverse||Luke|4:38}}), implying that Peter was married. Saint Paul likewise mentions Peter having a wife, who accompanied him on his missionary journeys ({{bibleverse||1 Cor.|9:5}}.
 
  
 
Before becoming a disciple of Jesus, Peter, then called Simon, was a fisherman along with his brother [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]]. The [[Gospel of John]] also depicts Peter fishing, but only after the resurrection.
 
Before becoming a disciple of Jesus, Peter, then called Simon, was a fisherman along with his brother [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]]. The [[Gospel of John]] also depicts Peter fishing, but only after the resurrection.
  
 
===Calling by Jesus===
 
===Calling by Jesus===
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Matthew and Mark report that while fishing in the [[Lake of Gennesaret]], Simon (Peter) and his brother [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]] were called by Jesus, with no previous contact, to be his followers, with the words, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men" ({{bibleverse||Matthew|4:18–19}}; {{bibleverse||Mark|1:16–17}}). In Luke's account Simon is the owner of a boat that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of Lake Gennesaret ({{bibleverse||Luke|5:3}}). Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions James and John by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow him ({{bibleverse||Luke|5:4–11}}).
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Matthew and Mark report that while fishing in the [[Lake of Gennesaret]] (Galilee), Simon and his brother [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]] were called by Jesus, with no previous contact, to be his followers, with the words, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men" ({{bibleverse||Matthew|4:18–19}}; {{bibleverse||Mark|1:16–17}}). In Luke's account, Simon is the owner of a boat that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of Lake Gennesaret ({{bibleverse||Luke|5:3}}). Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions, James and John, by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow him.
  
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The account of the [[Gospel of John]], however, has Peter meeting Jesus for the first time by the River Jordan, where Peter was a disciple of [[John the Baptist]] ({{bibleverse||John|1:35–42}}). Andrew, we are told, heard John the Baptist describe Jesus as the "[[Lamb of God]]," whereupon he followed Jesus. He then went and fetched his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the [[Messiah]]," and brought him to Jesus. Jesus then gave Simon the name ''Cephas'', meaning "rock," in [[Aramaic]]. Peter (''Petrus'')is simply a Greek translation of "Cephas."
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The account of the [[Gospel of John]], however, has Peter meeting Jesus for the first time by the Jordan river, where Peter was a disciple of [[John the Baptist]] ({{bibleverse||John|1:35–42}}). Andrew, we are told, heard John the Baptist describe Jesus as the "[[Lamb of God]]," whereupon he followed Jesus. He then went and fetched his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the [[Messiah]]," and brought him to Jesus. Jesus then gave Simon the name ''Cephas'', meaning "rock," in [[Aramaic]]. Peter ''(Petrus)'' is simply a Greek translation of "Cephas."
  
 
===Position among the apostles===
 
===Position among the apostles===
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Peter is also often depicted as spokesman of all the apostles, and as one to whom Jesus gave special authority. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Peter alone was able to [[walking on water|walk on water]] after seeing Jesus do the same thing ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2014:22–32;&version=15; Matthew 14:22–32]). Mark and John also mention Jesus walking on water, but do not mention Peter doing so.
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Peter is also often depicted as spokesman of all the apostles, and as one to whom Jesus gave special authority. According to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], Peter alone was able to [[walking on water|walk on water]] after seeing Jesus do the same thing (Matthew 14:22–32). The gospels of Mark and John also mention Jesus walking on water, but do not mention Peter doing so.
  
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It is Peter who first declares Jesus the Messiah in the synoptic gospels, saying "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." ({{bibleverse||Matthew|16:16}}) Jesus praises Peter for this confession and declares, punning on Peter's nickname: "I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it." (Matthew 16:18)
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It is Peter who first declares Jesus the [[Messiah]] in the synoptic gospels, saying "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." ({{bibleverse||Matthew|16:16}}) Jesus praises Peter for this confession and declares, punning on Peter's nickname: "I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it." (Matthew 16:18)
  
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===Other acts of Peter===
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[[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 020.jpg|thumb|250px|Peter (lower left) attacks the servant of the high priest as Jesus is arrested, by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]]]]
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Peter is frequently mentioned in the Gospels as forming, together with [[Saint James the Great|James the Elder]] and [[John the Apostle|John]], a special group, or trinity of disciples, within the [[Twelve Apostles]]. This core group of three was present at special incidents, such as the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]] and Jesus' prayer in [[Gethsemane]], in which the others did not participate. Mark 5 reports that Peter alone was allowed to follow Jesus into the house of the synagogue leader Jairus where Jesus brought Jairus' daughter back from the dead. Several times, Jesus takes Peter, John, and James aside and reveals things to them that the other disciples do not hear (e.g. Mark 13).
  
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Peter is frequently mentioned in the Gospels as forming, together with [[Saint James the Great|James the Elder]] and [[John the Apostle|John]], a special group, or trinity of disciples, within the [[Twelve Apostles]]. This core group of three was present at special incidents, such as the [[Transfiguration of Jesus]] and Jesus' prayer in [[Gethsemane]], in which the others did not participate.  
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===Peter's failures===
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Peter remonstrated with Jesus after Jesus revealed the possibility that he would suffer death at Jerusalem, prompting Jesus to declare: "Get behind me, Satan! You do not have in mind the things of God, but the things of men." (Mark 8:33)
  
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All four canonical gospels recount that, during the [[Last Supper]], Jesus prophetically foretold that Peter would deny association with him three times that same night.  
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All four canonical gospels recount that, during the [[Last Supper]], Jesus prophetically foretold that Peter would deny association with him three times that same night. In Matthew, Peter insisted, "Even if I have to die with you, I will never disown you." (Matthew 26:35) In Mark 14:29 he declared, "Even if all fall away, I will not."
  
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At Gethsemane, Peter and the other two chief disciples all fell asleep after Jesus had commanded them to keep watch while he prayed. Upon returning to find the men slumbering, Jesus specifically addressed Peter to say, "Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing, but the body is weak." (Matthew 26:41)
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Luke reports that, after the Last Supper, Jesus instructed the disciples to bring two swords with them to Gethsemane (Luke 22:38), where he commanded Peter and the other two chief disciples to keep watch while he prayed in a garden. Upon returning to find the men slumbering, Jesus addressed Peter to say, "Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing, but the body is weak." (Matthew 26:41) While Peter slept again, God refused Jesus' plea to "let this cup pass" (Matthew 26:39). Meanwhile, [[Judas Iscariot]] was able to approach unhindered and betray Jesus to the guards who sought to arrest him.
  
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According to John, Peter cut off the [[ear]] of a servant of the high priest with a [[sword]] at the time of the [[arrest of Jesus]].({{bibleverse||John|18:10}}) The [[synoptic gospels]] also mention this incident, but do not identify Peter as the swordsman. Jesus rebuked this act of violence, with Luke adding the detail that Jesus touched the ear and healed it.
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According to John, Peter then cut off the [[ear]] of a servant of the high priest.({{bibleverse||John|18:10}}) The [[synoptic gospels]] also mention this incident, but do not identify Peter as the swordsman. Jesus rebuked this act of violence, which had come to late to protect Jesus in any event. Luke adds the detail that Jesus touched the guard's ear and healed it.  
  
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In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the [[empty tomb]], although the women and the [[beloved disciple]] see it before him ({{bibleverse||John|20:1–9}}). In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles and Peter goes to check for himself ({{bibleverse||Luke|24:1–12}}).
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Peter joined the other disciples in fleeing after Jesus' arrest. He denied his association with Jesus three times, and did not dare to witness his execution.
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[[Image:Church_peters_primacy.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the [[Sea of Galilee]]. Traditional site where [[Jesus Christ]] appeared to his disciples after his resurrection and, according to Catholic tradition, established Peter's supreme jurisdiction over the Christian church.]]
 
  
 
===Resurrection appearances===
 
===Resurrection appearances===
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Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] contains a list of [[resurrection appearances of Jesus]], the first of which is an appearance to "Cephas" (Peter).<ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%2015:3–7;&version=15; 1 Corithians 15:3–7]</ref> An appearance to "Simon" is also reported in {{bibleverse||Luke|24:34}}.
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In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the [[empty tomb]], although the women and the [[beloved disciple]] get there before him ({{bibleverse||John|20:1–9}}). In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles and Peter goes to check for himself ({{bibleverse||Luke|24:1–12}}).
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In the [[John 21|final chapter]] of the Gospel of John, Peter three times affirmed his love for Jesus, apparently restoring his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirmed Peter's position ({{bibleverse||John|21:15–17}}), instructing him to "feed my sheep."
 
  
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[[Image:StMarysAylesburyDetail6.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Statue of St. Peter on the south door of St Mary's Church in [[Aylesbury]], [[United Kingdom]]]]
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Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] contains a list of [[resurrection appearances of Jesus]], the first of which is an appearance to "Cephas" (1 Corithians 15:3–7). An appearance to "Simon" is also reported in {{bibleverse||Luke|24:34}}.
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In the [[John 21|final chapter]] of the Gospel of John, Peter three times affirms his love for Jesus, apparently restoring his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirms Peter's position ({{bibleverse||John|21:15–17}}), instructing him to "feed my sheep."
  
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===Role in the early church===
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==Peter in the early church==
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The author of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] portrays Peter as an extremely important figure within the early Christian community, with Peter delivering a significant speech during [[Pentecost]]. According to the same book, Peter took the lead in selecting a replacement for [[Judas Iscariot]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|1:15}}). He was twice arraigned, with John, before the [[Sanhedrin]] and directly defied them ({{bibleverse||Acts|4:7–22}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|5:18–42}}). He undertook a missionary journey to [[Lydda]], [[Jaffa, Israel|Joppa]] and [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:32–10:2}}), becoming instrumental in the decision to evangelise the [[Gentile]]s ({{bibleverse||Acts|10}}). He was present at the [[Council of Jerusalem]], where Paul further argued the case for accepting Gentiles into the Christian community without [[circumcision]].
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The author of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] portrays Peter as an extremely important figure within the early Christian community, although it is not clear whether Peter or [[James the Just|James]], "the Lord's brother," is the leading figure in the [[Jerusalem]] church. Peter did play the key role early on. He took the lead in selecting a replacement for [[Judas Iscariot]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|1:15}}) and delivered a significant speech during [[Pentecost]] at which 3,000 Jews reportedly accepted his message and were baptized ({{bibleverse||Acts|2:38-41}}). He became famous in Jerusalem for healing a crippled beggar (Acts 3). He was twice arraigned before the [[Sanhedrin]] for preaching the gospel (Acts 4:7–22), (Acts 5:18–42). It was also Peter who condemned the disciple [[Annanias]] for withholding from the church part of the proceeds of the sale of his home, after which the [[Holy Spirit]] immediately killed both Annanias and his wife (Acts 5:1-10).
  
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About halfway through, the [[Acts of the Apostles]] turns its attention away from Peter and to the activities of Paul, and the Bible is fairly silent on what occurred to Peter afterwards. A fleeting mention of Peter being in [[Antioch]] is made in the [[Epistle to the Galatians]] ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:11}}) where Paul confronted him, and historians have furnished other evidence of Peter's sojourn in Antioch.<ref>This is provided in Downey, ''A History of Antioch'', pp. 583–586. This evidence is accepted by M. Lapidge, among others, see Bischoff and Lapidge, ''Biblical Commentaries from the Canterbury School'' (Cambridge, 1994) p. 16. Lastly, see Finegan, ''The Archaeology of the New Testament'', pp. 63–71.</ref> Subsequent tradition held that Peter had been the first [[Patriarch of Antioch]]. Some scholars also interpret Paul's brief mention of Peter in [[1 Corinthians]] as evidence that Peter had visited [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]] ({{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|1:12}}). {{bibleverse|1|Peter|5:13}} may imply that he wrote that epistle in Babylon, Egypt, Rome or Jerusalem.<ref>Peter's location in 1 Peter 5:13 is much debated. "Babylon" could literally be Mesopotamian Babylon or Babylon, Egypt. Many believe "Babylon" is code for another city, as in Revelation 17–18, which may refer to Babylon as Rome or Jerusalem.</ref>
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[[Image:Peter-freed-by-an-angel.jpg|thumb|An angel rescues Peter from prison.]]
  
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===Death===
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Peter came to Samaria after the gospel began to spread there, and it was he who harshly scolded the new convert [[Simon Magus]] for offering money to obtain the ability to impart the [[Holy Spirit]] to other believers ({{bibleverse||Acts|8}}). Peter undertook a missionary journey to [[Lydda]], [[Jaffa, Israel|Joppa]], and [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:32–10:2}}), becoming instrumental in the decision to evangelize the [[Gentile]]s ({{bibleverse||Acts|10}}). He also famously brought about the resurrection of the child Tabitha ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:40}}). In Acts 11, Peter was criticized by the Jerusalem church for associating too closely with Gentiles but insisted that he has been commanded to do so by God in a dream. Acts 12 relates how Peter miraculously escaped from prison after having been arrested by Herod [[Agrippa I]].
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Verses 18-19 in the last chapter of the Gospel of John have been interpreted as referring to Peter's martyrdom by [[crucifixion]], though without reference to its location: "'…when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and another will gird you and take you where you do not want to go.' Jesus said this to indicate the kind of death by which Peter would glorify God" ({{bibleverse||John|21:18–19}}).
 
  
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Peter was present at the [[Council of Jerusalem]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|15}}), where Paul argued the case for accepting Gentiles into the Christian community without [[circumcision]]. At this point, it is no longer Peter, but James who is the deciding authority and sends a letter to the Gentile churches informing them of his ruling. Acts turns its attention to Paul's ministry at this point in its narrative, and we must therefore turn to Paul for further information.
  
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==Accounts outside the New Testament==
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From Paul, we learn that Peter seems to have resided for some time at [[Antioch]]. We also learn from Paul that Peter's wife is allowed to accompany him on his journeys, with financial support provided by the churches (1 Corinthians 9:4-6).
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===Sayings of Peter===
 
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[[Image:St. Peter and Paul.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Georgian Orthodox]] Icon of Saint Peter and Paul]]
 
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Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger."<ref>[http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm Gospel of Thomas 13]</ref> In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life."<ref>[http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm Gospel of Thomas 114]</ref>
 
  
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In the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], Peter holds a dialogue with Jesus about the [[parable of the fig tree]] and the fate of [[sinners]].<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/apocalypsepeter-mrjames.html Apocalypse of Peter]</ref>
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Peter's relationship with Paul was not always amicable. Paul relates an incident in the [[Epistle to the Galatians]] ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:11}}), in which he publicly confronted Peter for hypocrisy in refusing to dine at the same table with [[Gentile]] Christians after certain "men from James" arrived at the city. Other letters of Paul contain numerous references to disagreements between himself and other disciples on how the [[halakha|Jewish law]] relates to Gentile Christians. One of the factions of the Corinthian church claims to follow "Cephas," while another follows Paul, and a third adheres to [[Apollos]] (1 Corinthians 1:12).
  
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In the [[Gospel of Mary]], Peter appears to be jealous of "Mary" (probably [[Mary Magdalene]]). He says to the other disciples "Did He really speak privately with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?"<ref>[http://www.gnosis.org/library/marygosp.htm Gospel of Mary 9:4]</ref> In reply to this, [[Saint Matthew|Levi]] says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered."<ref>http://www.gnosis.org/library/marygosp.htm Gospel of Mary 9:6</ref>
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==Outside the New Testament==
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Various sayings and acts are attributed to Peter in the [[New Testament Apocrypha]], all of which are considered by most scholars to originate from a period later than the [[synoptic gospels]], and usually from the second century C.E. While some of these traditions have come to be accepted by orthodox traditions, others are considered legendary, and some are rejected as heretical.
  
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Other noncanonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include the [[Secret Book of James]], [[2 Clement]] and the [[Acts of Peter]].
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===Sayings and Acts of Peter===
  
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===Denial of Jesus===
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Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger."<ref>[http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm Gospel of Thomas 13] ''www.misericordia.edu'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref> In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life." <ref>[http://www.misericordia.edu/users/davies/thomas/Trans.htm Gospel of Thomas 114] ''www.misericordia.edu'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref> Jesus denies his request, saying that he will guide her to become "male." In the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], Peter holds a dialog with Jesus about the [[parable of the fig tree]] and the fate of [[sinners]].<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/apocalypsepeter-mrjames.html Apocalypse of Peter] ''www.earlychristianwritings.com'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref>
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In the [[Fayyum Fragment]] Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him in an account similar to that of the canonical gospels, especially the [[Gospel of Mark]].
 
  
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===After the death of Jesus===
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In the [[Gospel of Mary]], Peter appears to be jealous of Mary (probably [[Mary Magdalene]]). He says to the other disciples, "Did he (Jesus) really speak privately with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?"<ref>[http://www.gnosis.org/library/marygosp.htm Gospel of Mary 9:4] ''www.gnosis.org'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref> In reply to this, [[Saint Matthew|Levi]] says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered." <ref>[http://www.gnosis.org/library/marygosp.htm Gospel of Mary 9:6], ''www.gnosis.org'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref>
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The fragmentary [[Gospel of Peter]], attributed to Peter, contains an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical gospels. It contains little information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the [[empty tomb]], "I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea"
 
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<ref>[http://www.cygnus-study.com/pagepet.html Gospel of Peter 14:3]</ref>.
 
  
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===Death of Peter===
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Other non-canonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include the [[Secret Book of James]], [[2 Clement]], and the [[Acts of Peter]]. The fragmentary [[Gospel of Peter]] contains an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical gospels. It gives little information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the [[empty tomb]], "I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea."
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[[Image:Caravaggio-Crucifixion of Peter.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Caravaggio]]'s depiction of the crucifixion of Saint Peter.]]
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<ref>[http://www.cygnus-study.com/pagepet.html Gospel of Peter 14:3] ''www.cygnus-study.com'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref>
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The early writings indicated in the following paragraphs witness to the tradition that Peter, probably at the time of the [[Great Fire of Rome]] of the year 64, for which the [[Emperor Nero]] blamed the Christians, met martyrdom in Rome.  
 
  
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[[Clement of Rome]], in his ''Letter to the Corinthians'' (Chapter 5), written ''c.'' [[80]]-[[98]], speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms: "Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death… Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him."
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Many miracles are attributed to Peter in the [[Acts of Peter]] and other apocryphal works. In the Acts of Peter, Peter holds a miracle contest with [[Simon Magus]], outdoing him at every turn. In the [[Acts of Peter and Andrew]] he literally pulls a camel through the eye of a needle. In the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], he reveals the cataclysmic events of the [[Last Days]].  
  
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Saint [[Ignatius of Antioch]], in his ''Letter to the Romans'' (Ch. 4) of ''c.'' [[105]]-[[110]], tells the Roman Christians: "I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did."
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Late legends said that Peter had a daughter, who was sometimes identified with the virgin martyr [[Saint Petronilla|Petronilla]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11781b.htm Petronilla] ''www.newadvent.org'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref>
  
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[[Dionysius of Corinth]] wrote: "You [Pope Soter] have also, by your very admonition, brought together the planting that was made by Peter and Paul at Rome and at Corinth; for both of them alike planted in our Corinth and taught us; and both alike, teaching similarly in Italy, suffered martyrdom at the same time" (Letter to Pope Soter [A.D. 170], in Eusebius, History of the Church 2:25:8).
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===Peter's death===
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Tradition holds that Peter met martyrdom in Rome, probably at the time of the [[Great Fire of Rome|great fire]] of the year 64, for which the [[Emperor Nero]] blamed the Christians.
  
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St. [[Irenaeus of Lyon]] (a disciple of [[St. Polycarp of Smyrna]], who was himself a disciple of the Apostle [[John the Apostle|St. John]], which puts Irenaeus not far from the authentic teachings of the Apostles) in ''c.'' [[175]]-[[185]] wrote in ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' (Book III, Chapter III, paragraphs 2–3):
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[[Clement of Rome]], in his ''Letter to the Corinthians'' (Chapter 5), written ''c.'' 80-98, speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms: "Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death… Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labors, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him."
  
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<blockquote>Since, however, it would be too long to enumerate in such a volume as this the succession of all the churches, we shall confound all those who, in whatever manner, whether through self-satisfaction or vainglory, or through blindness and wicked opinion, assemble other than where it is proper, by pointing out here the successions of the bishops of the greatest and most ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, that church which has the tradition and the faith which comes down to us after having been announced to men by the apostles. With that church, because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition.''</blockquote>
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[[Image:Caravaggio-Crucifixion of Peter.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Caravaggio]]'s depiction of the crucifixion of Saint Peter.]]
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<blockquote>The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric. This man, as he had seen the blessed apostles, and had been conversant with them, might be said to have the preaching of the apostles still echoing [in his ears], and their traditions before his eyes. Nor was he alone [in this], for there were many still remaining who had received instructions from the apostles. In the time of this Clement, no small dissension having occurred among the brethren at Corinth, the Church in Rome dispatched a most powerful letter to the Corinthians, exhorting them to peace, renewing their faith, and declaring the tradition which it had lately received from the apostles…''</blockquote>
 
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Tertullian also writes: "But if you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is at hand for us too. What a happy church that is, on which the apostles poured out their whole doctrine with their blood; where Peter had a passion like that of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John [the Baptist, by being beheaded]"
 
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Traditions originating in or recorded in the [[apocrypha]]l [[Acts of Peter]], say that the Romans crucified Peter upside down at his request, due to his wishing not to be equated with Jesus. [[Acts of Peter]] is also thought to be the source for the tradition about the famous phrase "[[Quo Vadis]]" (Where are you going?), a question that, according to this tradition, Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid execution, asked a vision of Jesus, and to which Jesus responded that he was "going to Rome, to be crucified again," causing Peter to decide to return to the city and accept martyrdom. This story is commemorated in an [[Annibale Carracci]] painting. The [[Quo Vadis (church)|Church of Quo Vadis]], near the [[Catacombs]] of [[Pope Callistus I|Saint Callistus]], contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was actually apparently an ''[[ex-voto]]'' from a [[pilgrim]], and indeed a copy of the original, housed in the [[San Sebastiano fuori le mura|Basilica of St Sebastian]].
 
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The ancient historian [[Josephus]] describes how Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions, and it is likely that this would have been known to the author of the ''Acts of Peter''. The position attributed to Peter's crucifixion is thus plausible, either as having happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the ''Acts of Peter''. Death, after crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused by [[suffocation]], the usual cause of death in ordinary crucifixion.
 
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A [[The Middle Ages|medieval]] misconception was that the [[Mamertine Prison]] in Rome is the place where Peter was imprisoned before his execution.
 
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Recently, these traditional views concerning Peter's death have come into question, because of a 1953 excavation of what appears to be Peter's Tomb in Jerusalem.<ref>Finegan, ''The Archeology of the New Testament'', pp. 368–370. [http://www.aloha.net/~mikesch/peters-jerusalem-tomb.htm A more popular account of this tomb.]</ref> This discovery seems to clarify Paul's confrontation in Antioch (ca 51 C.E.) with "Cephas" (Galatians 2:1–8), as being Peter. Also there is an apocryphal text entitled "Martyrdom of Paul," in which Peter is absent of Paul's death at Rome, stating Paul's only companions to be Luke and Titus (2 Timothy, Paul says "only Luke is with me.") As excavations and research continue, it will hopefully shed light upon seeming contradictions between oral and written tradition.
 
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===Children ===
 
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Late legends said that Peter had a daughter, who was sometimes identified with the virgin martyr [[Saint Petronilla|Petronilla]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11781b.htm]</ref> At one point Peter refers to [[Saint Mark|Mark]] as his son, although this is generally considered to not be literal.
 
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==Religious interpretations==
 
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===Catholic Church===
 
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{{Infobox Pope |
 
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English name = Peter |
 
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image = [[Image:S. Peter GraoVasco1.jpg|200px]] |
 
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birth_name = Simon/Simeon |
 
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term_start = [[30]] AD? |
 
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term_end = [[64]] AD |
 
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predecessor = None (seat created) |
 
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successor = [[Pope Linus|Linus]] |
 
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birth_date = |
 
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birthplace = [[Bethsaida]] (traditional) |
 
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dead = dead |
 
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death_date = [[Circa]] [[64]]/[[67]] AD |
 
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deathplace = [[Ancient Rome|City of Rome]], <br>present day [[Italy]] {{flagicon|ITA}}|
 
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}}
 
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{{infobox popestyles|
 
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papal name=Pope Peter|
 
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dipstyle=His Holiness|
 
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offstyle=Your Holiness|
 
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relstyle=Holy Father|
 
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deathstyle=Saint|}}
 
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{{main|Primacy of Simon Peter|Primacy of the Roman Pontiff}}
 
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In Catholic tradition, Peter's leadership role among the Apostles, referred to above lies at the root of the leadership role of the [[pope]] among the [[bishop]]s of the Church. The pope is seen as the successor of Peter as [[bishop of Rome]] by all the ancient Christian Churches. While some [[Protestantism|Protestants]] question this belief on the grounds of lack of contemporary evidence, the quotations given above from writers like Clement, Ignatius and Tertullian show that by the end of the first century the tradition that Peter went to Rome and was martyred there was already well established. In addition, the first Epistle of Peter ends with "The church that is in [[Babylon]], chosen together with you, salutes you, and so does my son, Mark." (1 Pet 5:13). Though the word "Babylon" refers literally to a city in [[Mesopotamia]], it was used cryptically to indicate Rome, as in [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 14:8; 16:19; 17:5, 6, and in the works of various Jewish seers.
 
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In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the [[Fisherman's Ring]], which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the Pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter ({{bibleverse||Matthew|16:18–19}}). The terminology of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in {{bibleverse||Isaiah|22:15}} and {{bibleverse||Isaiah|22:19–23}}.
 
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Peter is therefore often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a key or a set of keys.
 
  
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In the same passage of the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus tells Peter: "You are ''Peter'', and on this ''rock'' I will build my Church." In the original [[Greek language|Greek]] the word translated as "Peter" is ''Πέτρος'' (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is ''πέτρα'' (petra), two words that, while not identical, give an impression of a play on words. Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native [[Aramaic language]], the actual words used would allegedly have been identical {{Fact|date=March 2007}}. The traditional Catholic interpretation has therefore been that Jesus told Peter (Rock) that he would build his Church on this Peter (Rock).
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[[Dionysius of Corinth]] wrote: "Both of them (Peter and Paul) alike planted in our Corinth and taught us; and both alike, teaching similarly in Italy, suffered martyrdom at the same time" (Letter to Pope Soter [170 C.E..], in [[Eusebius]], ''History of the Church'' 2:25:8).
  
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On the basis of the difference between the Greek words, some Protestant scholars disagree with this interpretation. In classical Attic Greek ''petros'' generally meant "pebble," while ''petra'' meant "boulder" or "cliff." Accordingly, taking Peter's name to mean "pebble," they argue that the "rock" in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed. In appealing to the doctrine of [[Biblical inerrancy]], these scholars claim that speculation regarding the original language/word choice of the event recorded in Matthew is irrelevant because the account in Greek is without error, and thus there must be significance to the different words chosen by the author.
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The [[apocrypha]]l [[Acts of Peter]], relates that the Romans crucified Peter upside down at his request, due to his wishing not to be equated with Jesus. The Acts of Peter is also thought to be the source for the tradition about the famous phrase ''[[Quo Vadis]]''—Where are you going? According to this tradition, Peter was fleeing Rome to avoid execution when he saw a vision of Jesus and asked him where he was going, to which Jesus responded that he was "going to Rome, to be crucified again." This caused Peter to decide to return to the city and accept martyrdom.
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[[Image:Pietro Perugino 034.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Christ gives Peter the key to the Kingdom of Heaven, by Pietro Perugino]]
 
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Counter-arguments are presented not only by Catholic [[apologist]]s like Karl Keating (see [http://www.catholic.com/library/Peter_the_Rock.asp]) but also by scholars of other Christian Churches, such as the Evangelical Christian D. A. Carson in ''The Expositor's Bible Commentary'' [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1984]). They point out that the Gospel of Matthew was written, not in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic Koine dialect, in which there is not the same distinction in meaning between ''petros'' and ''petra''. Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of ''petros'' was a smallish "stone," there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in [[Sophocles]], ''[[Oedipus at Colonus]]'' v. 1595, where ''petros'' refers to a boulder used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case, in the Aramaic language in which the phrase might well have been spoken, the ''petros''/''petra'' distinction is allegedly inexistent {{Fact|date=March 2007}}. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun ''petra'' could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of ''Petros'' as the Greek word with which to translate Aramaic ''Kepha''.
 
  
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When, in the early fourth century, the [[Emperor Constantine I]] decided to honour Peter with a large basilica, the precise location of Peter's burial was so firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians of Rome that the building had to be erected on a site that involved considerable difficulties, both physical (excavating the slope of the Vatican Hill, while the great church could much more easily have been built on level ground only slightly to the south) and moral and legal (demolishing a cemetery). The focal point of [[St. Peter's Basilica]], both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar placed over what is held to be the exact place where Peter was buried.
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In the fourth century, when the [[Emperor Constantine I]] decided to honor Peter with a large basilica, the precise location of Peter's burial was already firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians of Rome. The building was thus erected on a site that involved considerable difficulties. The focal point of [[Saint Peter's Basilica]], both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar placed over what is held to be the exact place where Peter was buried. Recently, however, these traditional views concerning Peter's death have come into question, because of a 1953 excavation of what some believe to be [[Peter's Tomb]] in Jerusalem.<ref>Finegan, ''The Archeology of the New Testament.'' 368–370. [http://www.aloha.net/~mikesch/peters-jerusalem-tomb.htm A more popular account of this tomb.] ''www.aloha.net'' Retrieved May 10, 2008.</ref>
  
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====Feast days====
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The traditional feast days of Saint Peter are:
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*[[January 18]], Feast of the Chair of St. Peter at Rome (see below for explanation)
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*January 18, Feast of the Chair of St. Peter at Rome
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*March 19, [[Feast of the Chair of St. Peter]] at Antioch (see below for explanation)
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*March 19, [[Feast of the Chair of St. Peter]] at Antioch  
 
*June 29, [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]]
 
*June 29, [[Feast of Saints Peter and Paul]]
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*August 1, [[St. Peter in Chains]] calendar prior to 1965
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*August 1, [[St. Peter in Chains]]
 
*November 18, [[Feast of the Dedication of the Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul]]
 
*November 18, [[Feast of the Dedication of the Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul]]
  
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The Catholic Encyclopedia states that from very early times in the history of the Christian community in Rome, January 18 was the date on which celebrated the memory of the day St. Peter held his first service with Christians in Rome [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03551e.htm]. This feast was suppressed as part of the simplification of the calendar in the 1960s.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
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===Peter's primacy===
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The question of Peter's primacy over the other apostles, and the primacy of Rome over other the churches of cities, is much debated. The gospels clearly portray Jesus as conferring a special status on Peter, but he does not exercise authority over them until after the resurrection. Indeed, he is seen failing to understand Jesus' intent (Matthew 16:23), falling asleep on watch at a crucial moment, and even denying his association with Jesus in order to save his own life. After the resurrection, Peter plays a key role in the Jerusalem church at first, but later it is [[James the Just]] who appears to be in charge, and Peter and Paul are seen at odds at Antioch. Peter plays no role in the second half of the Book of Acts, and his association with Rome is found nowhere in the New Testament.
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===Seventh-Day Adventist===
 
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[[Seventh Day Adventist]]s contend that the idea of Peter being the first Pope is based on a misinterpretation.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Evidence is as follows:
 
  
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{{bibleverse||Matthew|7:24|KJV}} "''Therefore whosoever heareth these sayings of mine, and doeth them, I will liken him unto a wise man, which built his house upon a rock:''"
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However, by the late second century C.E., the tradition that Peter and Paul were united in martyrdom at Rome was well established. Soon, the "[[See of Peter]]" emerged as a center of orthodox authority, though not the only one.
  
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In this passage, the Greek word for rock is 'petra', which means a large foundation type rock on which a house would be built. The foundation symbolizes the sayings of Jesus.
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[[Irenaeus of Lyon]] (late second century) wrote in ''[[On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis|Against Heresies]]'' that the church of Rome was the seat of apostolic authority, referring to:
  
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This controversial discussion between Jesus and Peter is found in {{bibleverse||Matthew|16:13–19|KJV}}.
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<blockquote>the succession of the [[bishops]] of the greatest and most ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul... With that church, because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition. (Book III, Chapter III, paragraphs 2–3)</blockquote>
  
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Jesus asks his disciples what people where saying about him, and when he asked their personal opinion, Peter said: "''Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God''." Jesus answering, said: "''And I say also unto thee, that thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church''"
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[[Tertullian]] of Carthage added: "If you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is at hand for us too. What a happy church that is, on which the apostles poured out their whole doctrine with their blood; where Peter had a passion like that of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John [the Baptist, by being beheaded]."
  
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The Greek word for Peter is 'petros', which means a small stone, such as are used in the construction of buildings, such as a church. A 'petros' is a stone that can be moved around ''in contrast'' to an immovable foundation stone (petra). The word, 'petra', is again used here in the phrase: "upon this rock."
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==Church traditions==
 +
[[Image:Gesupietrochiave.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Christ gives Peter the keys to the Kingdom.]]
 +
In the Roman Catholic Church, Peter's leadership role among the apostles lies at the root of the leadership role of the [[pope]] among the [[bishop]]s of the Church as the [[body of Christ]]. Popes wear the [[Fisherman's Ring]], which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter ({{bibleverse||Matthew|16:18–19}}). Peter is therefore often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a key or a set of keys. The Roman patriarch, though not the only "pope" of the time, was recognized as the successor of Peter as [[bishop of Rome]] by all the ancient Christian churches, except those deemed to be heretical.
  
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This contrast points out that Peter was in need of a firm foundation to gain a sense of stability, as Peter was noted for his great zeal, but instability:
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However, many [[Protestantism|Protestants]] the idea of Peter's primacy on the grounds of lack of contemporary evidence, as the tradition that Peter went to Rome and was martyred there was not well established until the second century. Moreover, even if the tradition is true, this does not necessarily establish Rome's authority over other churches. In the Orthodox tradition, the Peter position is seen as ''primus inter pares''—the first among equals, together with the other metropolitan patriarchates.
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# In {{bibleverse||Matthew|14:28–31|KJV}}Peter went out to walk on water, but then sank because of doubt.
 
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# In {{bibleverse||Matthew|26:35|KJV}} and {{bibleverse||Matthew|26:74|KJV}} Peter dramatically swears that he will not deny his Lord even on pain of death, but he denied Jesus with cursing and swearing.
 
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# {{bibleverse||Matthew|15:15|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|16:16|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|17:4|KJV}} {{bibleverse||Matthew|18:21|KJV}}, {{bibleverse||Matthew|19:27|KJV}} are a few examples of Peter being the first to answer.
 
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# {{bibleverse||John|21:7|KJV}} Peter jumping into the water to meet his Lord.
 
  
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The '''statement''': "''Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God''" represents the [[testimony of Jesus]], which is the '''foundation''' of the Christian faith. This is the stone foundation (petra) upon which Jesus built His church. Not Peter, but the '''testimony''' that Peter gave.
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Recent studies of apocryphal literature, especially of the [[gnosticism|gnostic]] variety, indicate that Peter's position was emphasized by the "orthodox" churches as a rallying point to strengthen the authority of the orthodox [[bishop]]s against supposedly false teachings. Thus, some of the gnostic gospels and other apocryphal literature portray Peter in a more negative light than the canonical gospels and surviving church tradition.
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Peter's acts are recorded in all of the [[gospels]], and the [[book of Acts]], and his writings where included in the bible, and are used by Christians today. In this sense Peter was used in the building of the Lord's church, as a small stone (petros) would be used.
 
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Furthermore, the idea of making a single man the whole foundation of the church would go against the principle taught in {{bibleverse||Matthew|23:8–12|KJV}}, and the ability to ''loose'' and ''bind'' is given to every disciple of Christ. ({{bibleverse||Matthew|18:18|KJV}})
 
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===New Apostolic Church===
 
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The [[New Apostolic Church]], who believes in the re-established Apostle ministry, sees Peter as the first [[Chief Apostle]].
 
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===Latter Day Saint movement===
 
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[[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church or "[[Mormons]]") along with other sects of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] believe that Peter was the first leader of the early Christian church, but reject papal succession. In interpreting Matt. 16: 13–19 the church has stated, "The words then addressed to him, 'Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church,' have been made the foundation of the papal claims. But it is the Godhead of Christ, which Peter had just confessed, that is the true keystone of the Church."<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/bd/p/27 LDS Bible Dictionary—Peter]</ref> As part of the restoration, Peter, James and John came from heaven and conferred the keys of the [[Melchizedek Priesthood]] upon [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] in [[1829]], near [[Harmony, Pennsylvania]].<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/27/12–13#12 Doctrine & Covenants 27: 12–13]</ref>
 
  
 
==Writings==
 
==Writings==
 
===New Testament===
 
===New Testament===
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[[Image:Petersinai.jpg|thumb|200px|A 6th-century encaustic icon from [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai]].]]
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[[Image:Petersinai.jpg|thumb|200px|A sixth-century encaustic icon from [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai]].]]
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The [[New Testament]] includes two letters (''epistles'') ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would ordinarily be expected of an [[Aramaic]]-speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. However, the author of the first epistle explicitly claims to be using a secretary (see below), and this explanation would allow for discrepancies in style without entailing a different source. The textual features of these two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by the same hand. This means at the most that Peter could not have authored both, or at the least that he used a different secretary for each letter. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources, and point to the lack of references to 2 Peter among the early Church Fathers.
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The [[New Testament]] includes two letters ''(epistles)'' ascribed to Peter. However, the majority of modern scholars do not believe that the letters are genuinely written by Saint Peter.
  
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Of the two epistles, the [[First Epistle of Peter|first epistle]] is considered the earlier, and hence more likely to be genuine. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written with the help of a secretary or as an [[amanuensis]]. Indeed in the first epistle the use of a secretary is clearly described: "By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I have written briefly, exhorting, and testifying that this is the true grace of God wherein ye stand" (1 Peter 5:15). Thus, in regards to at least the first epistle, the claims that Peter would have written Greek poorly seem irrelevant. The references to [[persecution of Christians]], which only began under [[Nero]], cause most scholars to date the text to at least [[80]], which would require Peter to have survived to an age that was, at that time, extremely old, and almost never reached, particularly by common fishermen. However, the Roman historian Tacitus and the biographer Suetonius both record that Nero's persecution of Christians began immediately after the fire that burned Rome in 64. Such a date, which is in accord with Christian tradition, especially Eusebius (''History'' book 2, 24.1), would not have Peter at an improbable age upon his death. On the other hand, many scholars consider this in reference to the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor during the reign of the emperor [[Domitian]] ([[81]]-[[96]]).
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The textual features of these two epistles indicate that they were not written by the same hand. Moreover, both epistles demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, a fact at odds with the linguistic skill expected from an [[Aramaic]]-speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources, and point to the lack of references to 2 Peter among the early [[Church Fathers]]. However, the author of the first epistle explicitly states that he is using a secretary, which could account for some of these objections. Of the two epistles, the [[First Epistle of Peter|first epistle]] is considered the earlier.
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The [[Second Epistle of Peter]], on the other hand, appears to have been copied, in part, from the [[Epistle of Jude]], and some modern scholars date its composition as late as ''c.'' [[150]]. Some scholars argue the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied 2 Peter, while others contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date is not incompatible with the text. Many scholars have noted the similarities between the [[apocrypha]]l second pseudo-[[Epistles of Clement|Epistle of Clement]] (2nd century) and 2 Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150, there are a few possible references to it that date back to the first century or early second century, eg [[1 Clement]] written in ''c'' 96 C.E., and the later church historian [[Eusebius]] claimed that [[Origen]] had made reference to the epistle before 250. Even in early times there was controversy over its authorship, and 2 Peter was often not included in the [[Biblical Canon]]; it was only in the 4th century that it gained a firm foothold in the New Testament, in a series of synods. In the east the [[Syrian Orthodox Church|Syriac Church]] still did not admit it into the canon until the 6th century.
 
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Traditionally, the [[Gospel of Mark]] was said to have been written by a person named ''John Mark'', and that this person was an assistant to Peter, hence its content was traditionally seen as the closest to Peter's viewpoint. According to [[Eusebius]]'s ''Ecclesiastical History'', [[Papias]] recorded this belief from [[John the Presbyter]]:
 
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:''Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings. Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements''.—Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 3.39.14–16
 
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Also Irenaeus wrote about this tradition:
 
−
:''After their (Peter and Paul's) passing, Mark also, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter.'' (Irenaeus, ''Against Heresies'', III. 1.2.; quoted by Eusebius in ''Ecclesiastical History'', book 5, 7.6)
 
−
 
 
−
Based on these quotes, and on the Christian tradition, the information in Mark's Gospel about St. Peter would be based on eyewitness material. It should be
 
−
observed, however, that some scholars (for differing reasons) dispute the attribution of the Gospel of Mark to its traditional author. The gospel itself is [[anonymous]], and the above passages are the oldest surviving written testimony to its authorship.
 
  
 
===Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha===
 
===Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha===
−
There are also a number of other [[apocrypha]]l writings that have been either attributed to or written about St. Peter. They were from antiquity regarded as [[pseudepigrapha]]. These include:
+
There are also a number of other [[apocrypha]]l writings that have been either attributed to or written about Saint Peter. They were from antiquity regarded as [[pseudepigrapha]]. These include:
−
*[[Gospel of Peter]], a [[docetism|Docetic]] narrative that has survived in part
+
*[[Gospel of Peter]], a [[docetism|Docetic]] narrative that has survived only in part
−
*''[[Acts of St Peter]]''
+
*''[[Acts of Peter]],'' from which several traditions about Peter have passed into accepted tradition
−
*A [[Letter of St Peter to Philip]], which was preserved in the [[Nag Hammadi library]]
+
*A [[Letter of Peter to Philip]], which was preserved in the [[Nag Hammadi library]]
−
*[[Apocalypse of St.Peter]], which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the fourth century
+
*The [[Apocalypse of Peter]], which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the fifth century and was a candidate for inclusion in the [[New Testament]]
−
*The Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to St Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the [[Clementine literature]]
+
*The [[Epistula Petri]], an introductory letter ascribed to Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the [[Clementine literature]]
 +
*The [[Acts of Peter and Andrew]], in which Peter conducts several [[miracles]], most famously causing a camel to pass through the eye of a needle
 +
*The [[Acts of Peter and the Twelve]], an [[allegory]] similar to the parable of the [[Pearl of Great Price]], together with a gnostic exposition of the story
 +
*The [[Acts of Peter and Paul]], based partly on a section of the Acts of Peter describing Peter's death, but portraying Peter and Paul united in martyrdom at Rome.
  
−
==Popular culture==
+
==Patronage==
−
Over the years "St. Peter" has evolved into a [[stock character]] that is now widely used in [[joke]]s, [[cartoon]]s, [[comedy|comedies]], [[drama]]s, and [[plays]]. Such caricatures almost all play upon Peter's role as the "keeper of the keys of the [[kingdom of heaven]]" in Matthew 16:19[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matthew%2016:18–16:19&version=9], on the basis of which he is often depicted as an elderly, bearded man who sits at the [[pearly gates]] that serve as heaven's main entrance, and acting as a sort of hotel-style [[doorman]] / [[bouncer]] who personally interviews prospective entrants into Heaven, often from behind a desk.
+
[[Image:StMarysAylesburyDetail6.jpg|right|thumb|Statue of St. Peter on the south door of St Mary's Church in [[Aylesbury]], [[United Kingdom]]]]
−
 
 
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==Patronage==<!-- This section is linked from [[Saint Peter]] —>
 
 
In Roman Catholic religious doctrine and tradition, Saint Peter is the [[patron saint]] of the following categories  
 
In Roman Catholic religious doctrine and tradition, Saint Peter is the [[patron saint]] of the following categories  
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
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*[[Umbria, Italy|Umbria]]
 
*[[Umbria, Italy|Umbria]]
 
|}
 
|}
 +
 +
==See also==
 +
*[[Disciple]]
 +
*[[St. Peter's Basilica|Saint Peter's Basilica]]
 +
*[[Twelve Apostles]]
 +
*[[Papacy]]
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
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</div>
 
</div>
  
−
==See also==
+
==References==
−
{{commonscat|Saint Peter}}
+
* Brown, Raymond Edward, Karl P. Donfried, and John Henry Paul Reumann. ''Peter in the New Testament; A Collaborative Assessment by Protestant and Roman Catholic Scholars.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1973. ISBN 9780806614014
−
*[[New Apostolic Church]]
+
* Card, Michael. ''A Fragile Stone: The Emotional Life of Simon Peter.'' Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 9780851117850
−
*[[St. Peter's Basilica|St Peter's Basilica]]
+
* Goulder, M. D. ''St. Paul Versus St. Peter: A Tale of Two Missions.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1995. ISBN 9780664255619
−
*[[St Peter's Square]]
+
* Grant, Michael. ''Saint Peter: A Biography.'' New York: Scribner, 1995. ISBN 9780684193540
−
*''[[The Big Fisherman]]''
+
* O'Connor, Daniel William. ''Peter in Rome: The Literary, Liturgical, and Archeological Evidence.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1969. ISBN  9780231029667
−
*[[San Pietro in Vincoli]]
+
* Perkins, Pheme. ''Peter: Apostle for the Whole Church.'' Studies on personalities of the New Testament. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. ISBN 9780872499744
−
*[[Saint Peter's tomb]]
+
* Spell, David. ''Peter and Paul in Acts.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2006. ISBN 9781597527842
−
*[[Saint Peter (disambiguation)]]
+
 
−
*[[Quo Vadis]]
 
−
{{portalpar|Saints|Gloriole.svg}}
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* [http://www.stpetersbasilica.org/tours.htm stpetersbasilica.org] Books on Peter in Rome
+
All links retrieved December 22, 2022.
−
* [http://sol.sci.uop.edu/~jfalward/Cephas.htm Etymology of Peter]
+
 
−
* [http://www.sebomenoi.com/Peter.htm The Jewish St Peter]
+
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=790&letter=S&search=Simon%20Peter Jewish Encyclopedia: Simon Cephas] ''www.jewishencyclopedia.com''
−
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=790&letter=S&search=Simon%20Peter Jewish Encyclopedia: Simon Cephas]
+
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: St Peter, Prince of the Apostles] ''www.newadvent.org''
−
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11744a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: St Peter, Prince of the Apostles]
 
 
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11752a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Epistles of St Peter]
 
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11752a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Epistles of St Peter]
  
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title=[[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Bishop of Antioch]]|
 
title=[[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Bishop of Antioch]]|
 
before=''none''|
 
before=''none''|
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years=[[37]]–[[53]]|
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years=37–53|
 
after=[[Saint Evodius|Evodius]]}}
 
after=[[Saint Evodius|Evodius]]}}
 
{{succession box|
 
{{succession box|
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title=[[List of popes|Pope]]<br><small>(according to Roman Catholic dogma)</small>|
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title=[[List of popes|Pope]]<br/><small>(according to Roman Catholic dogma)</small>|
 
before=''none''|
 
before=''none''|
 
after=[[Pope Linus|Linus]]|
 
after=[[Pope Linus|Linus]]|
 
years=30–64 or 67}}
 
years=30–64 or 67}}
 
{{end box}}
 
{{end box}}
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{{Apostles}}
 
{{Apostles}}
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[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: religion]]
 
[[Category: religion]]
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{{Credit|144600374}}
 
{{Credit|144600374}}

Latest revision as of 00:51, 23 December 2022

Saint Peter
Pope-peter pprubens.jpg

Saint Peter, by Peter Paul Rubens
Born Unknown
Died ~64
Major shrine Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome
Feast February 22, June 29, November 18
Attributes man crucified head downwards
Patronage See St. Peter's Patronage
Controversy Controversy exists as to whether Peter was truly a pope, and the veracity of the many miracles attributed to him

The Apostle Peter, also known as Saint Peter, and Cephas—original name Simeon son of Jonah—was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. His life is prominently featured in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles.

Peter was a Galilean fisherman assigned a leadership role by Jesus, who reportedly gave him the keys of heaven and called him the "rock" on whom the church would be built. Although later failing in his discipleship at several crucial moments during Jesus' lifetime, Peter went on to became an effective leader of the early church. Thousands were converted by his sermons, and many miracles were attributed to him. His relations with Saint Paul, however, were stormy, as the two leaders disagreed about fellowship between Jewish and Gentile Christans.

In Catholic tradition, Peter was the first pope. The ancient Christian churches all consider him a major saint and associate him with the foundation of the church in Rome, but differ about the authority the Roman patriarch in present-day Christianity. A large body of literature was attributed to Peter after his death, including two letters included in the New Testament.

Tradition holds that the Roman authorities sentenced Peter to death by crucifixion. According to a story recorded in the apocryphal Acts of Peter, he was crucified head down. The Roman Martyrology assigns June 29 as the feast day of both Peter and Paul. Tradition locates his burial place where the Basilica of Saint Peter was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar.

Jesus' chief disciple

The New Testament portrays Peter as Jesus' chief disciple, a man of simple faith who was far from perfect in his discipleship but could be trusted in the long run as a "rock" upon whom the later church could stand.

According to the Gospel of John, Peter was born in Bethsaida (John 1:44). His father's name is given as Jonah Matthew 16:17). Each of the synoptic gospels recounts how Peter's mother-in-law was healed by Jesus at their home in Capernaum (Matthew 8:14–17), implying that Peter was married. Saint Paul likewise mentions Peter having a wife, who accompanied him on his missionary journeys (1 Corinthians 9:5).

Before becoming a disciple of Jesus, Peter, then called Simon, was a fisherman along with his brother Andrew. The Gospel of John also depicts Peter fishing, but only after the resurrection.

Calling by Jesus

Matthew and Mark report that while fishing in the Lake of Gennesaret (Galilee), Simon and his brother Andrew were called by Jesus, with no previous contact, to be his followers, with the words, "Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men" (Matthew 4:18–19; Mark 1:16–17). In Luke's account, Simon is the owner of a boat that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of Lake Gennesaret (Luke 5:3). Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions, James and John, by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow him.

The account of the Gospel of John, however, has Peter meeting Jesus for the first time by the Jordan river, where Peter was a disciple of John the Baptist (John 1:35–42). Andrew, we are told, heard John the Baptist describe Jesus as the "Lamb of God," whereupon he followed Jesus. He then went and fetched his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the Messiah," and brought him to Jesus. Jesus then gave Simon the name Cephas, meaning "rock," in Aramaic. Peter (Petrus) is simply a Greek translation of "Cephas."

Position among the apostles

Peter is also often depicted as spokesman of all the apostles, and as one to whom Jesus gave special authority. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Peter alone was able to walk on water after seeing Jesus do the same thing (Matthew 14:22–32). The gospels of Mark and John also mention Jesus walking on water, but do not mention Peter doing so.

It is Peter who first declares Jesus the Messiah in the synoptic gospels, saying "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." (Matthew 16:16) Jesus praises Peter for this confession and declares, punning on Peter's nickname: "I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it." (Matthew 16:18)

Peter (lower left) attacks the servant of the high priest as Jesus is arrested, by Hans Holbein the Younger

Peter is frequently mentioned in the Gospels as forming, together with James the Elder and John, a special group, or trinity of disciples, within the Twelve Apostles. This core group of three was present at special incidents, such as the transfiguration and Jesus' prayer in Gethsemane, in which the others did not participate. Mark 5 reports that Peter alone was allowed to follow Jesus into the house of the synagogue leader Jairus where Jesus brought Jairus' daughter back from the dead. Several times, Jesus takes Peter, John, and James aside and reveals things to them that the other disciples do not hear (e.g. Mark 13).

Peter's failures

Peter remonstrated with Jesus after Jesus revealed the possibility that he would suffer death at Jerusalem, prompting Jesus to declare: "Get behind me, Satan! You do not have in mind the things of God, but the things of men." (Mark 8:33)

All four canonical gospels recount that, during the Last Supper, Jesus prophetically foretold that Peter would deny association with him three times that same night. In Matthew, Peter insisted, "Even if I have to die with you, I will never disown you." (Matthew 26:35) In Mark 14:29 he declared, "Even if all fall away, I will not."

Luke reports that, after the Last Supper, Jesus instructed the disciples to bring two swords with them to Gethsemane (Luke 22:38), where he commanded Peter and the other two chief disciples to keep watch while he prayed in a garden. Upon returning to find the men slumbering, Jesus addressed Peter to say, "Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing, but the body is weak." (Matthew 26:41) While Peter slept again, God refused Jesus' plea to "let this cup pass" (Matthew 26:39). Meanwhile, Judas Iscariot was able to approach unhindered and betray Jesus to the guards who sought to arrest him.

According to John, Peter then cut off the ear of a servant of the high priest.(John 18:10) The synoptic gospels also mention this incident, but do not identify Peter as the swordsman. Jesus rebuked this act of violence, which had come to late to protect Jesus in any event. Luke adds the detail that Jesus touched the guard's ear and healed it.

Peter joined the other disciples in fleeing after Jesus' arrest. He denied his association with Jesus three times, and did not dare to witness his execution.

Resurrection appearances

In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the empty tomb, although the women and the beloved disciple get there before him (John 20:1–9). In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles and Peter goes to check for himself (Luke 24:1–12).

Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians contains a list of resurrection appearances of Jesus, the first of which is an appearance to "Cephas" (1 Corithians 15:3–7). An appearance to "Simon" is also reported in Luke 24:34. In the final chapter of the Gospel of John, Peter three times affirms his love for Jesus, apparently restoring his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirms Peter's position (John 21:15–17), instructing him to "feed my sheep."

Peter in the early church

The author of the Acts of the Apostles portrays Peter as an extremely important figure within the early Christian community, although it is not clear whether Peter or James, "the Lord's brother," is the leading figure in the Jerusalem church. Peter did play the key role early on. He took the lead in selecting a replacement for Judas Iscariot (Acts 1:15) and delivered a significant speech during Pentecost at which 3,000 Jews reportedly accepted his message and were baptized (Acts 2:38-41). He became famous in Jerusalem for healing a crippled beggar (Acts 3). He was twice arraigned before the Sanhedrin for preaching the gospel (Acts 4:7–22), (Acts 5:18–42). It was also Peter who condemned the disciple Annanias for withholding from the church part of the proceeds of the sale of his home, after which the Holy Spirit immediately killed both Annanias and his wife (Acts 5:1-10).

An angel rescues Peter from prison.

Peter came to Samaria after the gospel began to spread there, and it was he who harshly scolded the new convert Simon Magus for offering money to obtain the ability to impart the Holy Spirit to other believers (Acts 8). Peter undertook a missionary journey to Lydda, Joppa, and Caesarea (Acts 9:32–10:2), becoming instrumental in the decision to evangelize the Gentiles (Acts 10). He also famously brought about the resurrection of the child Tabitha (Acts 9:40). In Acts 11, Peter was criticized by the Jerusalem church for associating too closely with Gentiles but insisted that he has been commanded to do so by God in a dream. Acts 12 relates how Peter miraculously escaped from prison after having been arrested by Herod Agrippa I.

Peter was present at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15), where Paul argued the case for accepting Gentiles into the Christian community without circumcision. At this point, it is no longer Peter, but James who is the deciding authority and sends a letter to the Gentile churches informing them of his ruling. Acts turns its attention to Paul's ministry at this point in its narrative, and we must therefore turn to Paul for further information.

From Paul, we learn that Peter seems to have resided for some time at Antioch. We also learn from Paul that Peter's wife is allowed to accompany him on his journeys, with financial support provided by the churches (1 Corinthians 9:4-6).

Peter's relationship with Paul was not always amicable. Paul relates an incident in the Epistle to the Galatians (Galatians 2:11), in which he publicly confronted Peter for hypocrisy in refusing to dine at the same table with Gentile Christians after certain "men from James" arrived at the city. Other letters of Paul contain numerous references to disagreements between himself and other disciples on how the Jewish law relates to Gentile Christians. One of the factions of the Corinthian church claims to follow "Cephas," while another follows Paul, and a third adheres to Apollos (1 Corinthians 1:12).

Outside the New Testament

Various sayings and acts are attributed to Peter in the New Testament Apocrypha, all of which are considered by most scholars to originate from a period later than the synoptic gospels, and usually from the second century C.E. While some of these traditions have come to be accepted by orthodox traditions, others are considered legendary, and some are rejected as heretical.

Sayings and Acts of Peter

Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the Gospel of Thomas. In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger."[1] In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life." [2] Jesus denies his request, saying that he will guide her to become "male." In the Apocalypse of Peter, Peter holds a dialog with Jesus about the parable of the fig tree and the fate of sinners.[3]

In the Gospel of Mary, Peter appears to be jealous of Mary (probably Mary Magdalene). He says to the other disciples, "Did he (Jesus) really speak privately with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?"[4] In reply to this, Levi says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered." [5]

Other non-canonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include the Secret Book of James, 2 Clement, and the Acts of Peter. The fragmentary Gospel of Peter contains an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical gospels. It gives little information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the empty tomb, "I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea." [6]

Many miracles are attributed to Peter in the Acts of Peter and other apocryphal works. In the Acts of Peter, Peter holds a miracle contest with Simon Magus, outdoing him at every turn. In the Acts of Peter and Andrew he literally pulls a camel through the eye of a needle. In the Apocalypse of Peter, he reveals the cataclysmic events of the Last Days.

Late legends said that Peter had a daughter, who was sometimes identified with the virgin martyr Petronilla.[7]

Peter's death

Tradition holds that Peter met martyrdom in Rome, probably at the time of the great fire of the year 64, for which the Emperor Nero blamed the Christians.

Clement of Rome, in his Letter to the Corinthians (Chapter 5), written c. 80-98, speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms: "Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death… Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labors, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him."

Caravaggio's depiction of the crucifixion of Saint Peter.

Dionysius of Corinth wrote: "Both of them (Peter and Paul) alike planted in our Corinth and taught us; and both alike, teaching similarly in Italy, suffered martyrdom at the same time" (Letter to Pope Soter [170 C.E.], in Eusebius, History of the Church 2:25:8).

The apocryphal Acts of Peter, relates that the Romans crucified Peter upside down at his request, due to his wishing not to be equated with Jesus. The Acts of Peter is also thought to be the source for the tradition about the famous phrase Quo Vadis—Where are you going? According to this tradition, Peter was fleeing Rome to avoid execution when he saw a vision of Jesus and asked him where he was going, to which Jesus responded that he was "going to Rome, to be crucified again." This caused Peter to decide to return to the city and accept martyrdom.

In the fourth century, when the Emperor Constantine I decided to honor Peter with a large basilica, the precise location of Peter's burial was already firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians of Rome. The building was thus erected on a site that involved considerable difficulties. The focal point of Saint Peter's Basilica, both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar placed over what is held to be the exact place where Peter was buried. Recently, however, these traditional views concerning Peter's death have come into question, because of a 1953 excavation of what some believe to be Peter's Tomb in Jerusalem.[8]

The traditional feast days of Saint Peter are:

  • January 18, Feast of the Chair of St. Peter at Rome
  • March 19, Feast of the Chair of St. Peter at Antioch
  • June 29, Feast of Saints Peter and Paul
  • August 1, St. Peter in Chains
  • November 18, Feast of the Dedication of the Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul

Peter's primacy

The question of Peter's primacy over the other apostles, and the primacy of Rome over other the churches of cities, is much debated. The gospels clearly portray Jesus as conferring a special status on Peter, but he does not exercise authority over them until after the resurrection. Indeed, he is seen failing to understand Jesus' intent (Matthew 16:23), falling asleep on watch at a crucial moment, and even denying his association with Jesus in order to save his own life. After the resurrection, Peter plays a key role in the Jerusalem church at first, but later it is James the Just who appears to be in charge, and Peter and Paul are seen at odds at Antioch. Peter plays no role in the second half of the Book of Acts, and his association with Rome is found nowhere in the New Testament.

However, by the late second century C.E., the tradition that Peter and Paul were united in martyrdom at Rome was well established. Soon, the "See of Peter" emerged as a center of orthodox authority, though not the only one.

Irenaeus of Lyon (late second century) wrote in Against Heresies that the church of Rome was the seat of apostolic authority, referring to:

the succession of the bishops of the greatest and most ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul... With that church, because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition. (Book III, Chapter III, paragraphs 2–3)

Tertullian of Carthage added: "If you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is at hand for us too. What a happy church that is, on which the apostles poured out their whole doctrine with their blood; where Peter had a passion like that of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John [the Baptist, by being beheaded]."

Church traditions

Christ gives Peter the keys to the Kingdom.

In the Roman Catholic Church, Peter's leadership role among the apostles lies at the root of the leadership role of the pope among the bishops of the Church as the body of Christ. Popes wear the Fisherman's Ring, which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter (Matthew 16:18–19). Peter is therefore often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a key or a set of keys. The Roman patriarch, though not the only "pope" of the time, was recognized as the successor of Peter as bishop of Rome by all the ancient Christian churches, except those deemed to be heretical.

However, many Protestants the idea of Peter's primacy on the grounds of lack of contemporary evidence, as the tradition that Peter went to Rome and was martyred there was not well established until the second century. Moreover, even if the tradition is true, this does not necessarily establish Rome's authority over other churches. In the Orthodox tradition, the Peter position is seen as primus inter pares—the first among equals, together with the other metropolitan patriarchates.

Recent studies of apocryphal literature, especially of the gnostic variety, indicate that Peter's position was emphasized by the "orthodox" churches as a rallying point to strengthen the authority of the orthodox bishops against supposedly false teachings. Thus, some of the gnostic gospels and other apocryphal literature portray Peter in a more negative light than the canonical gospels and surviving church tradition.

Writings

New Testament

A sixth-century encaustic icon from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai.

The New Testament includes two letters (epistles) ascribed to Peter. However, the majority of modern scholars do not believe that the letters are genuinely written by Saint Peter.

The textual features of these two epistles indicate that they were not written by the same hand. Moreover, both epistles demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, a fact at odds with the linguistic skill expected from an Aramaic-speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources, and point to the lack of references to 2 Peter among the early Church Fathers. However, the author of the first epistle explicitly states that he is using a secretary, which could account for some of these objections. Of the two epistles, the first epistle is considered the earlier.

Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha

There are also a number of other apocryphal writings that have been either attributed to or written about Saint Peter. They were from antiquity regarded as pseudepigrapha. These include:

  • Gospel of Peter, a Docetic narrative that has survived only in part
  • Acts of Peter, from which several traditions about Peter have passed into accepted tradition
  • A Letter of Peter to Philip, which was preserved in the Nag Hammadi library
  • The Apocalypse of Peter, which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the fifth century and was a candidate for inclusion in the New Testament
  • The Epistula Petri, an introductory letter ascribed to Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the Clementine literature
  • The Acts of Peter and Andrew, in which Peter conducts several miracles, most famously causing a camel to pass through the eye of a needle
  • The Acts of Peter and the Twelve, an allegory similar to the parable of the Pearl of Great Price, together with a gnostic exposition of the story
  • The Acts of Peter and Paul, based partly on a section of the Acts of Peter describing Peter's death, but portraying Peter and Paul united in martyrdom at Rome.

Patronage

Statue of St. Peter on the south door of St Mary's Church in Aylesbury, United Kingdom

In Roman Catholic religious doctrine and tradition, Saint Peter is the patron saint of the following categories

Workers
  • Cordwainers
  • Horologists
  • Locksmiths
  • Cobblers
Called for aid in
  • Frenzy
  • Foot problems
  • Longevity
Institutions
  • Bath Abbey
  • Berchtesgaden Abbey
  • Exeter College, Oxford
  • Universal Church
  • Peterhouse, Cambridge
Locations
  • Birżebbuġa
  • Bremen
  • Worms
  • Chartres
  • Chimbote
  • Calbayog City
  • Cologne
  • Davao
  • Dunajská Streda
  • Jackson
  • Köpenick
  • Las Vegas
  • Leuven
  • Leiden
  • Lessines
  • Maralal
  • Marquette
  • Moissac
  • Naumburg
  • Obermarsberg
  • Philadelphia
  • Poznań
  • Providence
  • Pubnico, Nova Scotia
  • Regensburg
  • Rome
  • Póvoa de Varzim
  • Saint Petersburg
  • Scranton
  • Sint Pieters Rode
  • Tielt
  • Toa Baja
  • Umbria

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Gospel of Thomas 13 www.misericordia.edu Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  2. ↑ Gospel of Thomas 114 www.misericordia.edu Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  3. ↑ Apocalypse of Peter www.earlychristianwritings.com Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  4. ↑ Gospel of Mary 9:4 www.gnosis.org Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  5. ↑ Gospel of Mary 9:6, www.gnosis.org Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  6. ↑ Gospel of Peter 14:3 www.cygnus-study.com Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  7. ↑ Petronilla www.newadvent.org Retrieved May 10, 2008.
  8. ↑ Finegan, The Archeology of the New Testament. 368–370. A more popular account of this tomb. www.aloha.net Retrieved May 10, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Brown, Raymond Edward, Karl P. Donfried, and John Henry Paul Reumann. Peter in the New Testament; A Collaborative Assessment by Protestant and Roman Catholic Scholars. Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1973. ISBN 9780806614014
  • Card, Michael. A Fragile Stone: The Emotional Life of Simon Peter. Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 9780851117850
  • Goulder, M. D. St. Paul Versus St. Peter: A Tale of Two Missions. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1995. ISBN 9780664255619
  • Grant, Michael. Saint Peter: A Biography. New York: Scribner, 1995. ISBN 9780684193540
  • O'Connor, Daniel William. Peter in Rome: The Literary, Liturgical, and Archeological Evidence. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969. ISBN 9780231029667
  • Perkins, Pheme. Peter: Apostle for the Whole Church. Studies on personalities of the New Testament. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. ISBN 9780872499744
  • Spell, David. Peter and Paul in Acts. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2006. ISBN 9781597527842


External links

All links retrieved December 22, 2022.

Preceded by:
none 		Bishop of Antioch
37–53 		Succeeded by:
Evodius
Preceded by:
none 		Pope
(according to Roman Catholic dogma)
30–64 or 67 		Succeeded by:
Linus


The Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ
Simon Peter · Andrew · James, son of Zebedee · John · Philip · Bartholomew ·Thomas
Matthew · James, son of Alphaeus · Jude · Simon the Zealot · Judas Iscariot · Matthias

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